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(UNGS 2040)

STANDARD CONTENTS

© Department of General Studies, 2008

ISLAM: KNOWLEDGE AND

CIVILIZATION

Definition of Knowledge

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Al-‘ilm (العمن) /Knowledge

Al-‘ilm (العلم)

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The arrival (Husul :حصول ) in the soul of the

meaning of a thing or an object of knowledge and the arrival (wusul: (وصول of

the soul at the meaning of a thing or object

of knowledge

” حصول هعىى أو صورة الشيء في الىفس ووصول“الىفس إلى هعىى الشيء

(al-Jurjani:160-161)

….cont.,

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Realization of the meanings of

things (Al-Ghazzali)

Realization of something in its

true nature through different levels

of understanding and in agreement

with the facts or true to nature.

(textbook, 4)

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……cont.,

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To know, to understand, to perceive, to be familiar and acquainted with things.

A firm belief that accords with the reality of things (فاعلم أنه ال إله إال اهلل) )47: 19(.

- Theology (عقيدة), Principles of Jurisprudence( صول الفقهأ ) etc.

Opposite of العلم

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لظوا : Conjecture

Uncertainty

Not supported with decisive proofs

It might accord with the reality and it

might not

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الشك : doubt

لجهلا : ignorance

السفة : foolishness

الضالل: misguidance

….cont., Degrees of Certainty

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العمن :knowledge

•Certainty, conviction ( اهلظع/اهل )

•Accords with the reality

•Certainty by observation عي اىيقي

•certainty through knowledge عي اىيق

•Certainty through experience حق اىيقي

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Importance of Knowledge

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1. Knowledge is a requirement for the

fulfillment of man‟s obligations as a

khalifah on earth. Allah says:

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لئنة إي جبعو في الرض خييفة قبىىا أججعو فيهب وإذ قبه ربل ىي

ب دك وقدس ىل قبه إي أعي سبح بح بء وح يفسد فيهب ويسفل اىد

ى لئنة فقبه ( 30)ل جعي عيى اى عرضه بء ميهب ث الس آد وعي

صبدقي ح م بء هؤلء إ بئىي بأس ىب إل ( 31)أ قبىىا سبحبل ل عي

اىحني ث اىعيي ب إل أ ح ب عي ب ( 32) في بئه بأس بئه أ قبه يب آد

بوات والرض وأعي غيب اىس إي أعي أقو ىن قبه أى بئه بأس بأه أ

ى جنح ح ب م و ب جبدو (33)

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2. The first revelation to the Messenger of Allah is about seeking knowledge and revealing scientific knowledge:

اكرا رتم *خوق االشب ي عوق *اهذىخوق ربل ؤكرؤ تبشى”-1:اهعوق)“ عوى االشب يب هى عوى*اهذ عوى تبهلوى *االنرى

5)

……Cont.,

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Read! In the name of the Lord and Cherisher, who created- created man, out of a mere clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And your Lord is most Bountiful- He who taught the use of the pen, taught man that which he knew not‛ (96:1-5)

[‚read, teach , pen‛]

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……cont.,

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3. Islam is a religion based upon knowledge.

4. The text of the Qur’an is full of verses inviting man to use his intellect, to ponder, to think and to learn.

5.The total number of verses in which ‘ilm or its derivatives and associated words are used is 704.

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6. The main miracle and sign of

authenticity of prophethood of Mohammed (صو اهلل عو شوى) was a

book of knowledge; The Qur’an.

……cont.,

……cont.,

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7.The Prophet (صو اهلل عو شوى) made

seeking knowledge obligatory on

Muslims (men and women):“ظوة اهعوى فرطج عو نل يشوى”

‚Seeking knowledge is obligatory

on every Muslim‛.

……cont.,

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8. Knowledge is the way through which people

can recognize Allah, fear him, and discover the

truth.

زل ” تيب ؤ ئي اهيئي ى ف اهعوى ي اهراشخ هن كتوم زل ي يب ؤ م (162: اهشبء)“ اه

‚But those among them who are well-grounded

in knowledge, and the believers, believe in

what has been revealed to you and what was

revealed before you…‛

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” رتم م ي زل اه ؤخا اهعوى اهذ ؤ ر اهذد اه صراظ اهعزز اهحيد )6:شتإ)“ اهحق

‚And those who are knowledgeable see

that the revelation sent down to you

from the Lord is the Truth, and that it

guides to the Path of Allah who is

Exalted and Worthy of all praise.‛

……cont.,

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9. Knowledge elevates the status and position of its bearer and makes difference between him and ignorant.

ؤخا اهعوى درجبح” اهذ نى ءايا ي اهذ “ رفع اهو(11: اهيجبدهج)

‚Allah will raise up, to high ranks those of you who believe and who have been granted Knowledge…‛

……cont.,

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اهذ فطوب عو ” كبال اهحيد هو عويب يب شو د ب دا هلد ءاخ اهيئي عتبد (اهيل15):“ نذر ي

We gave knowledge to David and

Solomon: and they both said: "Praise

be to Allah, Who has favoured us

above many of His subjects who

believe!"

……cont.,

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” ؤهب ه ر اهظ ت يع د يب فطوب بجتبل ؤ ب دا هلد ءاخاعيوا صبهحب ( 10)اهحدد كدر ف اهشرد اعيل شبتغبح ؤ

تصر (شتإء)“ (11)ا تيب خعيو ‚We bestowed grace on David … and We

made the iron soft for him. Make coats of

mail, balance well the rings of chain armour,

and work righteousness; for be sure I see all

that you do."

……cont.,

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9:اهزير)“ كل ل شخ اهذ عوي اهذ ال عوي” )

‚ Say: ‚are those equal, those

who know and those who do

not know?‛

……cont., Purpose of knowledge

Divinely Worldly

To recognize God To benefit man

Pleasure of God

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Classification of Knowledge

Week Two

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Limitations

(a) Absolute (perfect) knowledge:

this is the knowledge of God who

knows the reality, essence and details

of all things.

(b) Limited knowledge:

The knowledge given to His

creations;

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angels, prophets, human beings, jinn, and animals.

……cont., …..cont.,

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“ Limited knowledge:

(i) Gifted knowledge: a. Instinctive knowledge (natural): it is imparted in the very nature of the creation.

b. Revealed/Sacred knowledge: the knowledge that Almighty God

reveals to human beings.

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(ii) Acquired Knowledge

Gained through effort by way of

reflection, senses and experience.

(a) Recommended (praiseworthy)

i- Fard ‘ayn ii. Fard kifayah

(b) Prohibited (blameworthy)

-Magic (kindly refer to slides 46-48)

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General Classification of

Knowledge in Islam

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General classification of

Knowledge in Islam

Limited Knowledge

Acquired KnowledgeGifted Knowledge

Absolute Knowledge

Instinct (ilham)SacredPraiseworthy Blame worthy

By external

influence By itself

Fard „AinFard Kifayah

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Al-Ghazzali’s Criteria for Classification of sciences :

1. Theoretical and practical

2. Presential and acquired

3. Religious and intellectual

4. Individual obligatory and communal obligatory

Classification of Knowledge

According to al-Ghazali

Theoretical Practical

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Intellectual

Fard kifayah(Collective

Obligatory Knowledge)

AttainedPresential

Religious

Fard ‘ayn (Personal

Obligatory Knowledge)

Al-Ghazzali’s Criteria for Classification of sciences

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1. Theoretical and practical (philosophers)

Theoretical: to know the states of beings as they are( to realize/ comprehend the reality of beings; celestial & terrestrial)

Practical: deals with man’s actions

To find out what is useful to mankind in this life as well as in the Hereafter

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….Cont.,

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2. Presential & acquired (tasawwuf) (the mode of

knowing)

Presential : intuitive, contemplative

spiritual experience - revelation

Acquired : empirical, rational, logical

….Cont.,

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Which one is better?

Al-Ghazzali:

the presential is superior to the acquired, It is

free from errors & doubt, certainty on

spiritual truths

This is true with the revelation and intuition

received by the prophets

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The intuitive knowledge

claimed by people other than

prophets may not be taken for

granted unless it is judged in

light of the established

principles of Islam

….Cont.,

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3. Religious and intellectual (the source)

Religious (transmitted sciences):

Acquired from revelation/ prophets

1. Roots (Qur’an, sunnah, consensus)

2. Branches (law and ethics)

3. Ancillary sciences (grammar and lexicography)

4. Complementary sciences (Qira’at, commentary, history)

Intellectual: attained by human intellect alone

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….Cont.,

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4. Fard ‘Ayn and Fard kifayah(the need for learning)Fard ‘ayn: What should be learned by each

and every Muslim.Individual responsibilities Things which can’t be done on

behalf of others

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Beliefs, worship, halal and

haram, core moral values, how to

discharge one’s responsibilities

towards others (man’s

obligations to family and

society), necessary skills for

daily life.

….Cont.,

….Cont.,

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Fard kifayah :

- the community’s needs that can be performed by a sufficient group on behalf of others.

- collective responsibilities

Religious sciences: knowledge that is not needed for daily practice of Islam.

Intellectual knowledge: all types of knowledge needed for the welfare of the society in this life

….Cont

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Praiseworthy sciences:

Enhances human well being and the environment within the boundaries outlined by shari’ah

All sciences which are useful, beneficial and satisfy the requirements of science.

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Blameworthy sciences:

A science which does not meet the

requirement of science, or it is

purely or usually harmful.

Blameworthy by its nature by an

external factor

….Cont…

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Magic:

It is defined as “seeking the help of

demons to perform something

harmful against somebody” or

“showing something to an audience,

which is contrary to reality.

Reasons why magic is prohibited

in Islam:

1) It is an act of blasphemy (kufr).

Allah says in the Holy Qur‟an:

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“And when there came to them aMessenger from Allah confirming whatwas with them, a party of those whowere given the scripture threw away thebook of Allah behind their backs as ifthey did not know. And they followedwhat the devils gave out falsely of magicof the reign of Solomon; for Solomon didnot disbelieve but the devils disbelieved,teaching men magic and such thingsthat came down at Babylon to the twoangels Harut and Marut, but neither ofthese two (angles) taught anyone (such

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things) until they had said: we are only for

trial, so don't disbelieve. And from them

(magicians) people learn that through which

they would cause separation between a

person and his spouse, but they could not

thus harm anyone except by Allah's leave;

and they learn that which harms them rather

than profits them. And indeed they knew

that its practitioner would have no share in

the Hereafter. And how bad indeed was that

for which they sold their own selves if they

but knew.” (2:101-102).

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2) According to the following authentic hadith,

magic is a deadly act:

The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “Avoid the seven

deadly acts which are: ascribing partners to

God, magic, killing the human self which Allah

prohibited except with right, eating usury

(riba), devouring the orphan‟s wealth,

defecting from the battle-field (without a

justified reason) and slandering chaste,

unwary believing women.”

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Magic being harmful and evil act, Allah has

told us to seek His protection against it:

“Say I seek refuge in the in the Lord of

daybreak From the evil of that which he

created; From the evil of the darkness when it

is intense, and from the evil of malignant

witchcraft, And from the evil of the envious

when he envies.” (Surah al-Falaq)

Differences between magic and

miracles (mu„jizat)

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Magic is from devils (see the above Qur‟anic

verse: 2:101-102)while miracles are from

Allah.

On the other hand, miracles are real while

magic is deceptive; it is covering the truth with

falsehood).

Because miracles are from Allah, they could

only be performed by Prophets while magic,

which is from devils, can be performed by

anyone who associates himself with the devil.

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Horoscope

Not only magic is prohibited in Islam but also

horoscope or reading one‟s palm to foretell

the future.

The Holy Qur‟an affirms that no one knows

the future or the unseen except Allah: “He

knoweth the Unseen as well as that which is

Open.” (6:73) “With Him are the keys of the

Unseen, the treasures that none knoweth but

He...” (6:59)

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The Holy Qur‟an also asserts that not

even Muhammad knows the unseen:

“If I had the knowledge of the unseen, I

should have secured abundance for

myself, and no evil would have touched

me.” (7:188).

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The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “Whoever

goes to a fortune teller (a soothe sayer)

or a diviner and believes him, has, in

fact, disbelieved in what has been

revealed to Muhammad.”

….Cont..

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Example: Horoscope

Capricorn: (Dec 23 - Jan 20)

Today’s stars encourage you to be more diplomatic and inclusive in your relations with others

Aquarius: (Jan 21 ” Feb 19)

On the Zodiac’s Day of Metamorphosis, you need to transform ideals into reality, and turn dreams into concrete plans. If you work patiently towards your goals, you can achieve the long-term success you are looking for.

…Cont.,

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Astrology:

It is the study of the positions and aspects of celestial bodies.

Muslims scholars agree that astrology is a prohibited field to deal with. For example, Imam Ibn Taymiyah said: “Astrology that is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs is prohibited by Almighty Allah‟s Book, the Sunnah, and the unanimous agreement of the Muslim scholars.

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Ibn `Uthaymeen, said: “Astrology is a

kind of sorcery and fortune-telling. It is

forbidden because it is based on

illusions, not on concrete facts. There is

no relation between the movements of

celestial bodies and what takes place on

the Earth.”

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During the Prophet‟s lifetime, it happened that the sun eclipsed on the same day when the Prophet‟s son Ibrahim died. The people then thought that it had eclipsed because of the Prophet‟s son‟s death. On knowing this, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) led them in the Eclipse Prayer and then delivered them a speech saying: “The sun and moon are but signs of Allah; they do not eclipse because so-and-so died or was born.”

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The above hadith indicates that the

Prophet (s.a.w) denied all relation

between the movements of the heavenly

bodies and events on the Earth.

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Ibn „Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him and his father) reported that Allah‟s Messenger (s.a.w) said: “He who has acquired some knowledge of astrology has acquired some knowledge of sorcery; the more he acquires of the former the more he acquires of the latter.” (Reported by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah)

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Commenting on the above hadith, al-

Shawkani said that the Prophet (s.a.w)

compared between astrology and

sorcery because sorcery was known to

be forbidden; and so, he who would get

some knowledge of astrology would do

something forbidden and would be

sinful.

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To sum up, astrology is based on lies and

deceit; it has no scientific basis. The

astrologists‟ usage of computers to convince

people that what they do is technological and

scientific is nothing but deceit. There is no

scientific proof that there is a relationship

between the appearance of a star in a specific

time and the character and behavior of

someone born at that time.

Conclusion

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Sciences are inter-related, and none of them can exclude the others.

Humanities, natural sciences, and the religious sciences unite to produce true understanding of this world and the causes behind its existence.

Religious scholars are in need of philosophical and natural sciences as much as scientists are in need of the religious sciences.

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Natural and philosophical sciences are to

enable the Muslim to explore, exploit and

get a better insight into what Allah has

created in this universe.

Religious sciences are to guide people to

understand the reality of this life, their

origins and their mission.

And to set the moral and legal guidelines

that should be observed by human beings for

a meaningful and better life.

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Sources and Means of

Knowledge

Week Three

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1. Revelation ( اهلرآ اهشج: اهح )

2. Reason (اهعلل)

3. Nature/ physical world اهظتعج) )

4. Five Senses (اهحاس اهخيشج)5. Intuition (اإلهبى)

The Qur’an as a Source of Knowledge

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An introduction to the the Qur’an

Definition

Qur’an is the Book revealed from Allah to His Messenger Muhammad (saw) as written in masahif and transmitted to us from him through an authentic continuous narration

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Definition analysis:

- Qur’an is the pure speech of Allah (al-Nisa’:42)

- Only the Allah’s speech revealed to Muhammad

- It is an exposition of all things (tibyan li kulli shay’)

- As guidance and mercy

- Nothing is neglected (al-Nahl:89)

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The Qur’an is the Arabic words as

well as their meanings (translation

is not a Qur’an)

Transmitted to us by way of جىاجر

[tawatur] (continuous narration by

a large number of people in each

part of the chain of narration)

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Revelation & Recording of the Qur’an

a) Revelation of the Qur’an

The Qur’an was transmitted directly from

Allah (swt) to the Messenger of Allah

through Gibril (not a mere inspiration)

The Qur’an was not revealed to the

Messenger of Allah all at once.

It was revealed to him in stages and

sometimes in accordance with incidents faced

by Muslim community.

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The wisdom behind revealing it by stages

1. To allow people to memorize,

understand and implement it gradually.

كرءاب” ب فرك يند عو اهبس عو هخلرؤ ب زهزال )106 :اإلشراء) “خ

It is a Qur’an which we have divided into

parts from time to time in order that you

might recite it to men at intervals…

(17: 106)

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2.To strengthen the heart of the

Messenger of Allah (saw), give him

courage and moral support to

overcome the difficulties and

challenges he was facing. Allah

said:احدث نذهم ” جيوج اهلرءا ال زل عو نفرا ه كبل اهذ

خرخوب ب رخو فئادم (32: اهفركب)“ هذتح ت

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Those who reject faith say: "Why is

not the Qur’an revealed to him all

at once? It is revealed in stages so

that We may strengthen your heart

thereby, and We have rehearsed it to

you in slow, well-arranged stages,

gradually. (25: 32)

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3. Live interaction between the divine text and

the socio-political reality and daily practice of

the people.

Some verses came to deal with:

some situations faced by the Messenger of

Allah;

solve problems faced by Muslim community;

respond to the challenges put by disbelievers;

correct the mistakes committed by the

Muslim community, etc.

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Those incidents, cases, and

questions are called occasions for

revelation ( شتبة اهزلأ) and they help

those who came later in a better

understanding and implementation

of those verses.

The period of revelation lasted for

around 23 years.

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The Recording of the Qur’an

The Messenger of Allah used to memorize the verses revealed to him then recite them for his companions who used to memorize them

There were scribes who used torecord the verses after theirrevelation

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The original copies of the written

records were preserved in the

house of the Messenger of Allah.

While some other scribes would

record the verses for themselves

and preserve them for their own

use.

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The order of the verses within each surah aswell as the order of the surahs was directed byJibril.

During each month of Ramadan Jibril used torecite what was revealed in its order with theMessenger of Allah.

During the time of Abu Bakr the Qur’an wascompiled in a single official copy.

The suggestion came after the battle ofYamamah.

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The Qur’an and the other Revealed Books

Universality:

The previous Books were local for

specific people.

Qur’an as the last revealed Book

and a universal message for all

mankind needs to be comprehensive

and eternally preserved.

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اهنخبة ” ي د م اهنخبة تبهحق يصدكب هيب ت زهب اه ؤ زل اهو ى تيب ؤ فبحنى ت يب عو (48: اهيبئدث)“ ي

To you we sent the Scripture in truth, confirming

the scripture that came before it, and a watcher

over it. So, judge between them by what Allah

has revealed…‛

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2. The way of preservation

The people of each Book were

entrusted with guarding it against any

distortion or manipulation ؤشويا ” اهذ ب اهت ر حنى ت د ب راث ف زهب اهخ اب ؤ

نخبة اهو اهإحتبر تيب اشخحفعا ي اهرتب بدا هوذداء ش (44: اهيبئدث)“ ...نبا عو

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‚It was We who revealed the Torah; therein was

guidance and light. By its standard have been

judged the Jews, by the prophets who bowed to

Allah's will, by the rabbis and the priests; for to

them was entrusted the protection of Allah's

Book, and they were witnesses thereto…‛ (5:

44)

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If they fail to do so, Allah sends another prophet totake people back to the right way.

Since Muhammad (saw) was the last Messenger,Allah (swt) assumed the responsibility of guardingand preserving His last Book.

اب” اب اهذنر زهب ح ه (9 :اهحجر)”هحبفع We have, without doubt, sent down the Message;

and We will assuredly guard it against anymanipulation or change.

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Preservation of the Qur’an

The way Qur’an was preserved:

The Qur’an was made public from the very

beginning.

The Qur’an was fully recorded from the time it

was revealed.

The Qur’an was preserved in the original form

(same language, same words).

The assurance from God that the Qur’an will

be preserved till the Day of Judgment.

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خوف، ي ال د ت ي اهتبظل إخ ال عزز، هنخبة ا”(42-41 :فصوح) “حيد حنى ي خزل

And indeed it is a Book of exalted

power. Falsehood cannot come at it

from before it or from behind it. (It

is) a revelation from the Wise, the

Owner of Praise.

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No one can alter or change any part of theQur’an; not even the Messenger of Allahhimself.

” رة اهعبهي زل ي ل ( 43)خ ب تعض األكب ل عو خل ه(44 ) ي تبه ( 45)ألخذب ي خ اه ( 46)ذى هلظعب ي

حبجز ؤحد ع نى ي (.47: اهحبكج)“فيب يThis is a Message sent down from the Lord of theworlds. And if the Messenger were to invent anysayings in our name, we should certainly seize himby his right hand, and we should certainly then cutoff the artery of his heart: Nor could any of youprotect him from that.

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The Characteristics of the Qur’an

1- Guidance for and mercy to

believersد ” ة ف ذهم اهنخبة ال ر (2: اهتلرث)“هويخل

This is the book; in it is guidance,

sure, without doubt, to those who

fear Allah.

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ى ” رحيج هل د عو عوى ى تنخبة فصوب هلد جئب (52: األعراف)“ ئي

For We had certainly sent unto

them a Book, based on knowledge,

which We explained in detail, a

guide and a mercy to all who

believe.

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2. Spiritual/ social healer

شفبء هيب ف اهصدر ” رتنى ععج ي ب اهبس كد جبءخنى ي بؤ رحيج هويئي د (57: س)“

O mankind! there has come to you a direction from

your Lord and a healing for the (diseases) in your

hearts, and for those who believe, a Guidance and a

Mercy.

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3- Lightاختعا اهر اهذ ” صر عزر ءايا ت فبهذ

ى اهيفوح ؤهئم زل يع (157: األعراف)“ ؤSo it is those who believe in him

(the Messenger), honour him, help

him, and follow the Light which is

sent down with him, it is they who

will prosper.

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زهب “ اهر اهذ ؤ رشه ختر‘فأيا تبهو تيب خعيو "اهو(8: اهخغبت)

Believe, therefore, in Allah and

His Messenger, and in the Light

which We have sent down. And

Allah is well acquainted with all

that you do.

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4- Preacher for believers ” ععج هويخل ي د هوبس (138: آل عيرا)“ ذا تب

Here is a plain statement to men,

a guidance and instruction to

those who fear Allah!

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5- Revealing reality and clarifying

doubts “ نخبة يت (1: اهيل)“ ظس خوم ءابح اهلرءا

Ta. Sin. These are verses of the

Qur’an, a Book that makes things

clear.

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” خى خخف هنى نذرا ييب ن ل اهنخبة كد جبءنى رشهب ت ب ؤ نخبة يت ر اهو نذر كد جبءنى ي عف ع اهنخبة “ ي

(15: اهيبئدث)O People of the Book! there has come to you Our

Messenger, revealing to you much that you used to

hide in the Book, and passing over much (that is

now unnecessary): There has come to you from

Allah a (new) light and a perspicuous Book.

91

6- Miraculous

The Qur’an is the main miracle of

the Messenger of Allah and the main

proof of the authenticity of his

prophethood.

The miracles contained in it are the

proof of its authenticity as the real

Book of Allah

92

Its miracle is in terms of:

i. Structure

ii. Meaning (the knowledge

contained in it: historical

events, prediction of what

will happen in the future, and

scientific facts.

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93

Challenging the Unbelievers The miracle is manifested in a challenge to all

mankind to produce:

a. Another book similar to it:

” تل ال ئي ه خل (33)ؤى له ا إخا تحدد يذو فو .اهظر“(34)نبا صبدك

Or they say: He has invented it? Nay, but they do not believe! Then let them produce a speech like it, if they are truthful.

94

b. Ten chapters similar to those of the Qur’an

ادعا ” يفخربح ر يذو كل فإخا تعشر ش افخرا ؤى له نخى صبدك ا اهو د اشخظعخى ي (.د)”(13)ي

Or they say: He has invented it! Say: Then bring

ten surahs, the like thereof, invented, and call on

everyone you can beside Allah, if you are

truthful!

95

c. One surah similar to those of the Qur’an

” يذو ة ييب زهب عو عتدب فإخا تشرث ي نخى ف ر ا نخى صبدك ا اهو د داءنى ي .اهتلرث“(23)ادعا ش

And if you are in doubt concerning that which We reveal to our Messenger (Muhammad), then produce a surah like one thereof, and call your gods and supporters beside Allah if you are truthful.

96

Types of Knowledge in the Qur’an

The Universal Book

Islam is the last and universal religion;

Human societies are always open for evolution

and development.

The Qur’an should: Meet the needs of all

human beings in different places and different

times.

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97

To be able to do so, it should:

Give clear and detailed discourse on what is important for human life and can’t be known through human reasoning only (beliefs and ‘ibadat)

Set the core values and principles which guide human life to the right way, and safeguard it against any corruption or deviation from such a way.

Be flexible to accommodate the evolution and development of human life and societies.

98

Regarding human life’s aspects which are subject

to change and development, the Qur’an ,

generally, sets norms, standards and universal

values which suit all peoples and all times.

These values and norms should not be subject to

any alteration or change to ensure the prevalence

of righteousness and justice (immutable values

and norms).

99

In light of these norms, people

are given freedom to innovate

and adopt whatever systems,

procedures, etc they may

consider as good for them as

long as they don’t breach those

norms and values.

100

Physical and Natural Sciences

The Qur’an deals with those things which are needed to be known and may not be realized by man or may not be understood accurately (man would speculate about them only)

Such as:

- The origin of mankind, the substance and the way of his first creation, his first acquisition of the basic knowledge.

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101

- The origin of the earth and the heavens

In other fields such as:

- astronomy

- Geology,

- Physics,

- Embryology

The Qur’an just gives some references for the

following purposes:

102

The aims of scientific references in the Qur’an

It is not to give people details and teach them natural and physical sciences.

They are signs to prove:

- The existence of God

- The omnipotence and power of God

- The weakness of men compared to the power of the Creator

103

- Indebtedness of mankind to Allah

for all what we have in life.

- The authenticity of Prophets and

revealed Books i.e. this Qur’an

comes from Allah and it is

impossible for a human being,

especially at the time of Muhammad

.(صو اهلل عو شوى) to compose it.

Cont.,

104

For the Muslim who reads and

understands these references, they

serve to strengthen his or her faith. ف ” خفنر ى عو جت كعدا كبيب اهو ذنر اهذ

ب ذا تبظال شتحبم فل األرض رتب يب خولح اح خوق اهشي(.191:آل األعيرا)“عذاة اهبر

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105

Those who remember and praise Allah, standing,

sitting, and lying down on their sides, and

contemplate the wonders of creation in the

heavens and the earth, (with the thought): "Our

Lord! not for naught have you created all this!

Glory to you! Give us salvation from the Penalty

of the Fire. (3: 191)

106

For the non-Muslim who

questions the authenticity or

authorship of the Qur’an , these

references provide some

interesting answers.” ى ؤ ه ى حخ خت فش ف ؤ ى ءابخب ف افبق شر

د ء ش عو نل ش هى نف ترتم ؤ : فصوح)“ اهحق ؤ53)

107

Soon will We show them Our Signs

in the (farthest) horizons, and

within themselves, until it becomes

manifest to them that it is the

Truth. Is it not enough that your

Lord does witness all things?

[41:53]

108

How should we deal with these scientific

facts?

They should be used for the aforesaid things.

They can be used to have a better understanding

of those verses dealing with natural phenomena

compared to the way they were understood by

early Muslims.

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109

We should not over-emphasize the scientific

miracles to the extent that we hurry to relate each

new scientific theory to the verses of the Qur’an .

Such an act may lead to misinterpreting the texts

of the Qur’an and changing the interpretation

from time to time. This may be

counterproductive and cause some confusion

especially among non-Muslims.

110

b) Religious, human and social sciences

Belief: (Revelation is the only source)

The Concept of God

The existence of God; the Creator and Lord

of this universe.

The concept of tawhid (Unity of God)

Since the concept of God was not new to

mankind, the Qur’an focuses on correcting

the prevalent concepts of God and

demonstrating the Unity of God, His

omnipotence and knowledge, etc.

111

The Concept of Prophethood

God used to send a prophet to every people

A brief history of prophets (some names mentioned)

Revelation

Some revealed books: Suhuf / Ibrahim, Zabur/ Dawud, Torah /Musa, Injil/ Gospel/ Esa

Angels

Their nature, character, position and relation with God (not his sons or daughters)

112

Day of Judgment

Its existence, what will happen on that day,

Jannah, Jahannam

No specific date is given for its happening

‘Ibadat (worship)

Revelation the only source.

The Qur’an sets the basics of ‘ibadat and the

Prophet gives details

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113

Morality

Revelation the main source

The Qur’an sets universal ethical norms and values

Obedience and submission to God, justice, benevolence, kindness, generosity, brotherhood, honesty, truthfulness, sincerity, trust (amanah), forbearance, patience, tolerance and forgiveness, inviting/encouraging people to do good, and preventing/ discouraging them from doing bad (munkar)

114

Human and social relations

Revelation is the main source

The Qur’an deals with the main principles of

these relations:

Relationship among family members

- between husbands and wives

- between parents and children

- marriage, divorce, inheritance

Relations with relatives

115

Relations with neighbours

Social relations and interaction

Relations between genders

Etiquettes and manners

Relations with non-Muslims

Relations with animals

Halal & haram:

(Revelation is the only source)

Food, drinks, clothes

116

Law:

- Family law

- Criminal law

- Procedural law

- Commercial law

- International law

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117

Economic system

(Revelation provides guidance to attain and maintain justice)

Islam sets some norms and principles along with some restrictions to ensure the observance of those norms and principles (prohibition of riba, uncertain contracts, etc.)

118

Zakat is imposed to secure the

minimum economic and social

justice,

Rich people are exhorted to spend

and promised to be rewarded for

that.

Social welfare (59: 7)

119

Political system

The Qur’an sets norms and

principles

The establishment of a

government/ central authority

and the duties of subjects to

obey its commands

120

The governance should be based on

consultation (شر)and the right of

people to select their leaders.

The format of (شر) and government

are left to the choice of people and

are open for development.

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121

History and Civilization

The origin of this universe

The Qur’an states that this universe was created by Allah, and gives short description of that creation

The origin of mankind

- The Qur’an states that the first man (Adam) was created by God from dust/ clay (15: 26), (15: 28-29), (17: 61), (23: 12), (32: 7), (32: 9), 38: 71-72)

- Eve was created for Adam (4: 1), (7: 189), (39: 6)

122

- Adam was taught the basic

knowledge by God (2: 30-33)

- When Adam and his wife,

mistakenly, disobeyed the commands

of God, they were sent down from

Jannah (Paradise) to the earth where

they and their children settled.

123

History of Messengers of Allah

- The Qur’an gives a brief account of

the history of the most significant

Messengers.

- The Qur’an does not focus on the

details of that history, instead it

focuses on the lessons that should be

learned from those events.

124

- The Qur’an pays enough attention to

civilizational studies by examining the patterns

of rise and fall of civilizations.

- The Qur’an wants Muslims to learn from human

experience.

- The aim of this is to guide Muslims how to build

their civilization and guard it against social

diseases that may lead to its fall and collapse.

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125

How should we deal with the Qur’an ?

Qur’an is an authoritative text that should be followed and implemented by all Muslims.

Those texts which are clear and self-explanatory should be implemented without any further examination.

Those texts which are open for interpretation and may impart more than one meaning can be examined and construed based on the following principles:

126

Grouping of similar texts/ statements which

talk on one topic/category

Analysis and understanding of each text/

statement in its components and context

Identification of the rules which unify the

various categories

Identification of the general rules and

purposes which govern the interaction/

interrelation of various categories.

The Sunnah as a Source of

Knowledge

127 128

Literal Meaning:

Sunnah (شج ) means a clear path, an established

course of conduct, the pattern of life, a precedent

and custom.

The word sunnah and its plural sunan have been

used in the Qur’an sixteen times. In all these

instances, sunnah has been used to imply an

established practice or course of conduct.

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129

It may be a good example or a bad one, and it

may be set by an individual, a sect or a

community.

ي ش شج حشج فو ؤجرب ؤجر ي عيل تب اه ى ”اهلبيج ي ش شج شئج فو زرب زر ي عيل تب اه

“ى اهلبيج

130

‚Whosoever originates in Islam any good way/ precedent (good sunnah) has its reward and the reward of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment. And whosoever originates in Islam a bad way/ precedent (bad sunnah) bears its burden and the burden of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment‛

131

The opposite of sunnah is bid`ah

(innovation), which is

characterized by lack of

precedent and continuity with the

past.

Technical meaning:

a. The acts, sayings and approvals

of the Messenger of Allah.

132

Kinds of Sunnah with respect to the channels of

the ahkam

1. Sunnah which is intended to be a binding

law:

This kind includes the sayings, acts and

approval of the Prophet (saw) through which

he intended the laying down of the law or the

explanation of the ahkam (law) laid down by

the Qur’an . This comprises the largest part

of the sunnah.

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133

2- Sunnah which is specific to the Prophet( صو(اهلل عو شوىThis kind includes those acts which are

specific to the Prophet (صو اهلل عو شوى).

The number of these acts is very limited. One

example is the number of his marriages,

marriage without dowry, not eating out of charity (صدكج).

134

3. Ordinary physical acts performed by every human being

Like eating, drinking, walking. Such acts are not meant to lay down laws. If one imitates the Prophet (saw) in these acts out of love for him and with the intention to get reward, he will be rewarded for this.

But the etiquettes and manners prescribed by the Messenger of Allah for the performance of such acts are part of that which is meant to be a binding law.

135

4. Acts based on human experience

This may include acts that pertain to his

experience as a human being, like the

organizing of the army, tactics of war,

trading skills.

These acts don’t become precedents of law,

because their basis is skill and experience

rather than revelation.

However, if they are still relevant to one’s

situation they might be followed.

136

Status of the Sunnah

with respect to the Qur’an

The Sunnah is the second source just next to the Qur’an which is the first source.

There will be no Islam without the adoption of the sunnah.

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137

The Sunnah is basically an elaboration and commentary on the Qur’an .Some ahkam are found in the

Qur’an in general, in an undetermined or unelaborated form.

The Sunnah restricts, qualifies, or elaborates these ahkam.

138

The Sunnah is a concrete implementation, a

tangible form and the actual embodiment of the

Qur’an

The Sunnah may lay down some rules that are

not mentioned in the Qur’an

Qur’an says: ‚And whatsoever the messenger

brought to you, follow it. And whatsoever he

forbids, abstain from it‛ (al-Hashr:7)

The knowledge we get from The Sunnah

139

Worship (عتبدث)

The rulings and teachings related to عتبدث Halal and haram:

In food, drinks, clothes, and transactions:

- the Sunnah interprets what needs to be

interpreted in the Qur’an .

- The Sunnah may add some prohibitions

which are not included in the Qur’an .

140

Law

(family, criminal, commercial, procedural, international )

Manner of conduct:

The biography of the Prophet (saw) is the model of individual moral conduct.

‚A noble model you have in Allah’s Apostle, for all whose hope is in Allah, and in the final Day, and who often remember Allah‛ (al-Ahzab:21)

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141

The model in implementing and embodying the teachings and principles of the Qur’an

The model in the relationship between humans and Allah (‘ibadah)

The model in establishing a family and treating well the wives as well as the children.

142

A model in dealing with people.

A model in hard-working,

patience, and perseverance etc.

Leadership:

He was a model leader from

whom we learn the requirements

of a successful leader.

143

Da‘wah:

How he started from nothing

and ended with hundreds of

thousands of followers after

two decades only.

144

Nation building and social reformation:

How he established a nation and

changed an almost primitive

society dominated by tribalism and

rivalries among different tribes and

social classes to a civilized and

strong state characterized by unity,

cooperation, and brotherhood.

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145

Eliminating idolatry and establishing Tawhid

Eliminating bad social values in dealing with the

weak social classes: women, slaves, poor

people, black people, etc.

146

Reason (اهعلل)as a Sources of

Knowledge

147

Reason as a Source of Knowledge The term ‚reason‛ is used in different senses

and meanings:

1. The power of being able to think in a logicaland rational manner, as distinct fromexperience or emotions.

2. Ability to think clearly and coherently

3. The ability or process of drawing logicalinferences.

148

Meanings/ Functions of Reason:

1. Reason is sometimes used to denote a numberof self-evident principles (such as theprinciple of non-contradiction) which governthe process of thinking of mentally competentpeople, regardless of their culturalbackground.

- These fundamental truths are intuitivelyapprehended

- as opposed to sensation, perception, feeling,desire (the existence of which is denied byempiricists)

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149

In this sense, reason is an instrument used for examining the coherence and rationality of a body of statements.

The examination allows us to conclude that the examined statements are:

- Either coherent, and hence in conformity with the principles of reason;

- Or contradictory, and thus in violation of reason

Reason which gives a priori knowledge (pure reason)

150

2. The capacity of rational beings to acknowledge

the truth of certain assertions and deny the truth

of others with the power to abstract, analyze,

synthesize

A body of knowledge which has been examined

and systemized by the principle of logic and

considered by certain people as reasonable.

= Reason as a mental faculty.

Reason is to be associated with methods and

mechanisms used in science and knowledge,

generally, rather than a source of knowledge.

151

Reason vs. Revelation

The faculty of reasoning is one of the most precious gifts of Allah to mankind.

Reason is the basis of taklif (legal capacity) because it is the power of discernment by which humans can distinguish between ‘good’ and ‘bad’, ‘right’ and ‘wrong’

Reason is the basis of Iman/ faith, thus, it is given the authority to examine the authenticity of prophets and the revelation they claim to bring from God.

152

The Qur’an is full of references which command

and exhort people to think, contemplate, and to

examine the claimed revelation

This shows that:

- Islam values reason; and

- Islam is confident that there will be no

contradiction between what is contained in the

revelation and what can be reasoned by human

reason

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153

What is claimed by unbelievers to be irrational or unreasonable is either:

= Mere speculation and ignorance, such as when they deny some beliefs or they misunderstand them.

وهب يتبع أكثرهن إال ظىب إو الظو ال يغىي هو الحق شيئب إو المه ”(36: يوىس)“ عمين بهب يفعموو

But most of them follow nothing but conjecture and speculation: truly conjecture and speculation can never challenge or replace truth. Verily Allah is well aware of all that they do. (10:36)

154

= Or mere wishes and deluded hopes (hawa)

صبر خوم ” دا ؤ نب دخل اهجج اهب ي كبها هخى صبدك ن بنى ا بخا تر ى كل (111: اهتلرث)“ؤيب

And they say: "None shall enter Paradise unless he

be a Jew or a Christian." Those are their vain

desires. Say: "Produce your proof if you are

truthful." (2: 111)

155

Interestingly, those who claim to reject

religion/ revelation based on logic and

rationality are characterized by the Qur’an as

those who fail to use their mental faculties/

reason properly.

اء ” ال خختع ؤ ب األير فبختع ذى جعوبم عو شرعج ي ال عوي (18: اهجبذج)“ اهذ

“ Then We put you on the right way of religion;

so follow that way, and do not follow the

desires of those who do not know.‛ (45: 18)

156

عق تيب ال شيع اال دعبء ” نفرا نيذل اهذ يذل اهذى ال علو ف داء صى تنى عي (171: اهتلرث) “

The parable of those who reject Faith is as if one

were to shout like a goat-herd, to things that listen

to nothing but calls and cries: deaf, dumb, and

blind, they are void of wisdom. (2: 171)

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157

Hawwas (senses)

as Means to Knowledge

158

Senses as sources of Knowledge: The Qur’an

urges us to use the faculties of senses.

It blames the Kuffar for not using their senses

properly.

The faculties of senses will bear witness for or

against one on the Day of Judgment.

159

Sound Senses (Hawwas al-Salimah)

1. Hearing

2. Sight,

3. Smell,

4. taste,

5. touch

160

Hearing (al-sam’)

It is a faculty (quwa) placed in the nerves

spread out in the cavity of the ear hole, by

which sounds are perceived.

It is by way of connecting with the ear hole

the air, which has assumed the quality of the

sounds, meaning that Allah then creates

perception in the soul (al-nafs) [E.Elder, 18]

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161

Seeing (al-basar)

It is a faculty placed in the two hollow

nerves which meet each other in the brain,

thence they separate and go to the two eyes;

by this faculty are perceived rays of light,

colours, shapes, measures, motions, the

beautiful and the ugly, and other things, the

perception of which Allah creates in the soul

whenever the creature uses this faculty.

162

Smelling (al-shamm)

It is a faculty placed in the two protruding lumps on the front of the brain, which are like the two nipples of the breast; by this faculty odors are perceived by way of connecting with the cartilage of the nose the air which has assumed the quality of the odors.

163

Taste (al-zawq)

It is a faculty spread out in the

nerves situated on the organ of the

tongue; by this faculty flavors are

perceived through the mixing of

the saliva which is in the mouth

with the thing tasted, and through

its reaching to the nerves.

164

Touch (al-lams)

It is a faculty spread out into

all the body by which heat and

cold, moisture and dryness,

and the like are perceived at

the time of touching and

contact.

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165

Methodology

Definition:

Method:

A particular way of doing something, esp. asystematic one; implies an orderly logicalarrangement.

Methodology:

1.The theoretical analysis of the methodsappropriate to a field of study or to the body ofmethods and principles particular to a branch ofknowledge.

Kinds of Methodologies

i. Methodology in revealed knowledge

ii. Methodology in human knowledge (pure

and social sciences)

iii. Integrative methodology of revealed

knowledge and human knowledge.

166

What is Islamic Methodology?• Methodology means a technique or method. • It is the field of inquiry concerned with the

examination of methods used in the study of natural sciences, human and social sciences and religious sciences in order to understand the subjects.

• A comprehensive Islamic methodology means to Islamize and integrate knowledge on the basis of the combination between the revelation and reason in order to overhaul the obstacles and challenges facing a modern man and the society.

167

Methodologies used by the early Muslim scholars

Slide Number?

Ijtihad(wahy, `aql and

Hawas)

Istihsan(Juristic

Preference)

Masalih Mursalah

(public interest)

`Urf(a particular

Custom)

Consultation

&

Consensus

Chain of

Transformation

Reliable

Narrators

Verifications

Collection of

Data

Islamic

Methodologies

168

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Islamic Methodology

1. Collection of data of the Qur‟an and Sunnah

2. Verified techniques used by the narrators in

order to ensure the authenticity of narrations.

3. Compilation of the Qur‟an and Sunnah.

4. Considering the reliable narrators with specific

criteria.

5. Chain of transformation, no gap between two

generations and not less than 40 forty

narrators.

6. Memorizations of the Qur‟an and Sunnah.169

Islamic Methodology7. Consultation among the scholars and

consensus based on majority opinions.

8. Ijtihad (rational arguments, explanation, interpretation and adjustment with the local culture and custom)

9. Istihsan (juristic preference), supplementary methods in order to make up for the growing number of new situations that were difficult with the textual and the analogical arguments.

170

Islamic Methodology10. Maslahah or Masalih Mursalah (public

interest), supplementary methods, if the texts of the Qur‟an and Hadith or consensus or analogy were not available.

11. `Urf (custom of a particular society or a nation), supporting for adjustment from avoiding the contradictions and social division and disunity for the public interest.

171

Merits of the Traditional Approach

Merits of the traditional approach were

the sincerity, piety, enthusiasm,

commitment, and dedication of the early

Muslim researchers, many of whom

looked for their rewards in the Hereafter.

172

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Islamic research, experimentation and empirical investigation were considered acts of „ibadah.

The God-consciousness of the traditional scholars was reflected in their writings and research, which they would commence with bismillah (in the name of Allah), seek His blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him.

173

The holistic nature of the traditional

Islamic educational system made no

distinction between revealed knowledge

and empirically derived knowledge.

174

Knowledge was perceived as a

comprehensive whole, with empirically

derived knowledge subject to the

verification of revealed knowledge.

175

Tawhidic Criteria for Islamic

Methodology

Three main tawhidic criteria for Islamic methodology are as follows:

1. Anything which does not correspond with the reality must be rejected.

2. Ultimate contradictions must be denied and rejected.

3. Approaches must be open in order to adjust and accommodate new situations facing the society and man.

176

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Merits of Islamic

Methodology

Summarized

177

s

Merit of Islamic

Methodologies

Allah’s

pleasure

PureIntention

For humanity

Commitment toPeople and

society

Reflection Of

Allah Awareness

Self-Initiative (EstablishingInstitutions)

Identifying the Short-comings

Of EmpiricalKnowledge.

Combination of Wahy & Aql

Mastery of Arabic

Language

As Ibadah

Knowing context,

Purpose and Application of

theTexts

178

Obstacles

And

Recommendations

for Muslim

Scholars

Depended onTraditional

method

Depended on Western Method

Creativity and Initiative ness

Absence of Islamic

Curriculum

Mis-Propagation

And Misconception

Unavailability Financial and

Technical support

Regaining Sincerity and Pure intention

For humanity

Bilingual Competency

Traditional Methods as Inspiration

IntegratingBetween

Wahy and Aql

Verification of

Validities,shortcoming

179

Methodology in Human

Knowledge (pure and social

sciences)

180

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181

Science

From Latin word scientia means

systematic knowledge of the

physical or material world

182

Knowledge of Science

Is acquired through experience,

observation and research

Discursive: preceded by

arguments

Inductive and deductive

183

Two scientific methods/ logical systems : induction & deduction

1. Deductive method (istinbat)(استىببط)The researcher begins with a

theory and then derives one or more hypotheses from it for testing.

184

The researcher implements those

observations to see whether they

confirm or fail to confirms the

hypotheses.

Next, the researcher defines the

variables in each hypothesis and

the operations to be used to

measure them in specific

observable terms.

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185

2. Inductive method (istiqra’)(استقراء)A method of discovering general

rules and principles from particular

facts and examples.

In induction one starts from

observed data and develops a

generalization which explains the

relationships between the objects

observed.

186

Characteristics of Scientific Method

1. Everything is open to question

In our quest to understand things, we should

strive to keep an open mind about everything

we thing we know or we want to understand.

What we call ‚knowledge‛ is transitional and

subject to refutation!!

“ Is this possible?

“ Can this characteristic be open?

“ To which extent can we hold this

perception?

187

2. Evidence based on observation

Scientific method seeks knowledge

through observed evidence and not

authority, tradition or ideology.

The evidence should be systematic,

comprehensive, and as objective as

possible.

188

Basic Steps in Scientific

Research:

1. Collection of data

This is a common basis of

all sciences; pure, human,

and social.

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189

This is a function of perception and

cognition.

- The mind goes on collecting data

from all kinds of observations and

experiences. Simultaneously, the mind,

by using its power of identification and

retention (the ability to remember

things), goes on establishing

relationships

190

The observation will be on someassumed correlation between someaspects according to some tentativehypothesis to prove if there is anyinterrelationships between them.

This observation can be done in alaboratory (physics, chemistry, biology,etc.) or in a field when the parts understudy spread over vast areas in time andspace (astronomy, geology).

191

Observation can be done through senses and

perceptive power or by help of scientific

equipment (devices for measurement) and

technological equipment (devices to facilitate

work and utilizing the resource of

environment).

The advance of scientific and technological

equipment have contributed to the expansion

of methods and meanings of collection of

scientific data and the horizon of observation.

192

In Muslim history of science it is a factthat Muslim scientists realized at anearly stage the importance of scientificequipment for collection of data,therefore they introduced big astrolabes(scientific instrument used for reckoningtime and for observational purposes toenable astronomers to calculate theposition of the Sun and prominent starswith respect to both the horizon and themeridian)…

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193

and quadrants (an instrumentfor measuring angles,especially to check yourposition at sea or to look atstars) for exact observationsof stars and planets, and evenhad invented a sphericalastrolabe.

194

Measures to guard against distortion:

The person taking observations should

be clear in his mind; he should not be

obsessed by any preconceived ideas.

He should record only what is really

happening (objective).

He needs patience and perseverance to

ensure the reliability of his

observations.

195

Even the observations taken with all this care

cannot be taken at their face value, until

preliminary statistical tests confirm its

reliability, or a number of other scientists

confirm it independently.

The rules of observation laid down by Jabir

ibn Hayyan (chemistry):

1. The time and season must be carefully

chosen;

2. It is best for the laboratory to be in a

secluded (quiet and private) place ;

196

3. The chemist must have trusted friends;

4. He must have sufficient time to

conduct experiments;

5. Patience and reticence (not disclosing

results hastily before testing them);

6. Perseverance;

7. He must not be deceived by

appearances into bringing his operations

to too hasty a conclusion.

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197

2. Classification and analysis of data:

To arrange the data in some regularorder;

To find out the characteristics of thepopulation from where the randomsample of data was taken;

To establish the relations and correlationsbetween different members of thepopulation under study or with membersof other series.

198

3. Hypothesis:

After studying the characteristics of the

members of the population under study, there

comes the stage when the researcher begins

to ask the question ‚How‛ about the working

of those members and their correlations.

The answer to this question is the hypothesis

which describes in words or in symbols the

relationship that appear to exist between

them.

199

This hypothesis will be depending, to

some extent, on guessing. This guess is

based on the past observation, experience

and knowledge.

There may be many hypotheses

depending on the number of variable

parameters involved.

200

4- Hypotheses testing:

The hypotheses will be put into testing through experiments in different produced conditions to show their validity and applicability.

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201

If the predictions in the hypothesis

come out correct, then the status of

the hypothesis is raised to that of a

‚theory‛. If this theory is found to

be universally applicable, it is

called a ‚law of nature‛.

202

Observation

Logical deduction

Experimentation and empirical observations

(under controlled conditions)

The hypothesis is validated = Theory

203

Origination of Scientific methodology

Muslim scientists were the first ones tointroduce this method and to emphasizethe role of experimentation.

Jabir ibn Hayyan, for example, statedclearly in his book on chemistry: ‚thefirst essential is to perform practicalwork and experiments. One who does notdo so will never attain mastery‛.

204

Among the rules of experiments

laid down by him:

1. The operator should know the

reason for performing the

experiment (hypotheses and

predictions should be set clearly);

2. The instructions must be properly

understood;

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205

Impossible and profitless

processes should be avoided

(vague hypotheses which don’t

lead to definite predictions, or

hasty experiments which lead

to vague results, are of no

value).

206

Example:

Until the 10th century the Greek and

Egyptian theory of geocentric

cosmology was assumed to be true, and

It was held by early Muslim scientists.

207

According to this theory the fixed

stars are farther than the stars of

the Milky Way/ the Galaxy (the

system of stars that contains our

sun and its planets) which is

supposed to be close to the earth

and to be situated in the

atmosphere of the earth.

208

In Greek astronomy, this was an axiom and all

other problems of astronomy had to satisfy this

‚truth‛.

The Muslim astronomer Ibn al-Haytham, based

on his inductive method and with help of the

equipment developed by Muslim scientists,

came to a conclusion that the stars of the Milky

Way were as far off as the other fixed stars, and

that they were not situated in the atmosphere of

the earth.

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209

Ibn al-Haytham was facing two

contradicting hypotheses: the

Greek ‚axiom‛ and his

hypothesis.

And the question was: how to

decide about the validity of

these two opposing hypotheses?

210

Ibn al-Haytham suggested an experiment

to decide about these hypotheses:

1. to measure the distance from the

same place in different seasons.

2. to measure the distance at the

same time from two places far

apart on the earth.

211

3. The result was that if the stars of

the Milky Way are in the

atmosphere of the earth, then, in

both the sets of observations

suggested, their relative positions

will be different.

212

If the stars of the Milky Way are asfar as the other fixed stars, therewill be no change in the relativepositions of the two sets of stars ineither cases.

Observations were taken and it wasfound that the stars of the MilkyWay did not change their relativepositions among the fixed stars.

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213

Here the validity of the hypothesis was

not tested by the help of deductive logic

alone. Only the predictions were

deduced by logic and geometry. But the

validity of the hypothesis was proved by

experiment and observation. And this is

what is called the inductive method of

modern science.

214

Draper, Conflict between Science and Religion

The characteristics of their (Muslims’) methodare experiment and observation, geometricaland mathematical sciences that worked asinstruments of reasoning.

In their numerous writings on mechanics,hydrostatics, optics, etc. it is interesting toremark that the solution to a problem is alwaysby performing an experimental observation.

It was this that made them the originators ofchemistry;

215

that led them to the invention of all kinds of

apparatus for distillation (to make a liquid pure

by heating it until it becomes a gas, then

cooling it and collecting the drops of liquid

that form), sublimation (conversion of a

substance from the solid to the vapour state

without its becoming liquid), fusion (the

process or result of joining two or more things

together to form one, like the fusion of copper

and zinc to produce brass), filtration (the

process of filtering a liquid or gas), etc.;

216

that caused them in Astronomy to appeal todivided instruments such as quadrants andastrolabes, in Chemistry to employ the balance,the theory of which they were perfectlyfamiliar with, to construct tables of specificgravity and astronomical tables like those ofBaghdad and Spain, great improvements inGeometry, the invention of Algebra and theadoption of Indian numeration in Arithmetic.Such were the results of the performance of theinductive method ” their declining the reveries(imaginations/ dreams) of Plato.‛

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217

Francis Bacon, who is considered bythe West as one of the founders ofinductive/ scientific method, in his bookNovum Organum (1st quarter of the 17th

century) while pleading for theintroduction of empiricism in Europesays again and again that:

‚great authorities‛ follow this andconsider this method better than the olddeductive method of the Greeks.

218

But he never once mentions the

name of the ‚great authorities‛

and the ‚wise people‛

No one applied this method

before except Muslim scientists.

It is suggested that he did not

mention them by name for fear

of inquisition.

219

Achievements of scientific method:

Freed sciences from the domination of

rigid deductive method that is more

suitable to theoretical and philosophical

studies.

Limited the sphere of intellectual

speculations and made a big room for

empirical knowledge.

220

Freed scientific research from the grip

of Greek axioms.

Limited the sphere of metaphysical

studies and made shift to natural and

physical studies.

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221

Successful results achieved by scientists

gave them confidence in this scientific

method and encouraged them to further

their research.

This, in turn, led to expansion of the

horizon of scientific research;

discovering new laws and opening new

areas.

222

Experimental endeavour led to the

transformation of science to

technology, and the invention of

sophisticated machines and

equipment.

223

‚Side effects‛ of the

scientific method

The overconfidence in and

adoration of the scientific method

led to extreme rationality.

Extreme rationality led to the

adoption of scientific method in the

field of human and social sciences.

224

Empiricism/ logical-positivism

(from the Greek word empeiria =

experience.)

Inaugurated by Francis Bacon and

developed by John Locke (1632-1704) In

philosophy, the attitude that beliefs are to

be accepted and acted upon only if they

first have been confirmed by actual

experience.

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225

Stressing experience, Empiricism isopposed to the claims of authority,intuition, imaginative conjecture, andabstract, theoretical, or systematicreasoning (Rationalism) as sources ofreliable belief.

The essence of empiricism isobservation, measurement, andquantification of sense data available tothe observer.

226

Early empiricism vs. Revelation

Although Bacon proclaims the

universal applicability of

induction, he himself treats it

almost exclusively as a means to

natural knowledge and ignores its

social application.

227

Most divine knowledge must come

from revelation, and reason has

nothing to do with it. There is such a

thing as divine philosophy (what was

later called rational, or natural,

theology), but its sole task and

competence is to prove that there is a

God.

228

John Locke one of the fathers of

empiricism did consider revelation, in

principle, as a source of certain type of

knowledge. But he assigned to it a very

marginal and subordinate role.

He argues that knowledge acquired by

human reasoning is more reliable and

certain than knowledge received

through revelation.

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229

Because one may doubt the

preservation of the original

revelation through the act of

narration, or question the lack of

means for validating or

substantiating its content.

But one can always be certain

about what his faculty of

understanding considers true.

230

He gives revelation the upper hand over reason

in two instances:

1. In questions belonging to the realm of faith,

because it’s inaccessible to human reasoning.

2. Revelation should supersede reason in the

realm of probable knowledge which does not

rise to certainty.

(But one can always be certain about what his

faculty of understanding considers true.)

231

Positivism

In philosophy, generally, any system

that confines itself to the data of

experience and excludes a priori

(knowledge that is independent of all

particular experiences, as opposed to

a posteriori knowledge, which derives

from experience alone) or

metaphysical speculations.

232

As a philosophical ideology and movement, Positivism first assumed its distinctive features in the work of Auguste Comte (1798”1857).

It then developed through several stages known by various names, such as Empirio criticism, Logical Positivism, and Logical Empiricism, etc.

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233

The basic affirmations of Positivism are:

1.That all knowledge regarding

matters of fact is based on the

‚positive‛ data of experience;

2.That beyond the realm of fact is

that of pure logic and pure

mathematics, which were, in a later

phase of Positivism, classified as

purely formal sciences.

234

3. Strict adherence to the testimony of

observation and experience is the

all-important imperative of the

Positivists.

4. In its basic ideological posture,

Positivism is worldly, secular, anti-

theological, and anti-metaphysical.

235

Naturalism/ natural method

A theory that relates scientific

method to philosophy by affirming

that all beings and events in the

universe are natural.

Consequently, all knowledge of the

universe falls within the pale of

scientific investigation.

236

Usually naturalism denies theexistence of truly supernaturalrealities.

Naturalists assert that nature isreality. There is nothingbeyond, nothing ‚other than,‛no ‚other world‛ of being.

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237

Naturalism presumes that nature isin principle completely knowable.

There is in nature a regularity, unity,and wholeness that impliesobjective laws, without which thepursuit of scientific knowledgewould be absurd.

238

Naturalism has no ontological

preference: dualism and monism,

atheism and theism, idealism and

materialism are all per se

compatible with it.

239

Two positive results of bahaviourism

1. Development of neurosciences.

2. Development of behaviour therapy

(behaviour modification), which

focused on modifying observable

behaviour, rather than on the

thoughts and feelings of the patient

(as in psychoanalysis).

240

Conclusion

W. M. Smart, The origin of the earth.Let us not then exalt the scientific

method unduly as the closepreserve of the scientist nor, whichis much more important, as the onlymeans by which we attempt todiscover the secrets of nature.

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241

It is easy for a scientist to be a

materialist if he sees only in the

universe the apparently relentless

(continuous) unfolding of natural

law, and forgets that there are

domains where the laws of

physics are irrelevant

242

But more and more scientists arerealizing that they are exploring only onesection of the great world of nature in allits manifold complexity; beauty, moral,conduct, spiritual values, religiousexperience, are all outside their domain,yet all come within man’s scrutiny whenhe attempts to interpret the universe as awhole and strives to discern purposetherein…‛

243

Harris, Kelvin (1979), Education and Knowledge

The limitations of empiricism inhuman and social sciences can bemanifested in different areasamong them:Derived conclusions could not be

logically valid for generalization

because there could be exceptions.

244

Methodology of data collection is

theory laden, that is, the

investigator has preconceptions and

motives, which influence his

choice of methodology of

investigation and this subsequently

affects the outcome

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245

‚The humanistic studies of Western

man and the social analysis of Western

society by a Western scientist are

necessarily "Western" and cannot serve

as models for the study of Muslims or

of their society.‛

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi (1977),

"Islamizing the Social Sciences"

246

The Search for an Islamic

Methodology

Methodology comprises:

1. Technical procedures

2. Conditions for using methods/

conceptual aspects of methodology

247

1. Natural and physical sciences

The scientific method in its technicalprocedures has a universalapplication.

It was initially started by Muslimscientists and, later developed byWestern scientists, and became as aheritage of humanity.

248

There is no objection to adopting

the technical procedures

developed by non-Muslims.

It needs to be applied within the

Islamic ethical and ideological

frame.

Production of Muslim scientists

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249

2. Social & human sciences

The main objects to the Western

methods used in the domain of human

& social sciences are:

1. They are heavily inclined towards

materialism and application of

procedures of the natural sciences.

Exclusion of spiritual aspect.

250

1. They embody the Western

concepts & values (exclusion of

revelation).

2. They set the Western values &

concepts as universal norms and

models by which other societies

should by judged.

251

The employment of this Western

methodology in the Muslim world is

leading toward Westernization of

Muslim societies.

252

The issues of:

Rejecting revelation and contrasting

scientific with revealed knowledge

and;

Confining reality to the empirical one

under the justification that reason

cannot ascertain transcendental

reality;

Are not real problems in Islam.

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253

- These structures are not immediately

encountered by the senses. Instead, the

structures of empirical existence are

inferred through the use of categories

abstracted from the sensible, and

mediated by purely ‚rational‛

categories and statements.

254

e.g.

Our understanding of the

relationship between the earth and

the sun is mediated by mental

constructs, and hence is completely

at variance with the immediate

impression received from the senses.

255

2. Revelation, at least in its Islamic form,

seeks its justification in empirical

reality.

Divine revelation sees empirical reality

as the manifestation of a

transcendental reality.

The interconnectedness of the

empirical and transcendental is always

stressed by the Qur’an

256

Both revelation and empiricalknowledge are needed for acomprehensive understanding of nature.

The science-revelation conflict isneither imperative nor universal, butspecific to Western religion andexperience. There is no need at all toreproduce it in Muslim culture.

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257

Setting the norm/ standard/ model

In social and human science norms,

models, standards are crucial for

understanding, judging, and changing

human behaviour as well as social

phenomena.

The norms/ standards/ models are used to

deduce conclusions.

258

Western scholarship assumes that

the practices of the Western society

(which is assumed to stand at the

peak of human evolution) become

the standard of normality.

259

Integrative Methodology of

Revealed Knowledge and

Human Knowledge

The common point among Muslim

scholars who are concerned with

Islamization of knowledge/

Islamic methodology is the

incorporation of Revelation into

different fields of research.260

But when it comes to ‚How‛ the

answers may be different.

Until now, only little has been done,

and more efforts are required to

establish a viable Islamic

methodology for different social

and human sciences

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261

Islamic Methodology should:

Incorporate revelation as a source of

knowledge and give it its due role in

guiding human inquiry of knowledge.

Work under the directions of our

worldview (the origin & nature of man

and universe, the purpose of their

creation, and their destiny).

262

Reflect the Islamic objectives and

values

Set our norms/ standards/ models

which are derived from the Qur’an,

the Sunnah, and the practice of the

early Muslim society

263

A framework for islamization of knowledge

Islamic legacy Western knowledge

Mastery of disciplinary substantive knowledge

Mastery of analytical and synthetic techniques

University textbooks

Islamic University

Perfect/universal man

Conclusion Muslims of the past always followed the

Islamic methodology in their research:

They based their work on the principle of tawhid;

They verified the information to ensure its authenticity;

They were sincere, pious, enthusiastic, committed and dedicated researchers;

They perceived knowledge as a comprehensive whole;

They avoided any innovation in the religion for fear of Allah‟s punishment;

264

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265

They had greater familiarity with classical Arabic than contemporary Muslim scholars, which facilitated their understanding and analysis of the original texts;

They used to commence their work with bismillahi al-Rahman al-Rahim (in the Name of Allah, the Gracious, the Merciful), seeking Allah‟s blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him; in this way they treated their research as an act of „ibadah.

266

Islam and

Civilization

1. Meaning of civilization

2. Civilization and Culture

3. Arabic terms for civilization

4. Characteristics of Civilization

267

Arabic terms:

al- Hadarah/ Al-Tamaddun/ al-

Madaniyyah

Al-Tamaddun/ al-Madaniyyah:

derived from the word

‘madinah’(city or town), and

‘din’(religion).

Al-‘Umran

268

Meaning of CivilizationAn advanced level of development in society that is marked by complex social and political organization, and material, scientific, and artistic progress

A society, its culture and its way of life during a particular period of time or in a particular part of the world.

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269

The way and level of life of people

in the cities as contrasted with the

way and level of life in rural areas.

The relation between ‘madinah’

and ‘din’ indicates the role of

religion in the establishment of

civilization and refinement of social

culture

270

Civilization designates a condition of

human society characterized by a

high level of cultural and

technological achievements;

and correspondingly complex social

and political development

It is an advanced state of intellectual,

cultural and material development in

human society

271

Each civilization has a body or matter

and a soul.

The body of the civilization is its

material achievements such as buildings,

infrastructure, agriculture, industry,

educational institutions, technological

equipment, and all that is related to

various pleasures of worldly life.

272

The soul of civilization is the set of;

ideologies,

concepts,

moral values,

manners and traditions that are

embodied in the behavior of

individuals, groups, and their

interrelations.

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273

Characteristics of Islamic civilization

1- Based on the توحيد Muslim civilization was the first universal

civilization that was based on a pure and strict unitarianism (unity of God)

The only one who deserves submission

The only one who deserves worship

The only one who deserves absolute obedience.

274

Eliminates idolatry (idols, and

statues)

Frees common people from the

oppression of the kings, Papacy,

and Brahmanism

Sets right the relationship between

the ruler and the ruled (all people

are equal)

275

2. Universality

Islamic civilization was the first

civilization which embraced the entire

humanity

It declared equality of all human beings of

all descents, races, and colours

أجقبم د للا ع ن أمر إ ‚Verily the most

honoured of you in the sight of Allah is he

who is the most righteous of you‛ (49:

13).

276

This civilization is attributed to all

Muslims on an equal basis.

(Arab nationalism / Western civilization

/supremacy of white man)

[Universality vs. Globalization]

Open to the contribution of all members

of the Muslim ummah regardless of

their race, ethnicity, or colour, and even

non-Muslim citizens.

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277

3- Moderate Rationalism

It gives human reason a high position

Its faith is based on reasoning and conviction

It rejects superstitious and unfounded beliefs.

It does not go to the extreme of denying the

truths which are not directly related to

empirical knowledge but are based on

revealed knowledge

278

4.Tolerance

Tolerance towards people of different religions (especially Christians and Jews)

Minorities enjoyed a high level of tolerance and freedom of religion and economic pursuit.

This characteristic is peculiar for a civilization based on religious foundations.

279

It would be reasonable for a

secularist who does not believe

in any religion to treat religions

equally and give people

freedom of belief, but it may be

difficult for a religious person

to do so.

280

5. Integrated and balanced

civilization

Integrates the faith with the state/

rejection of secularism

Integrates the body with the spirit

(material vs. spiritual)

Integrates the worldly life with the

life in the hereafter

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281

Integrates empirical sciences with

revelation

Assigns priority to moral principles

= morality vs. pragmatism

Integration in a balanced manner

Balance means following a middle

course between two extremes of

thought and action.

282

Western Culture and Civilization

Western Civilization is ‚The civilization

that has evolved out of the historical fusion

of cultures, philosophies, values and

aspirations of ancient Greece and Rome;

their amalgamation with Judaism and

Christianity, and their further development

and formation by the Latin, Germanic,

C e l t i c a n d N o r d i c P e o p l e s ‛ .

283

Western Civilization

Characteristics of Western civilization

In terms of material progress and scientific exploration, the modern Western civilization has surpassed all civilizations across history.

Pushing forward man’s incentives and capabilities to exploit nature and benefit from it.

284

Technological achievements =

eased human life, luxury

Effective management and

organization

Respect of human rights within

its homelands

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285

The ideologies of the Western

civilization are:

1. Utilitarian materialism

This civilization may not deny the

existence of God strongly and openly,

or deny the existence of the spirit.

But it does not recognize the value of

‚God‛ in its ideological system.

286

It accepts only things which

are considered by it as of

‚practical value‛

The ‚practical value‛ is in

luxury and worldly pleasure =

this is the real ‘God’

287

2. Secularism

Inspired by secular philosophy,

devoid of certainty, subject to

constant review and change

Its worldview formulation is not upon

revealed knowledge and religious

belief but rather upon cultural

tradition, speculations to secular life

centered upon man as physical entity

288

religion as a personal matter limited

to individual practice without any

interference in social, economic or

political activities

religious practice limited to dead

rituals

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289

Destruction of moral values = utilitarianism/ pragmatism

Destruction of family (abortion, neglect of the elderly…)

Creates an atmosphere of fear, anxiety and distraction

3. Atheism: The doctrine or belief that there is no God

290

4. Humanism

Reliance upon the powers of human reason alone to guide man through life

291

5. Dualism

Adherence to the validity of dualistic

vision of reality and truth

Affirmation of the reality of the

temporary/impermanent aspect of

existence projecting a secular

worldview

292

The Rise and Decline of Islamic civilization

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293

A brief chronology of Muslim Civilization

Preparatory phase

571: Birth of the Prophet.

This year was marked with an invasion

of Makkah and an attempt to

destroy Ka‘bah (the year of the

Elephant).

610: The first revelation in the cave at

Mount Hira’. The beginning of

Mohammad’s prophethood.

294

621: First pledge at Aqaba.

The search for a place to

establish Muslim state.

622: Second pledge at Aqaba.

The acceptance of the people of

Yathrib to receive the

Prophet (saw) and his

followers

295

The Emergence of the State

622: The Hijrah (migration to Yathrib/

Madina), marks the establishment of the

Muslim state.

624: Battle of Badr.

The new power in the Arab peninsula.

628: Truce of Hudaibiya.

Peace to give people a chance to

know about the new religion, and to

focus on strengthening the newly

emerged state.

296

628: The Prophet addresses letters

to various heads of states.

Going international

(beyond Arabian territories)

630: Muslims return back to their

homeland Makkah after being

expelled from it.

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297

631: Expedition to Tabuk

Sending a message to the Persian authorities who had been occupying the Arab territories and were hostile to the new religion.

632: Farewell pilgrimage at Makkah.

The Prophet addresses his followers with his last speech.

632: Death of the Prophet (saw).

Election of Abu Bakr as the Caliph.

298

Transitory instability

Attempts to destroy the new

religion and state

Pseudo-prophets,

Rejection of paying Zakat

(disloyalty to the central authority)

299

Wars of liberation:

633 - 641: Liberation of Arab territories

(Bahrain, Oman, Iraq, Syria,

al-Quds/ Jerusalem, and the

remaining parts of Jazirah.

(occupied by Persians and

Roman Byzantines)

636: Defeating the occupying forces

of the Romans (Battle of

Yermuk) followed by the

liberation of Syria and al-Quds.

300

636: The last major battle

against Persian Empire

(the battle of Qadsiyyah)

the fall of their capital

‘Madain’.

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301

641:

- Liberation of oppressed people inEgypt.

- The Catholic Archbishop of Egyptinvites the Muslims to help free Egyptfrom Roman oppressors.

- This exemplifies the alliances formedbetween Muslims, Christians and Jewsdue to the Muslims' establishment ofreligious freedom for Christians andJews.

302

644: Umar dies and is succeeded by Caliph

Uthman

654: Islam spreads into all of North Africa

which was partly occupied by Romans.

656: Ali becomes the Caliph. Battle of the

Camel. Another period of turmoil and

political instability (fighting between

different political groups)

660: Mu'awiyah declares himself as the

Caliph at Damascus.

303

661: Ali assassinated. Accession of

Hasan. An attempt to transform

the Islamic political system to a

monarchy system. Al-Hasan bin

Ali abdicates (gives up/ renounces)

in favour of Mu‘awiyah. Mu'awiyah

becomes the sole Caliph.

304

680: Death of Muawiyah.

Accession of His son

Yazid. The monarchy

system successfully

established

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710: Tariq ibn Malik crosses the straitseparating Africa and Europe with agroup of Muslims and enters Spain. Ayear later, 7000 Muslim men invadeGibraltar.

718: By this year almost the entire Iberianpeninsula is under Muslim control.

750: Fall of Damascus. End of theUmayyad rule.

750: The establishment of the Abbasidrule

306

756: The first breakaway

Abdul Rahman founds theUmayyad state in Spain.

763: Foundation of Baghdad.

767: The second breakaway

Khawarij set up their own state byIbn Madrar at Sijilmasa.

Third breakaway:

Rustamid state set up in Morocco

307

Those breakaways were followed by

hundreds of other breakaways and

civil wars across the Muslim world

792: Invasion of South France.

814: Civil war between Amin and

Ma’mun. Amin killed and

Mamun becomes the Caliph.

827: Ma’mun declares the Mutazila

creed as the state religion.

308

870: Turks revolt against Muhtadi, hisdeath and accession ofMu‘tamid.

968: Roman Byzantines occupyAleppo.

1091: The Normans conquer the island of Sicily; end of the Muslim rule.

1095: The first crusade.

1099: The crusaders capture al-Quds.

1144: Second crusade.

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1187: Salah al-Din wrests Jerusalemfrom the Christians.

Third crusade.

1212: Battle of AI ‘Uqab in Spain.Muslims defeated by theChristians in Spain

1248: By this year Muslim control ofSpain was reduced to theKingdom of Granada, whichsurvives for more than twocenturies.

310

1258: Baghdad destroyed by theMongols.

End of the Abbasid rule.

1260: Battle of Ayn Jalut in Syria.

The Mongols are defeated bythe Mamluks of Egypt;

and the spell of theinvincibility of the Mongolsis broken.

311

1266: The eighth crusade.

The crusaders invade Tunisia.

Failure of the crusade.

1267: Malik ul Salih establishes the

first Muslim state of

Samudra Pasai in Indonesia.

The Spaniards invade Morocco.

The Marinids drive away the

Spaniards from

Morocco.

312

1274: Ninth crusade under Edward

I of England. The crusade ends

in fiasco and Edward returns

to England.

1371: In the Ottoman Turks empire,

Invasion of Bulgaria,

Bulgarian territory up to the

Balkans annexed by the

Turks.

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313

1446: In the Ottoman Turks empire,

Second battle of Kossova

resulting in the victory of the

Turks. Serbia annexed to

Turkey.

314

1453: Capture of Constantinople(Istanbul) by the Ottomanempire.

1456: Annexation of Serbia byOttoman empire.

1461: Annexation of Bosnia andHerzegovina.

1462: Annexation of Albania.

315

1475: Annexation of Crimea

(peninsula in southeastern

Ukraine between the Black

Sea and the Sea of Azov).

Turkey became the master

of the Aegean Sea.

316

1507: The Portuguese under

establish strongholds in the

Persian Gulf.

1511: The Portuguese conquer

Malacca from the Muslims.

1517: The Ottomans defeat the

Mamluks and conquer

Egypt.

1529: Unsuccessful Ottoman siege

of Vienna.

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317

1550: The rise of the Muslim

kingdom of Aceh in Sumatra.

1550: Islam spreads to Java, the

Moluccas, and Borneo.

1687: Defeat of the Turks by

Austria.

318

1718: In the war against Austria,

Turkey suffers defeat. By the

treaty of Passarowich

Turkey loses Hungary.

1797: Russia occupied Daghestan.

1811:The British occupied

Indonesia.

319

1812: Madina fell to Egyptians.

1813: Makkah and Taif captured

by Egyptian forces and

Saudis expelled from

Hijaz.

1827: Malaya became a preserve

of the British according to

Anglo-Netherlands treaty

in 1824.

320

1830: French forces occupy Algeria,

ending 313 years rule of

Turks.

1832: Turks defeated in the battle of

Konia by Egyptian forces.

1857: British captured Delhi and

eliminated Mughal rule in India

after 332 years. This was also

the end of 1000 years of

Muslim rule over India.

.

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321

1859: Imam Shamil defeated

by Russian forces in

Daghestan

1901: French forces occupy

Morocco.

1916: Arab revolt against

Ottoman rule. Lawrence

of Arabia leads attacks

on the Hijaz Railway.

322

1918: Syria occupied by France.

1921: Abd Allah bin Husayn was

made King of Transjordan by the British.

1924: The Turkish khilafah is

abolished.

1948: The official establishment of

the Jewish state in Palestine.

323

Stages of the process of rise and fall

1) Gestation (Hijra ”the end of Abu Bakar’s khilafah)

2) Expansion/ Universal Empire

3) Decay (the second half of khilafa Abbasiyyah)

4) Invasion/ fall

324

Causes of Rise of Muslim

Civilization

1. Spiritual power: a tremendous impulse

was given to the Muslim community to

explore life and the world around them

(life and world created for a purpose).

The Muslims spread the word of Allah.

Islam ” way to save people and liberate

them

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325

2. Ability to transform the ideals of

the Qur’an to daily conduct: Hard-

work, perseverance, sincerity,

honesty, patience

326

3. Intellectual freedom, freeing human

intellect from superstitions, teaching

people to think critically and creatively

(prohibition of imitation without sound

evidence)

4. Political freedom, equality between

the ruler and the ruled.

‚Allah has sent us to free humans from

worshipping other humans, and to

commit them to worshipping Allah‛

327

5. Openness:

To learn from human experience

To people of different races and ethnicities.

Muslim civilization was a joint endeavour ofMuslims from different peoples and races

It was not the military power which enabledearly Muslims to dominate half of the thenknown world. It was their righteousness andtheir humaneness.

The Muslims intermarried freely with localpeople and became part of them.

328

6. The spirit of seeking knowledge

Most of the rulers of Banu Ummayah and

the first two centuries of al-‘abbasiyyin

dynasties were educated or scholars.

They encouraged learning and scientific

enquiry and used to spend on it

generously (the House of Wisdom).

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329

The establishment of hundreds of

schools and universities such as al-

Nizamiyyah, al-Azhar, al-

Qayrawan etc.

330

In addition to the generous spending on

education and scholars, waqf

(endowment fund) was well developed

and played a significant role in

developing educational institutions.

Although there was a relevant level of

dictatorship, rulers did not use to

interfere in educational institutions and

the affairs of scholars.

331

Causes of decline

Tribalism

Ethnocentrism

The Prophet (saw) was able to suppress

these social diseases and reduce them to

the minimal level among sahabah and

substitute them with a strong brotherhood.

332

The new comers to Islam, who used to live

under the rule of tribes or monarchs and

emperors, brought with them those loyalties.

Sectarianism

Obsession with power/ prestige/

Striving for power ” assassinations ”

overthrowing each other ” civil wars ”

separation ” seeking help from enemies

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Revolutions / insurgencies here and there

Moral decadence:

Dishonesty, indifference, cheating, laziness, neglecting obligation, involvement in haram, interest in pleasure and enjoyment rather than more serious things…etc.

Dictatorship/ political injustice/ changing the political system from shura to monarchy

334

Weakness of central authority:

For most of the last three centuries of

the Abbasid rule, the rulers (Caliphs)

became nominal.

The real sovereign power had passed

already to the Turks.

The rulers became under their direct

influence and they were frequently

changed or murdered one after another.

335

Deterioration in the educational level of

the rulers: The guardians, soon became

the masters.

They were men of simple, downright,

brutal character, of energy and common

sense.

The Ottoman Turks/ Mamalik were

soldiers first. They were soldierly in all

they did.

336

They did infuse some manhood into the

declining empire, which would have

perished but for them.

They managed to free some Muslim

territories, stop the advancement of

Mongols, and expand the Muslim

empire.

But those rulers were not really qualified

to maintain the Muslim civilization.

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337

At the beginning, for centuries the

civilization of Islam was almost

unaffected by this transfer of power

from a cultured people to a people of

comparative illiteracy, rather it

continued to progress in spite of it.

But the Empire was apparently

progressing on the wave of a bygone

impulse which was fading away.

338

Academic decline

Islamic sciences reached the stage

of stagnation;

ijtihad was virtually stopped,

fanaticism to juridical as well as

theological schools of thought

became widespread,

339

The extremism of philosopher and

theologians was met with another

extremism of some religious scholars

who went to the extent of prohibiting

the study of philosophy and the

sciences related to it, burning of the

books of some philosophers and

theologians in some areas such as Ibn

Rushd, al-Ghazzali etc.

340

Muslim Sciences:

Origin and

Development

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341

1. Philosophy, natural and physical sciences The real development of Muslim natural

and physical sciences started after the era of translation.

Translation of the intellectual heritage of other nations and civilizations started in the 2nd Islamic century from the four major languages: Greek, Syriac, Persian and Sanskrit.

342

In the 3rd century, the

establishment of bayt al-Hikmah

(The House of Wisdom) founded

by Harun al-Rashid and well

developed by his son al-Ma’mun.

It was a research and educational

institute and the centre for

intellectual development.

343

Many scientific works were

rendered into Arabic in the field of

mathematics, physics, astronomy,

medicine, pharmacology, history,

philosophy and other sciences.

The translators were Muslims as

well as non-Muslim citizens.

344

Translation: advantages & disadvantages

Positive impact

Benefiting from human knowledge and experience

Negative impact

Translation was not confined to what is useful (pure sciences)

Extended to theology and metaphysical issues

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345

Creating confusion among some

Muslims

Led to the creation of an elite group

of philosophers who were fascinated

with Greek philosophy and to some

extent deviated from the right

principles of Islam

Tension between this elite group and

religious scholars

346

2. Islamic sciences

Established and developed

solely by Muslims

347

The Contribution of Muslim Scholars

(Natural Sciences)

348

Major Areas of Contribution

1. The adoption and development of the scientific/ inductive method

2. Development of different fields of science + inventions

3. Transfer of the intellectual heritage of the ancient civilizations to the modern civilization

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349

1- Al-Khawarizmi

Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khawarizmi. (780-850 CE) his birthplace is Khwarizm (modern name: Khiva) south of the Aral Sea.

Al-Khawarizmi was a mathematician, astronomer and geographer. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics.

350

He influenced mathematical

thought to a greater extent than

any other mediaeval writer."

(Phillip Hitti).

351

He is the founder of Algebra (al-Jabr)

In Arabic, the full expression was ‚Ilm

aljabr wa al-Muqabalah ‛ (the science

of reunion and equations) and Algorithm

(the old name for arithmetic)

These terms are derived from the title of

his work, HisabAl-Jabr wal al-

Muqabalah (Book of Calculations,

Restoration and Reduction).

352

His work on algebra was outstanding, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but he also developed itto the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, which established him as the founder of Algebra.

He also gives geometrical solutions (with figures) of quadratic equations, for example x2 + 1Ox = 39, an equation often repeated by later writers.

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353

In the twelfth century Gerard of

Cremona and Roberts of Chester

translated the ‘Algebra‛ of Al-

Khawarizmi into Latin.

Mathematicians used it all over

the world until the sixteenth

century.

354

Algorithm = Arithmetic

His arithmetic synthesized

Greek and Hindu knowledge

and also contained his own

contribution of fundamental

importance to mathematics

and science.

355

He explained the use of zero, a

numeral of fundamental

importance developed by the

Muslims.

He developed at length several

arithmetical procedures, including

the decimal system and operations

on fractions.

356

He introduced the Indian system of numerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals) which was later passed to Europe.

He wrote many books on arithmetic, among them: Kitab al-Jam’a wa al-Tafriq bi al-Hisab al-Hind, which was translated to and preserved in Latin language (the Arabic version was lost)

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357

A Latin translation of a Muslim

arithmetic text was discovered in 1857

CE at the University of Cambridge

library.

Entitled 'Algoritimi de Numero

Indorumآ’, which is believed to be a copy

of Al-Khawarizmiآ’s arithmetic text,

which was translated into Latin in the

twelfth century by Adelard of Bath (an

English scholar).

358

Geography

He revised and corrected Ptolemy's

views

He produced the first map of the known

world in 830 CE.

His geography captioned Kitab Surat al-

Ard,(The Face of the Earth) together with

its maps, was translated to Latin

language.

359

He worked on measuring the

volume and circumference (the

line that goes around the earth) of

the earth (this measurement was

ordered by Al-Ma’mun)

360

Geometry

He had many contributions to geometry including:

His astronomical and trigonometric tables, revised by Maslama Al-Majrti (Second half of tenth century), were translated into Latin as early as l126 by Adelard of Bath.

They were the first Muslim tables and contained not simply the sine function but also the tangent (Maslama's interpolation).

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He also perfected the geometric

representation of conic sections and

developed the calculus of two errors,

which practically led him to the concept

of differentiation.

Mechanics

He contributed to work related to

clocks, sundials (an ancient device for

telling the time when the sun is shining)

and astrolabes.

362

2. Al-Razi

Abu Bakr Muhammad b. Zakariyya (Rhazes)(ca.250/854-313/925 or 323/935), in Rayy, Iran.

Physician, philosopher and alchemist.

He was first placed in-charge of the first Royal Hospital at Rayy, from where he soon moved to a similar position in Baghdadwhere he remained the head of its famous Muqtadari Hospital for along time.

363

Works:

1- Kitab al-Mansuri, which was translated

into Latin in the 15th century A.D.,

comprised ten volumes and dealt

exhaustively with Greco-Muslim

medicine. Some of its volumes were

published separately in Europe.

2-Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah was the

first treatise on smallpox and chicken-pox,

and is largely based on Razi's original

contribution.

364

He was the first to draw clear

comparisons between smallpox and

chicken-pox.

This book was the first book on

smallpox, and was translated over a

dozen times into Latin and other

European languages.

3. Kitab al-Hasa fi al-kula wa 'l-mathana

(Stones in the kidney and bladder) is one

of the most famous of his medical

writings.

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365

4. Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopaedia composed by then.

It contained on each medical subject all important information that was available from Greek and Muslim sources,

and this was concluded by him by giving his own remarks based on his experience and views.

366

Medical system:

A special feature of his medical

system was that he greatly

favoured cure through correct and

regulated food.

This was combined with his

emphasis on the influence of

psychological factors on health.

367

Medical research:

His medical research was highly

methodical, as revealed in his

notebooks.

His medical methods were

characterized by lack of

dogmatism and total reliance on

clinical observation.

368

He also tried to test medicines first

on animals in order to evaluate

their effects and side effects.

He was also an expert surgeon and

was the first to use opium for

anesthesia.

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369

He had an independent mind and that was

strikingly revealed in his book al-Shukuk 'ala

Jalinus (Doubts about Galen).

Here al-Razi rejects claims of Galen's, from

the alleged superiority of the Greek language

to many of his cosmological and medical

views.

In his criticism of Galen’s medical views, he

used to rely on his experimentation and

clinical records

370

3. Al-Biruni

Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Abul-Rayhan Al-Biruni (973-1050AD), from Haran, Syria.

His production exceeds 146 titles in more than 20 different disciplines, ranging from astronomy to mathematics, mathematical geography, religion, and philosophy.

371

But the bulk of his work lies in

mathematics and related disciplines (96

titles). Only 22 works have survived;

and only 13 of these have been

published.

His ‘Al-Qanun al-Mas’udi’ is a most

extensive astronomical encyclopaedia,

slightly short of 1,500 pages.

372

In it:

he determines the motion of the solar

apogee (the point in the orbit of the sun

in space when it is furthest from the

earth),

he corrects Ptolemy's findings,

he was able to state for the first time that

the motion is not identical to that of

precession, but comes very close to it.

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373

he employed mathematical techniques unknown to his predecessors that involve analysis of instantaneous motion and acceleration, described in terminology that can best be understood if we assume that he had "mathematical functions" in mind.

374

Six hundred years before Galileo, Al-

Biruni discussed the theory of the

earth rotating about its own axis.

Using the astrolabe and the presence

of a mountain near a sea or flat plain,

he calculated the earth circumference

by solving a highly complex geodesic

equation.

375

His book ‘Tahdid’ (the demarcation of the coordinates of cities) was written so as to determine the Qibla.

He determined the local meridian (one of the lines that is drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole) and the coordinates of any locality.

With the aid of mathematics, he also enabled the direction of the Qibla to be determined from anywhere in the world.

376

4. Al-Kindi (Al-Kindus)

Abu Yusuf Yaآ’qub ibn Ishaq was born

in 801 in Kufah, Iraq.

Al-Kindi was best known as a

philosopher, but he was also a

physician, pharmacist and he has some

contributions to physics, mathematics,

geography, astronomy, and chemistry.

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377

He learned Greek and Syriac languages. He was proficient in the arts of the Greeks, Persians and Hindus.

He was employed as a calligrapher as he was well known for his beautiful calligraphy.

al-Ma'mun (813-833) appointed him as a researcher and translator in the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah), Baghdad.

378

He was one of the first Muslim scholars involved in translating and commenting on Greek philosophical manuscripts.

He first wrote treatise in epistemology and logic books such as Risalah fi Hudud al-Ashya’ wa Rusumiha (On the Definitions of Things and their Descriptions).

379

His other philosophy works include

Rasa’il al-Kindi al-falsafiyya

(Philosophical Treatises of al-Kindi),

Fi al-falsafa al-ula (On First

Philosophy), Fi wahdaniyat Allah wa

tanahiy jism al-‘alam (On the

Oneness of God and the Limitation of

the Body of the World),

380

Fi kammiyat kutub Aristutalis wa ma yuhtaju ilaihi fi tahsil al-falsafa (The Quantity of Aristotleآ’s Books and What is Required for the Acquisition of Philosophy) and

Fi al-hila li-daf‘ al-ahzan (On the Art of Averting Sorrows).

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381

Although al-Kindi was

influenced by the work of

Aristotle (384-322 BC), he tried

to put the Greek’s ideas in a new

context and to lay down the

foundations of a new philosophy.

382

He first elaborated a system of

thought based on the logic of

Greek philosophy, hence

developed logic and systematic

explanations for some of the

debated theological issues of his

time, such as creation,

immortality, God's knowledge,

and prophecy.

383

He contributed 11 works to arithmetic. In these works he wrote on Indian numbers, the harmony of numbers, lines and multiplication with numbers, relative quantities, measuring proportion and time, and numerical procedures and cancellation.

He made rich contributions to the Arabic system of numerals, which was largely developed by al-Khawarizmi.

384

He contributed also to medicine. He

produced 22 publications on medical topics.

One of his major contributions in medicine

and pharmaceutics is to determine and apply

a correct dosage, which formed the bases

medical formulary.

Several of his books were translated into

Latin and was known as.

His thoughts very much influenced medieval

Europe.

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385

5. Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) Abu-Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas.

He was born in al-Zahra near Cordoba in

936AD, and died in 1013 AD.

He was one of the greatest surgeons of his

time.

His encyclopaedia of surgery was used as

standard reference work in the subject in all

the universities of Europe for over five

hundred years.

386

His outstanding contribution in

medicine is his encyclopaedic work

'at-Tasrif li-man ajiza an Al-talif' in

thirty treatise.

His at-Tasrif, completed about 1000

AD, was the result of almost fifty

years of medical education and

experience.

387

This encyclopaedia was intended for

medical students and the practising

physician, for whom it was a ready and

useful companion in a multitude of

situations since it answers all kinds of

clinical problems.

It contained the earliest picture of

surgical instruments in history, about

200 instruments are described and

illustrated.

388

In places the use of instrument i.e. the surgical procedure itself is shown.

In discourse l and 2, al-Zahrawi classified 325 diseases and discussed their symptomatology and treatment.

In page 145, he described, for the first time, in medical history, a hemorrhagic disease transmitted by unaffected women to their male children; today we call it hemophilia.

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389

These two volumes were translated

into Latin and printed in Augsburg

in 1519.

Volume 28 is on pharmacy and was

translated into Latin as early as

1288 as "Liber Servitoris".

Volume 30, on surgery, became the

most famous and had by far the

widest and the greatest influence.

390

The 300 pages of this volume

represent the first book of this size

devoted solely to surgery, which at

that time also included dentistry

and what one may term surgical

dermatology.

391

He developed all aspects of

surgery and various branches;

ophthalmology diseases of the ear,

nose, and throat, and of the head

and neck, general surgery,

obstetrics, gynecology; military

medicine, urology, and orthopedic

surgery.

392

It was translated into Latin by Gerard

Cremona (1114-1187) it went into at

least ten Latin editions between 1497

and 1544.

The last edition was that of John

Channing in Oxford (I778) this

contains both the original Arabic text

and its Latin translation on alternate

pages.

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393

Almost all European authors of

surgical texts from 12th to the

16th centuries referred to al-

Zahrawi's surgery and copied

from him

394

Human Sciences &

Law and

Jurisprudence

Abu Ali Al-Hassan ibn Abdullah ibn

Sina (981-1037)

395

Was born in Asfahan near Bukhara (Central

Asia)

By the age of ten he had become well versed

in the study of the Holy Qur‟an and basic

sciences.

Known in the West by the name Avicenna.

Was the most famous physician, philosopher,

encyclopedist, mathematician, and

astronomer of his time.

396

At the age of seventeen he was successful in curing Nooh ibn Mansor, the king of Bukhara, of an illness in which all the well-known physicians had given up hope.

On his recovery the king wished to reward him but the young physician only desired permission to use his uniquely stocked library.

He traveled to Jurjan after his father‟s death where he met his famous contemporary Abu Raihan al-Biruni

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397

His major contribution to medical

science is his famous book known as al-

Qanun fi al-Tibb; which is known as

Canon in the West. In this book he

reviewed the medical knowledge

available from ancient and Muslim

sources and he also made many original

contributions.

398

The Qanun deals with general medicines, drugs (seven hundred and sixty), diseases affecting all parts of the body from head to foot, especially pathology and pharmacopoeia.

His book was recognized as the most authentic materia medica.

Among his original contributions are such advances as recognition of the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, distribution of diseases by water and soil, and interaction between psychology and health.

399

He was the first to describe meningitis and

made rich contributions to anatomy,

gynecology and child health.

Ibn al-Sina was the first scientist to describe

the minute and graphic description of different

parts of the eye, such as conductive sciera,

cornea, choroid, iris, retina, layer lens,

aqueous humour, optic nerve and optic

chiasma.

400

Ibn Sina condemned conjectures and

presumptions in anatomy and called upon

physicians and surgeons to base their

knowledge on a close study of human body.

He observed that Aorta at its origin contains

three valves which open when the blood

rushes into it from the heart during contraction

and closes during relaxation of the heart so

that the blood may not be poured back into

the heart.

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401

Dr William Osler, author of the Evolution of Modern Science, writes, “The Qanun has

remained a medical bible for a longer period

than any other book.”

Ibn Sina also wrote Kitab al-Shifa (Book of

Healing), known in its Latin translation as

„Sanatio‟. It is a philosophical encyclopedia

covering a vast area of knowledge from

philosophy to science.

402

Human Sciences:

Philosophy

Theology

Sociology

403

The role of great Muslim Thinkers in the field of ‘aqidah and tasawwuf to the growth of knowledge and priceless contribution to the process of learning in the history of Islamic culture and civilization.

To name but a few, al-Ghazzali, al-Ash’ari, al-Maturidiyy, al-Baqillani, al-Shahrastani, Ibn al-’Arabiyy, al-Qusyairi, ect

404

Ibn Rushd

Abul Walid Mohammad Ibn Rushd (known as

Averroes)

He was a physician and philosopher, jurist

He wrote a 7-volume medical encyclopedia,

Kitab al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb (Latin name

Colliget, a corruption of the word kulliyat=

generalities), used at European universities

until the eighteenth century.

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405

Ibn Rushd's philosophy was an

attempt to synthesize Islamic faith

and reason in light of the available

Greek heritage.

He asserted the "primacy of reason",

or a purely philosophical rationalism

For him, the primacy of reason is

unquestioned but compatible with

Islamic faith.

406

His contribution to philosophy was

more significant to Europe than to the

Muslim world.

His contribution to Europe was in two

major areas:

i. transfer and commentary on

Aristotle’s philosophy

ii. spreading rationalism

407

European philosophers discovered

Aristotle through Ibn Rushd's writings

and commentaries on Aristotle’s works.

And he used to be called "the Great

Commentator.‚

His commentaries on Aristotle were

translated into Latin and Hebrew, and

soon became a part of the curriculum at

different European universities and

institutions of learning.

408

Rationalism:

He was regarded as the herald of rationalism long before the Renaissance (Gilson)

Later, his works became the ruling mode of social thought in the West. And scholars of medieval Europe were provoked and inspired by those writings.

A dominant and influential school of philosophical thought emerged under his name (Averroism)

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409

From the end of the twelfth century to the end

of the sixteenth century Averroism remained

the dominant school of thought,

The results were the Renaissance in the

thirteenth century and the Protestant

Reformation in the sixteenth century.

His singular influence in stimulating the

Western Renaissance is acknowledged "as the

landmark in the history of Western

civilization" (Gilson, 1938, 30).

Ibn Khaldun (1332-1395C.E)

410

Full name, Abd al-Rahman bin

Muhammad.

Born in Tunisia in 732 A.H (1332 C.E), in

an influential and learned family.

Many of his ancestors had held high

posts in the Tunis government.

411

His Studies:

His father, however, avoided politics and

devoted his time to study jurisprudence,

philosophy and poetry and excelled in all

these branches of knowledge.

Unlike his father, Ibn khaldun was

engaged in both learning and politics.

412

His close friend and associate, Ibn

Khattab, described him as “a virtuous

man, good natured, shy, opposed to

oppression, difficult to handle, well-

informed on intellectual and traditional

science, wise of judgment and knowing

a lot of things by heart.”

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413

Ibn Khaldun made great intellectual

contributions in many areas of learning. He is

internationally recognized as the founder and

father of sociology, father of philosophy,

historian of civilization, and the father of the

economic science.

He is best known for his famous Muqaddimah(prolegomena) which is a masterpiece in

literature on philosophy of history and

sociology.

414

The main theme of Muqaddimah was to

identify psychological, economic,

environmental and social facts that contribute

to the advancement of human civilization and

the currents of history.

He analyzed the dynamics of group

relationships and showed how group feelings,

al-„Asabiyyah, produce the ascent of a new

civilization and political power.

415

He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of the rise and fall in human civilization, and analyzed factors contributing to it.

His views attracted the attention of Muslim scholars as well as many Western thinkers.

He pioneered the critical study of history.

He provided an analytical study of human civilization, its beginning, factors contributing to its development and the causes of decline.

416

Thus, he found a new science: the science of

social development or sociology, as it is called

today.

He wrote: “I have written on history a book in

which I discussed the causes and effects of

the development of states and civilizations,

and I followed in arranging the material of the

book an unfamiliar method, and I followed in

writing it a strange and innovative way.”

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417

Thus, by selecting his particular method of

analysis, he created two new sciences:

Historiography and Sociology simultaneously.

He saw reason as a necessity in judging

history and social events.

He pointed out that injustice, despotism and

tyranny are the clear signs of the downfall of

the state.

418

He remarked that historians have committed errors in their study of historical events, due to three major factors:

1) Their ignorance of the natures of civilization and people;

2) Their bias and prejudice; and

3) Their blind acceptance of reports given by others.

419

He pointed out that true progress and

development comes through correct

understanding of history, and correct

understanding of which can only be achieved

by observing the following three main points:

1) A historian should not be in any way

prejudiced for or against any one or any idea;

2) He needs to conform and scrutinize the

reported information; and

420

3) He should not limit history to the study of

political and military news or to news about

rulers and states. For history should include

the study of all social, religious and economic

conditions.

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421

Law and Jurisprudence

The five major schools of legal

thought

The impact of Muslim

jurisprudence on European civil

law.

IMAM MALIK (93 AH - 179 AH/715 - 795 AD)

422

He spent the whole of his life in Madinah

where much of the Qur‟an was revealed and

most of the legal practices of Islam

established.

He spent his life studying, recording and

clarifying the legal parameters and precedents

which was passed down to him by the first two

generations of Muslims who were the direct

inheritors of the perfected form of Islam left by

the Prophet (saw).

423

Although he is the author of numerous books,

his most important work is the Kitab al-

Muwatta, which deals with the subject of

Islamic Law based on Ahadith and Sunnah. It

is the earliest surviving book of its kind -

written around 150 A.H.

424

Ibn Abd al-Barr said that Malik was the first

who compiled a book formed exclusively of

sound narrations.

Abu Bakr ibn al-„Arabi said: “The Muwatta‟ is

the first foundation and the core, while al-

Bukhari‟s book is the second foundation in

this respect. Upon these two all the rest have

built, such as Muslim and al-Tirmidhi.”

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425

Shah Wali Allah said something similar and added that it is the principal authority of all four Schools of Law, which stand in relation to it like the commentary stands in relation to the main text. Malik composed it in the course of forty years, having started with ten thousand narrations until he reduced them to their present number of under 2,000.

426

Imam Malik held the hadith of the Prophet in

such reverence that he never narrated

anything nor gave a fatwa unless in a state of

ritual purity.

IMAM ABU HANEEFA (80 AH - 150

A.H. 699 AD - 767 AD)

427

It is said that Abu Hanifah was extremely pious, avoided forbidden things, remained silent and absorbed in his thoughts most of the time, and answered a question only if he knew the answer. He was very generous and self-respecting, never asked a favour of anybody, shunned the company of the worldly-minded and held worldly power and position in contempt. He avoided slander and only talked well of people.

Despite the fact that Abu Hanifa‟s school of thought is the last to emerge, it is the mostwidely followed.

428

He was a man of profound learning and was as generous with his knowledge as with his money.

Despite his wealth and high position in society, the Imam was extremely gentle and polite.

He was a man of few words and never took part in idle talk. In his classroom he would sit quietly, letting his pupils freely debate among themselves, and would speak only when the discussion had become long and drawn-out without any conclusion being reached. He would then give his decision, which would satisfy all present.

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429

He left behind him three works namely (1)

„Fiqh-i-Akbar‟, (2) „Al Alim Wal Mutaam‟ and

(3) „Musnad‟.

IMAM SHAFI‘I (150 AH - 204

A.H/767 - 820 AD)

430

Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Idris al-Shafi„i

was a descendant from the Quraysh tribe, and

thus, he is the only Imam who is related to the

Prophet (saw).

The most important of books is the Kitab al-

Umm which contains his rulings of on almost

all subjects of Islamic Law.

431

He is known as 'Nasir al Sunnah„ (one who saved the sunnah).

He was honoured as al-Imam al Mujaddid in that he is the Mujaddid of the 2nd century.

He was a student of Imam Malik with whom he spent eight months.

Imam Malik made this comment: “No scholar more brilliant than Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi„i ever came to me as a pupil.”

432

He is said to have divided innovation (al-bid„ah) into good and bad on the basis of

„Umar‟s words about the tarawih or

congregational supererogatory night prayers

in the month of Ramadan: “What a fine

innovation this is!”

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433

Among his sayings is: “The study of hadith is

better than supererogatory prayer, and the

pursuit of knowledge is better than

supererogatory prayer.”

434

Being a prominent figure, his lectures

attracted a huge gathering of at least 5,000

students among whom nearly 500 took down

notes daily. Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, and

Imam Tirmizi were also amongst his

noteworthy students.

IMAM AHMAD IBN HANBAL (164

AH - 241/780 AD. 855 AD)

435

Chronologically, he was the last of the four

imams.

He was a very pious scholar who devoted all

his life in the Science of Ahadith and Fiqh.

It is said that he learnt almost a million

Ahadith by heart.

436

Harmala said: “I heard al-Shafi`i say: „I left

Baghdad and did not leave behind me anyone

more virtuous (afdhal), more learned, more

knowledgeable than Ahmad ibn Hanbal.‟”

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437

He was probably the most learned in the

sciences of hadith of the four great Imams of

Sacred Law, and his students included many

of the foremost scholars of hadith. Abu Dawud

said of him: „Ahmad‟s gatherings were

gatherings of the afterlife: nothing of this world

was mentioned. Never once did I hear him

mention this-worldly things.‟ ... He never once

missed praying in the night, and used to recite

the entire [Qur‟an] daily.

438

Challenges Confronting

Muslims Globally

Challenges of Modern Science and Technology

and the Muslim Responses

Challenges of reinvention of Islamic civilization

439

The challenge of modern science and technology

Pure sciences and technology in

themselves can be neutral

But since they are the outcome of

human endeavor, and since human

endeavor cannot be separated from

human values, science and technology

will be always value-laden.

440

Positive Aspects of Western Civilization

Contributed modern technology that

enable people to achieve great

scientific development at all domains

such as in communication and

transportation

Introduced good management in

perfecting one’s work

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441

Respects human dignity and

concerned with freedom and

human rights

Exchange of power by democratic

means

Provides with high quality products

Introduced computers that eased

complicated tasks

442

Negative Aspects of contemporary Western Civilization

Breaking up all moral values of Divine guidance

Unimportance of family structure whereby free sexual relations, breaking of noble human feelings by drying its sources and drying up the noble emotions between husband, wife and children

443

Creation and use of weapons of

mass destruction

Pollution of clean water, air and

contamination of land by toxic

substances

Neglecting principle aims of

human life in this world

444

Modern science and technology is

the product of the West and as a

result is Western oriented/ carries

their thoughts and values.

What needs to be done?

To develop an Islamic

methodology of scientific research

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445

To islamize the existing science and

put them in an Islamic context.

To produce Muslim minds who will

be able to produce sciences and

technology which may serve

Islamic values and Muslim

interests.

446

Brain drain in the Muslim world

- Political instability

- Lack of incentives and facilities

- Bad living conditions

Sponsorship/Government sponsorship:

- lack of funds,

- unconvinced of the merit of scientific research

Joint ventures (OIC, Arab league, regional groups …etc.)

447

Islam Hadari: Its Role in Reviving Islamic Civilization

448

Historical Background:

Islam Hadari was publicized nation-widefor the first time in the 2004 Manifestoof the National Front for the tenthGeneral Election held in March 2004.

Dato’ Seri Abdullah Badawi, as the fifthPrime Minister of Malaysia, made IslamHadari a new policy of his government

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449

Literal meaning: the term ‘ Hadari

hadhari’ means ‘civilizational’; thus

‘Islam Hadari’ means ‘civilizational

Islam’. In Arabic, it is termed as ‘al-

Islam Hadari’

Definition:

‚A comprehensive approach for the

development of mankind, society and

country based on the perspective of

Islamic civilization.‛

450

Islam Hadari is an approach that

emphasizes development, consistent

with the tenets of Islam and focused

on enhancing the quality of life.

It aims to achieve this via the mastery

of knowledge and the development of

the individual and the nation;

451

Islam Hadari is not a new religion.It is not a new teaching nor is it anew mazhab (denomination).

Islam Hadari is an effort to bring theUmmah back to basics, back to theFundamentals, as prescribed in theQur’an and the Hadith that form thefoundation of Islamic civilization.

452

Vision:

To make Malaysia a model Islamiccountry, that is, an advanced nationbased on its own indigenous matrix.

Mission:

To implement the development agendaof the country and human based on anIslamic approach which is universal,advanced, civilized, tolerant andbalanced.

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453

Principles of Islam Hadari

1. Faith in and piety towards Allah

2. A just and trustworthy

government

3. Free and independent People

4. Mastery of knowledge

5. Balanced and comprehensive

economic development

454

6. A good quality of life

7. Protection of the rights of

minority groups and women

8. Cultural and moral integrity

9. Safeguarding of the environment

10. Strong defence capacities

Development & Implementation

of Islam Hadari

Obstacles:

455

Poverty and illiteracy

Both are considered as the biggest

threat to Muslim societies today.

Both poverty and illiteracy may

lead to underdevelopment of the

country

456

Secular Vs Religious knowledge

It is not a secular approach as

claimed by some people

It is an approach toward

regeneration and renewal of

society and civilization of the 21st

century in accordance with the

noble values and injunctions of

Islam.

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457

Radicalism and Extremism

9/11 incident

From there onwards Muslims have

been labeled as terrorists.

Some non- Muslims argue that such

guidelines will affect them adversely.

458

Inconsistencies and confusions

Lack of advertising made by

the higher authority.

Mindset of people.

Solutions: seminars/forums to

be organized.

459

Development

balanced development - cultural and religious

diversity will be protected based on a value and

moral system

internalization of high moral values - ensure

prosperity, harmony and peace in multiracial

society

cultural integration must be consistent with the

noble values of Islam

Prospects

460

Knowledge

acquiring knowledge is compulsory and an act

of ibadah

Islam Hadari encourages learning from others

Prophet Muhammad said ‚Go forth and seek

knowledge even if you have to travel to China

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461

Wealth

wealth must be acquired in halal way

society must be bold and independent in

acquiring wealth

Surah al-Qasas (77)

‚ Life in hereafter depends on the ability of

individual to achieve good life in all aspects ”

spiritual, physical & material‛

462

Health

Sick and physically weak - unable to carry out religious duties and responsibilities

good health ” society with free spirit will produce positively

Prophet Muhammad s.a.w has said ‚The mu’mins who are strong are better and loved by Allah than those who are weak‛

463

STRATEGIES

To expend Islam Hadari into the

building of civilization

Islamic countries should enhance

and develop their institutions of

knowledge at all levels.

People should be more open-

minded and forward looking.

464

To work towards reducing/eliminating poverty

To increase economic resources and financial assets.

To improve the living standards of people

To make a continuous effort towards the physical and spiritual development of the human beings.

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465

To hold religious and civilizational

dialogues

To expand Islam Hadari that

reflects intellectuality, humanity,

tolerance and critical thinking.

To persuade our non-Muslim

colleagues not to be prejudiced

against Muslims

466

To protect the political institution and keep the

country in peace

To help preparing Muslims in facing global

challenges

To have long term plans & programs for

instilling responsibility towards the defense and

dignity of the nation, country and individual

467

To remove Islamophobia from non-Muslims

To urge International community to stop actions that lead to the perpetuation of injustices against Muslim countries and the Muslim Ummah

468

Government to cooperate with

nations in the region and Islamic

nations all over the world

Defending the country from

internal and external aggression