UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS

lADUAL

DAZAH

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AT INDMDUAL LEVEL AND ITS IMPACT ON lOB PERFORMANCE AMONGST LECTURERS IN UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH (UMS)

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SESI PENGAlIAN 2008-2010

Saya, Jade Cheah Lei-TI mengaku membenarkan tesis sarjana ini di simpan di perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan berikut:

1. Tesis adalah hak milik Universiti Malaysia Sabah. 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia sabah dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk

tujuan pengajian sahaja. 3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan

pertukaran institusi pengajian TInggi. 4. TIDAK TERHAD

Penulis: Jade Cheah Lei-TI

Alamat: The NBR Cottage, P.O. Box 670, 89507 Penampang, Sabah, Malaysia.

Penyelia: Dr. Balvinder Kaur Kler

Tarikh: 28 July 2010

Catatan: Tesis dimaksudkan SEBAGAI TESIS ijazah Doktor Falsafah dan Sarjana secara penyelidikan atau disertasi bagi pengajian secara kerja kursus dan penyelidikan atau laporan Projek Sarjana Muda (LPSM)

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AT INDIVIDUAL LEVEL AND ITS IMPACT ON lOB

PERFORMANCE AMONGST LECTURERS IN UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH (UMS)

lADE CHEAH LEI-TI

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master

of Business Administration

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

2010

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the material in this thesis is my own except for quotations, excerpts, equations, summaries and references, which have been duly acknowledged.

17 JUNE 2010 ~~ JOE CHEAH LEFri PE2008-8203C

) ii

NAME

MATRIC NO.

TITLE

DEGREE

VIVA DATE

CERnFICAnON

JADE CHEAH LEI-n

PE20088203C

OCCUPAnONAL STRESS AT INDMDUAL LEVEL AND ITS IMPACT ON JOB PERFORMANCE AMONGST LECTURERS IN UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SABAH (UMS)

MASTER IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRAnON

29TH JUNE 2010

DECLARED BY

1. SUPERVISOR

DR. BALVINDER KAUR KLER

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, my outmost thanks go to God for granting me the wisdom, strength and the opportunity to contribute to the upliftment of our knowledge about Occupational Stress at Individual Level and its impact on Job Performance through this study.

I acknowledge and thank my supervisor, Dr. Balvinder Kaur Kler for her patience, encouragement, endless advice, stimulating suggestions and support in all time of research and writing of this report; I would not have come this far without her. The experience, and knowledge that I have gained from this study have indeed helped me understand the true meaning of perseverance.

I would also wish to express my gratitude to UMS' DS45 lecturers who were willing to take some time off their heavy schedule to participate in the survey. Without their help, it would have been impossible for me to finish this work.

In addition, to my lecturers, classmates in this MBA program, I thank you all from the bottom of my heart for all the help you have given especially in terms of sharing your knowledge, information, and resources in our studies together. What I gained from this course was beyond my expectations whereby more doors of opportunity has been opened to me.

A special thank you goes out to two MBA graduates (my seniors), Mr. Roger Beliku and Mr. Rameshar Rajah for all the support and encouragement that was given to me. It was a big motivation for me to maintain a positive attitude and keep moving forward despite the hurdles faced.

Finally, to all my family and friends, there are no words which are able to express my love and gratitude for all that they have done for me. Without their encouragement and understanding it would have been impossible for me to finish this report. I would particularly like to thank those who never advised me to quit. They had more faith in me than could ever be justified by logical argument

Thank you and God bless.

JADE CHEAH LEI-TI 29TH JUNE 2010

IV

ABSTRACT

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AT INDIVIDUAL LEVEL AND ITS IMPACT ON lOB PERFORMANCE AMONGST LECTURERS IN

UNIVERSm MALAYSIA SABAH (UMS)

This study aims to determine the immediate factors in occupational stress at individual level that impact job performance amongst lecturers holding the post of DS45 at Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). The objectives of this study were achieved by examining the relationship between job perfonnance (dependent variable) and five factors identified as independent variables which include working condition, resources and communication, workload, work-relationship with the Dean, and work-relationship with colleagues. Results from the online questionnaire collected from 228 respondents were analyzed using the multiple regression analYSis. The analysis revealed that 31.1 percent and 45.1 percent of the variance were explained by model 1 and model 2 respectively, with working condition, workload, work-relationship with the Dean, and work-relationship with colleagues (total four factors) significant. Although the relationship between dependent variable and independent variables when regressed together produced an acceptable result, further research should be done in order for this model to be proposed as a general model for developing a framework regarding occupational stress at individual level and job perfonnance among university lecturers. It is hoped that this study has contributed to studies in this field and played its part in paving the way for future studies to identify a more sustainable and replicable model, hence aSSisting the higher education industry to face the challenge of the 21st century.

v

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti faktor-faktor stres peketjaan pada tahap individu yang mempengaruhi prestasi peketjaan di kalangan pensyarah university yang memegang gred DS45 di Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) secara langsung. Objektif untuk kajian ini dicapai dengan menganalisis perhubungan antara prestasi ketja dengan faktor-faktor yang telah dikenalpasti iaitu suasana ketja, sumber dan komunikasi, beban tugas, hubungan pensyarah dengan Dekan, dan hubungan pensyarah dengan rakan seketja. Hasil daripada pemantauan online yang dikutip daripada 228 responden dianalisiskan dengan menggunakan analisis 'multiple regression~ 1a menunjukkan bahawa 31.1 peratus dan 45.1 peratus varians dapat dipenuhi oleh model 1 dan model 2 masing-masing, dengan suasana ketja, beban tugas, hubungan pensyarah dengan Dekan, dan hubungan pensyarah dengan rakan seketja, (jumlahnya empat faktor) didapati signilikan. Walaupun perhubungan antara pembolehubah begantung dan pembolehubah yang tidak bergantung apabila diuji bersama memberi hasil yang diterima, penyelidikan lanjut harus dijalankan sekiranya model ini ingin dicadangkan sebagai model am bagi tujuan pembangunan rangka ketja berkaitan stres di peketjaan pada tahap individu dan prestasi ketja. Adalah diharapkan bahawa kajian ini dapat memberi sumbangan kepada penyelidikan dalam bidang ini, dan memainkan peranan dalam membuka jalan untuk kajian-kajian untuk mengenalpasti model yang lebih lengkap dan sempuma pada masa hadapan, dan selanjutnya membantu industri pengajian tinggi menghadapi cabaran-cabaran sengit di abad ke-21 ini.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE DECLARA110N CER11FICA110N ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS UST OF FIGURES UST OF TABLES UST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCllON 1.0 Overview of Higher Education Industry in Malaysia 1.1 Problem Statement 1.2 Research Objectives 1.3 Scope of Study 1.4 Significance of Study 1.5 Operational Definitions of Key Variables In This Study

1.5.1 Job Performance 1.5.2 Working Conditions 1.5.3 Resources and Communication 1.5.4 Workload 1.5.5 Work-Relationship with the Dean 1.5.6 Work-Relationship with Colleagues

1.6 Organization of the Report

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Conceptualization of Stress 2.2 Job Performance in an Organization 2.3 Occupational Stress at Individual level 2.4 Factors Intrinsic to the Job

2.4.1 Working Conditions 2.4.2 Resources and Communication 2.4.3 Workload

2.5 Interpersonal Relationships at Work 2.5.1 Work-Relationship with the Dean (Boss) 2.5.2 Work-Relationship with Colleagues

2.6 The Link between Occupational Stress and Job Performance 2.7 Summary

CHAPTER 3 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Research Framework

3.1.1 Dependent Variable

vii

Page

ii iii iv v vi vii x xi xii

1 2 4 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

8 8 10 12 14 15 16 17 19 19 21 21 23

24 24 26

3.1.2 Independent Variables 26 3.2 Research Hypotheses 27 3.3 Research Design 28 3.4 Unit of Analysis 28 3.5 Sampling Design 28

3.5.1 Location of Study and Population 28 3.5.2 Sampling Technique 30 3.5.3 Sampling Size 30

3.6 Instrument Design 31 3.6.1 Questionnaire 32 3.6.2 Control Measures 34

3.7 Data Collection Method 35 3.8 Data Analysis Method 36 3.9 Summary 37

CHAPTER 4 : ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS 4.0 Introduction 38 4.1 Profile of Respondents 38 4.2 Normality Test Analysis 41

4.2.1 Dependent Variable and Independent Variables Normality 41 4.3 Reliability Test Analysis 42 4.4 Multiple Regression Analysis 44

4.4.1 Multiple Regression Model-l: Factors Intrinsic to the Job 44 4.4.2 Multiple Regression Model-2 : Interpersonal Relationships 45

at Work 4.5 Hypotheses Testing 46 4.6 Summary 48

CHAPTERS : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.0 Introduction 51 5.1 Recapitulation of the Study Sl 5.2 Discussion of Rndings 53

5.2.1 Factors Intrinsic to the Job 57 5.2.2 Working Condition 57 5.2.3 Resources and Communication 58 5.2.4 Workload 59 5.2.5 Interpersonal Relationships at Work 59 5.2.6 Work-Relationship with the Dean 60 5.2.7 Work-Relationship with Colleagues 60

5.3 Implications of the Study 61 5.4 Limitations of Study 62

5.4.1 This study is strictly present oriented, no future oriented 63 elements

5.4.2 Umited scope of study 63 5.4.3 Length of questionnaire and accuracy of respondents' 63

feedback 5.5 Suggestions for Future Research 63 5.6 Conclusion 65

Vlll

REFERENCES APPENDICES

ix

67 80

Rgure 2.1 Rgure 2.3

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.5.3 Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

UST OF FIGURES

A Model of Stressors, Stress and Outcomes The terms used by Ivancevich et at (2008) and, Jackson and Rothmann (2006) Theoretical Research Framework: Occupational stress at individual level impacting job performance amongst lecturers in University Malaysia Sabah (UMS) Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formula to determine sampling size Differentiation of Job Performance (task and contextual) between Factors Intrinsic to the Job and Interpersonal Relationships at Work Theoretical Research Framework: Occupational Stress at Individual Level and its Impact on Job Performance among Lecturers in University Malaysia Sabah (UMS)

x

Page

9 13

25

31 53

56

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.5.1 Total Academic Staff According to Employment Grade 29 as of March 2010

Table 4.1 Demographic Profile of the respondents (Lecturers 39 holding DS45 grade in Universiti Malaysia Sabah)

Table 4.2.1 Summary of Normality test on dependent variable and 42 independent variables

Table 4.3 Summary of Reliability Test Analysis Results 43 Table 4.6 Summary of the Findings from Hypotheses Te$ting 49

Xl

UST OF APPENDICES

Page

APPENDIX 1.0 : Permission Letter 80 APPENDIX 2.0 : Questionnaire 81 APPENDIX 3.0: Total Responses Received 92 APPENDIX 4.0 : Frequencies for Profile of Respondents 93 APPENDIX 5.0 : Normality Test Analysis 96 APPENDIX 5.1 : Normality Test for Dependent Variable and Independent 96

Variables APPENDIX 6.0 : Reliability Test Analysis 101 APPENDIX 6.1 : Reliability Test for Job Performance 101 APPENDIX 6.2 : Reliability Test for Working Condition 101 APPENDIX 6.3 : Reliability Test for Resources and Communication 102 APPENDIX 6.4 : Reliability Test for Workload 102 APPENDIX 6.5 : Reliability Test for Work-Relationship with the Dean 103 APPENDIX 6.6 : Reliability Test for Work-Relationship with Colleagues 103 APPENDIX 7.0 : Multiple Regression Modell-Factors Intrinsic to the Job 104 APPENDIX 7.1 : Residual Statistics 104 APPENDIX 7.2 : Normal P-Plot of Regression Standardized Residual 104 APPENDIX 7.3 : Scatterplot 105 APPENDIX 7.4 : Model Summary 105 APPENDIX 7.5 : ANOVA 106 APPENDIX 7.6 : Coefficients 106 APPENDIX 8.0 : Multiple Refression Model 2-Interpersonal Relationships at 107

Work APPENDIX 8.1 : Residual Statistics 107 APPENDIX 8.2 : Normal P-Plot of RegreSSion Standardized Residual 107 APPENDIX 8.3 : Scatterplot 108 APPENDIX 8.4 : Model Summary 108 APPENDIX 8.5 : ANOVA 109 APPENDIX 8.6 : Coefficients 109

xii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 OVerview of Higher Education Indusby in Malaysia

As an industry, higher education plays a significant role in the economy. The higher

education industry provides a competitive force of the marketplace in which this

industry affects almost all of us albeit as students, parents, employees, employers,

and citizens of scientific, medical and technological research. Higher education

industry provides not only education but with it the essential facilities and

Infrastructures for lectures such as lecture rooms, conference facilities, research

centre, and laboratories in which are equipped with presentation eqUipment such

as LCD projectors, OHP projectors, internet connectivity and sound system.

The industry and its activities are closely linked to a country's economy even

though it is a complex and diverse industry as it combines a dominant public sector

of state universities and also the private sector of universities, community colleges,

and polytechnics that educate a majority of all students. Significantly, not only are

lecturers associated with higher education industry but other parts of the

professional services industry are well closely linked to the higher education

industry such as the finanCial, administrative, security and transportation, and

medical professions. Therefore, higher education is too important to be left out of

the marketplace as it is increasingly being relied upon to solve economic and social

problems.

Access to higher education for all young people, regardless of their family

circumstances is a vital need-based element of the social mission (Turk, 2008;

MacGregor, 2009). However, higher education is not meant simply as a private

interest to each individual but it brings benefit to other people. Regardless of

ownership form whether it is a public university or private higher education

institute, this industry is about competition for the number of students the institute

has, which is sometimes viewed as part of the educational mission but sometimes

simply viewed as revenue sources to the country.

According to Noordin and Jusoff (2009), education is one of the most

important institutional organizations of a nation and as it oversees issues on

national agenda, its effective running depends firmly on its coordination in the

direction of societal expectation. The success of its' educational programs are

founded based on its important contributions of effort, involvement, and most

importantly on the overall academic staff professionalization.

In Malaysia, the higher education industry consists of four segments which

are the public universities, private universities, polytechnics and community

colleges. Currently, there are a total of 20 public universities, 345 private

universities, 27 polytechnics, and 59 community colleges established under the

Universities and Universities College Act (MOHE, 2010).

1.1 Problem Statement

The nature of work is changing at whirlwind speed and perhaps now more than

ever before, occupational stress poses a threat to the health of workers and, in

tum, to the health of the organizations (NIOSH, 1999). It is noted that stress is in

the eyes of its beholder whereby some employers would assume that stressful

working conditions are a necessity which might assist productivity and profitability

in today's economy. However, stressful working conditions could also lead to

decreased productivity if it is not handled properly.

Winefield (2000) stated that recent studies done globally on stress among

academic staff in higher education industry indicate that the phenomenon of

occupational stress in universities is increasing and widespread. In Malaysia, the

number of universities has increased tremendously over the past few years and as

this number increases, university academic staff may face more problems in their

job as management faces competitive pressure from other universities (Ahsan et al,

2009).

As institutions of higher learning and a high-level organization, universities

need to focus on the quality of management, teaching and learning. Ivancevich et

at (2008) indicate that very few organizations are likely to escape the impact of

2

stress among its employees at the workplace. In a higher education industry, the

confrontational nature of educational lectures produces significant levels of stress

for the lecturers and the high levels of stress amongst lecturers could damage

productivity (Huda et al, 2004).

At the same time, there is also pressure from Malaysia's Ministry of Higher

Education in which they have established the Accelerated Programme for

Excellence (APEX) as they desire to have more of the country's universities to be

on-par with the best universities in the world. Generally, the world's well known

universities are divided into three groups which are APEX University, Elite University

and Competitive University (MOHE, 2010).

Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) which is the second public university

established in Malaysia located in Penang became the role model for all universities

in Malaysia when it was recognized as an APEX University on 27tn August 2008 by

leading in all aspects of the higher education industry with its characteristics of an

APEX university such as excellent leadership, faculties, facilities, and student

academic excellence (MOHE, 2010). These days, most universities especially in the

public sectors strive to excel and be the next APEX University in Malaysia which

may cause the university academic staff to face plenty of stress that could affect

their satisfaction, physical or mental health and ultimately cause a significant

impact on the individual's job performance (Noordin and Jusoff, 2009; Ahsan et al,

2009).

In tandem with the aspiration in preparing Malaysia as a centre of

excellence for higher education, Ministry of Education, Malaysia (2001) stated that

it is recommended by the year 2005, 75 percent of the academic staff in local

institution of higher education must possess doctoral qualifications. According to

InsightSabah (2009), Colonel Professor Datuk Dr. Kamaruzaman Hj. Ampon, Vice­

Chancellor to the ninth public university in Malaysia - Universiti Malaysia Sabah

(UMS) stated that the university is still a long way from achieving that mark due to

the university's performance that does not meet the criteria to be recognized as an

APEX university. This ultimately increases the intensity of the pressure on lecturers,

3

which leads us to the heart of this research, to identify the occupational stress at

individual level that impacts job performance amongst lecturers in Universiti

Malaysia Sabah (UMS).

This research examines the relationship between factors intrinsic to the job

and interpersonal relationships at work, and job performance amongst lecturers in

Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). The next section presents the research objectives.

1.2 Research Objectives

The overall objective of the study is to determine the relationship between

occupational stress at individual level consisting of two independent variables

(Factors Intrinsic to the Job, and Interpersonal Relationships at Work) and job

performance among lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). The specific

objectives are to determine:-

i. The relationship between working conditions and job performance among

lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).

ii. The relationship between resource and communication, and job

performance among lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).

iii. The relationship between workload and job performance among lecturers in

Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).

iv. The relationship between work-relationship with Dean and job performance

among lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).

v. The relationship between work-relationship with colleagues and job

performance among lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).

1.3 Scope of Study

The scope of this study is being limited to lecturers holding the post of DS45 under

the Malaysia Remuneration System (SSM) in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS),

Malaysia's ninth public institution of higher education which has plans to gain APEX

university status, located in Kota Kinabalu - the capital city for the state of Sabah in

East Malaysia (UMS, 2010), with the target to obtain valuable local data.

4

In addition, the scope in the literature review of this study focused on two

key areas which are job performance and occupational stress focusing on factors

intrinsic to the job and interpersonal relationships at work, and the linkage between

occupational stress and job performance.

1.4 Significance of Study

The results of this study made important implications for the public institution of

higher education such as Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). Occupational stress is

widespread and increasingly costly both to the individual's job performance and

organization's productivity. Therefore, this study is significant to assist the

managerial level of higher education organization to manage occupational stress at

public institution of higher education.

Throughout this study, managerial level of higher education organization

can gain a clearer understanding on what is the occupational stress faced by

lecturers at its institution. Management competency is a concern that must not be

taken lightly by the managerial level as occupational stress may affect the

subordinate/employees effiCiency and productivity which would be damaging to the

individual's job performance and ultimately affect the organization's overall

performance (Gillespie et a/., 2001).

This study hoped to serve as guidance and a stepping stone for further

studies in various aspects of improving the quality and productivity in the higher

education industry as a whole by understanding the level of stress its employees of

the twenty first century is experiencing and how it is impacting their job

performance.

Finally, this study also contributes to the global literature on stress and job

performance amongst lecturers in the Higher Education Institution previously

carried out by researcher such as Broadbridge (2002), Jackson and Rothmann

(2006), Kazmi et a/(200S) and Mostert et a/(2000).

5

1.5 Operational Definitions Of Key Variables In This Study

1.5.1 lob Perfonnance

Job performance refers to the overall evaluation of how well an individual is

meeting the organization's expectation (Allen and Griffeth, 1999).

1.5.2 Working Conditions

Working conditions refers to the extent to which the physical working environment

is comfortable and supportive of productivity (Ivancevich et ai, 2008).

1.5.3 Resources and Communication

Resources and communication refers to the availability of equipment/resources at

work and the effectiveness of communication in the workplace (Johnson et al,

2005).

1.5.4 Workload

Workload refers to all activities that take the time of the individual and are related

to professional duties and responsibilities (Hashim et ai, 2006).

1.5.5 Work-Relationship with the Dean

Work-relationship with the Dean relates to the individual's relationship and

interaction with his or her boss, namely the Dean in the workplace (Meiners and

Miller, 2004).

1.5.6 Work-Relationship with Colleagues

Work-relationship with colleagues relates to the individual's relationship and

interaction with his or her colleagues in the workplace (Viemes and Guzman, 2005)

1.6 Organization of the Report

The report is organized into five chapters, which is Introduction, Literature Review,

Research Methodology, Analysis of Findings, and Discussion and Conclusion

respectively.

6

Chapter One, Introduction, provides an overview of the Higher Education

Industry in Malaysia. It subsequently derives the Problem Statements, Research

Objectives, Scope of Study, Significant of Study, Operational Definitions of Key

Variables in this study and Organization of Study.

Chapter Two, Uterature Review, reviews studies on occupational stress and

job performance in the Higher Education Institute previously conducted by others

and their findings. Some of these previous studies are nearly the same as this study

with focus on different industries in different countries or stated, while some other

studies focus on other factors that impacts job performance in the higher education

industry. The dependent and independent variables used in this research were

derived from the literature review and the relationship between them will be

discussed further in Chapter Two.

Chapter Three, Research Methodology discusses the Research Framework,

Hypotheses, methods and questionnaires used to conduct the survey for the

research. Chapter Four presents the Analysis of Rndings and finally, the report

concludes in Chapter Rve, Discussion and Conclusion.

7

CHAPTER 2

LITERAllJRE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter reviews the literature conducted on the relationships among

occupational stress and job performance. The aim of this chapter is to evaluate the

literature and define the meaning of occupational stress at individual level and its

affect on job performance. Next, the chapter justifies the choice of independent

variables such as factors intrinsic to the job and interpersonal relationships at work

as almost everyone experiences stress at work.

2.1 Conceptualization of Stress

Stress is certainly nothing new under the sun as Ivancevich et a/ (2008) stated that

even our cave-dwelling ancestors faced stress every time they left their caves and

encountered their enemy, the saber-toothed tigers. However, the saber-toothed

tigers of yesteryears have since been replaced by another predator known as the

"work predator" that creates stress for individuals on the job.

In this current era, a key ''work predator" is known as occupational stress.

One of the complicating issues in understanding occupational stress is that the list

of potential stressors is almost infinite. As such, the main focus was on identifying

literature which related to occupational stress (independent variables) at individual

level which affects the individual's job performance (the dependent variable). This

focus area is important for Organizational Behavior and Management as the impact

of occupational stress on an individual's job performance would often times lead to

indirect costs to organizations such as absenteeism, turnover, lower productivity,

and quality problems.

Figure 2.1: A Model of Stressors, Stress and Outcomes

Individual Level

• Role Conflict • Role Overload • Role Ambiguity • Responsibility for

People • Harassment • Pace of Change

Source: Ivancevich et a/(2008)

9

Behavioral

• Satisfaction • Petfonnance • Absenteeism • Turnover • Accidents • Substance Abuse • Health care Oalms

Cognitive

• Poor decision making

• Lack of concentration

• Forgetfulness • Frustration • Apathy

Physiological

• Increased blood pressure

• Immune System • High Cholesterol • Coronary heart

disease • Gastrointestinal

system

Figure 2.1 shows the model of stressors, stress and outcomes illustrated by

Ivancevich et at (2008). It shows the link among occupational stressors at

individual level, stress and outcomes. The experience from the stressors leads to

stress which produces outcomes that are divided into three categories which are

behavioral, cognitive and physiological.

Previous literature focused on the common link of various occupational

stressors at individual level with lower levels of job satisfaction and higher tumover

(Kinman, 2001), ways of coping the stressors and the effect on job performance

focusing more on other professions such as nursing (lambert et at, 2004; Nizami et

al, 2006) and customer service (Oole and Schroeder, 2001; Tuten and

Neidermeyer, 2004; Netemeyer et al, 2005) to name a few. Moreover, research

examining the impact of stress levels on the productivity of staff and universities is

sparse (Jacobs et al, 2007). Although there is increasing evidence from research

that indicates the assodation between occupational stress and job performance

exists, there is little attention paid to a specific occupation.

According to De Jesus and Conboy (2001), it was found that educators

experience higher levels of stress than other professional groups and Chalmers

(1998) stated that since 1994, there were Significant differences in stress levels

between groups of educators in which lecturers were the most stressed group,

followed by senior lecturers, and tutors while professors were the least stressed

qroup. Thus, this study looked upon university academic staff specifically lecturers

as one professional qroup worthy of consideration.

2.2 lob Perfonnance in an Organization

Allen and Griffeth (1999) explained that job performance refers commonly to the

overall evaluation of how well an individual is meeting the organization's

expectations. Job performance is an extremely vital criterion that relates to

orqanizational success or outcomes. In a study done by Befort and Hattrup (2003),

they found that lob performance is a multidimensional construct in which two

qeneral factors received more attention, namely task performance and contextual

performance which supports Viswesvaran and Ones' (2003) findinqs.

10

Task performance refers to the set of core duties and tasks that are central

to a particular job (Ferris et al. 2008). This includes behaviors that contribute to the

core transformation and maintenance activities in an organization which is

presented by the job itself (Motowidlo and Schmit, 1999). Ferris et at (2008) stated

that task performance can be distinguished by the explicitly prescribed tasks and

duties typically provided in job descriptions. This form of task performance can be

linked to the factors intrinsic to the job such as conforming to the working

condition, managing the demand in workload, and carrying out activities involving

resources and communication.

On the contrary, contextual performance refers to behaviors which

contribute to the culture and climate of the organization (Befort and Hattrup,

2003). Examples of contextual performance behaviors are volunteering for extra

work, persisting with enthUSiasm, following rules and procedures, helping and

cooperating with others, and supporting or defending the organization (Motowidlo

and Schmit, 1999). This form of behavior can be linked to the interpersonal

relationships at work such as work-relationship with boss and colleagues.

In a workplace, Levey (2001) state that job performance is viewed as the

result of three factors working together: skill, effort and the nature of work

conditions. The skill in dude knowledge, abilities and competendes the employee

brings to the job while effort is the degree of motivation the employee puts forth

toward getting the job done, and the nature of work conditions is the degree of

accommodation of these conditions in facilitating the employee's productivity.

However, Ivancevich et at (2008) conceptualizes the definition of

performance as a function of the capadty to perform, the opportunity to perform,

and the willingness to perform. Ivancevich et at (20OS) identified that the capacity

to perform relates to the degree to which an individual possesses task-relevant

knowledge, skills, abilities, and experiences which means to say that high levels of

job performance are only possible when the employee knows what is supposed to

be done and how to do it. The opportunity to perform is another critical ingredient

in the job performance recipe in which the individual's job performance is

11

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Ahsan, N. , Abdullah, Z., Yong, D.G.F., Alam, S.S. 2009. A Study of Job Stress on

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