Versailles and the Consequences of World War I

World War I 10 million dead.

A whole generation of Europeans are dead.

Confidence in the inevitable, uplifting future is shaken/destroyed.

Old Empires are shattered Ottoman Empire is gone.

Austrian-Hungarian Empire is gone.

Russian Empire is gone.

German Empire is gone.

Fatal, long-term decline of the French and British Empires (most unaware at the time)

1914 to 1918

Second International Promised before the war that they would not support fighting. The German Socialist Party, the largest of the parties in the

Second International, ultimately votes to support the war effort to defeat the Czar. Each national Socialist Party breaks and joins the war efforts

of their respective nations, except the American Socialist Party.

Debs is arrested in 1917.

Revolutions in Europe! General upsurge in radical beliefs caused by the suffering of the war.

The Russian Revolution sweeps the Bolsheviks to power. Socialist, anti-war government comes to power under Lenin.

Many regard this Revolution as the beginning of the end for the Imperialist Capitalism governments of Europe/America.

Revolutions in Europe! Germany Seeking to emulate the success of the Russian

Revolution, leftist revolutions break out across Europe. German Socialist Party

The Spartacus League, a leftist faction within the party had long been agitating.

-In 1917, the Kaiser abdicated.

-The German Social Democratic Party, the largest party in the Reichstag is nominally in control.

-The Spartacus League attempts to establish a worker’s state in an uprising.

-Conservative/moderate factions in the German Social Democratic Party turn to the military/reactionary organizations to put down their fellow socialists. Murder thousands of Socialists/Communists.

Civilian government has to negotiate the end of the war.

Revolutions in Europe! Italy Italian unions take over all the factories in Italy.

Government is powerless to stop them.

Workers are agitating for a socialist/worker’s government.

Italian Communist Party is asked to intervene by many of the union leaders.

Communists are disorganized and confused.

Gramsci tries to convince the leadership to take power. Refuse.

Fascists are invited to take power to crush the union-uprising. Mussolini comes to power.

Revolutions in Europe! France French Revolutions are somewhat less organized than are seen in Italy and

Germany.

French Revolutionaries look to the Russian Revolution as an example: "great light coming from the East"

Failure to Spread the Revolution Western powers blockade the USSR.

Soviet Union is alone and must decide how to proceed.

Excluded from Versailles as well.

John Maynard Keynes

British economist at the Versailles Peace Negotiations.

Argues that Germany should not be saddled with reparations.

The Economic Consequences of the Peace by John Maynard Keynes. Keynes fired for being “a fool” by

Lloyd George.

PARIS PEACE TREATIES14 Points

Woodrow Wilson's plan for a non-punitive peace Germany agreed to an armistice based on 14 Points Thwarted by the Entente allies

Britain and France demanded reparations

Demanded a treaty that blamed Germany for the war

Paris Peace Conference, 1919 Allied leaders assembled in Paris Germany was deliberately humiliated Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empires were dismembered Russia not invited as Allies were at war with Bolshevism Colonies of European Nations, China

Largely ignored

Envoys were often not even consulted

NEW BORDERS: COLLAPSE OF FOUR EMPIRES

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONSWilson’s 14th Point

Only part of the 14th Points enacted US Senate did not ratify the treaty USSR, former Central Power nations were not admitted

The League of Nations Goal: International organization for nations to consult, avoid war Reality: had no real power to enforce peace, punish aggressors Reality: France, UK dominate Colonies not represented

Rise of Nationalism in Colonies Nationalist/Independent movements emerge in most colonies throughout

the European colonial system.

Many colonial soldiers fight in Europe against their respective empire’s enemies. Why?

Europeans had long-claimed to be superior due to their culture and technological sophistication.

War demonstrates that this is a lie!

RISE OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA, ASIAWorld War I impacted colonies

Colonial ContributionAfrican, Asian troops conscripted for European armiesBattles of Marne (1914) won with assistance of Senegalese

troopsBritish conquer Middle East largely using Indian Army Colonies served as important sources of food, raw materials

Rise of Nationalism in Africa, Asia During the course of the war

European vulnerability became evident

European troops withdrawn from colonies for European fronts

Administrative personnel were recalled

Africans, Asians filled posts previously reserved for Europeans

European/American racism meant that local colonized people’s concerns could not be

addressed! Ho Chi Minh attempts to enter Versailles, is

turned away.

RISE OF NATIONALISM To maintain support Europeans made many promises

Promised independenceBut they often failed to fulfill them after the war

War cast doubts on claims of European superiority Its disruptions bolstered nationalist movements.

Africa, Southwest Asia, Asia ignored at Paris Peace German colonies divided amongst victors as mandates Ho Chi Minh attends the peace conference, seeking

independence for Vietnam; Ignored. Arabs in Turkish Empire become mandates of UK, France

INDIANationalist Challenge to the British Raj

India colonized long before Africa, Asia

Was first to establish independence movements Western-educated minorities organized politically Sought to bring about the end or modification of colonial regimes

Indian National Congress

Regional associations of Western-educated Indians Most often urbanized eliteFormed Indian National Congress party in 1885Primary function of early party was to present grievances to BritishMost of the issues concerned the Indian elite, not the poorDespite limited aims, Congress party allowed the formation of Indian

identity

INDIASocial Foundations of a Mass Movement

British economic and social policies Helped the Congress party attract a mass followingMarginalized all Indians including elite

Indians Supported the massive costs for the colonial army, high-

salaried bureaucratsTolerated the importation of British-manufactured goods.

Problems among the peasantry including shortfalls of food supplies

Induced nationalists to blame the British policies Encouraged peasants to shift from the production of food

to commercial crops.

Indian troops of the British Empire, in France during WWI

Indian troops of the British Empire, near the front. 3rd Lahore Division.

Indian Sikh troops in WWI.

INDIAN OPTIONSThe Rise of Militant Nationalism

Some nationalists such as B. G. Tilak emphasized HindusimTilak, supporters used Hindu religious festivals as means of recruitment. Tilak urged the boycott of British manufactured goodsTilak's conservative Hinduism frightened moderates, Muslims, SikhsTilak's support for violence led to his arrest, deportation

Some Hindus Embraced terrorism as a means of ending British ruleTerrorist groups favored secret organizationsTargeted British officials and public buildingsBritish suppression, lack of mass support reduced threatsPeaceful schemes for protest drew support from Tilak, terroristsCongress Party lawyers emerged as leaders of nationalist movement

All India Muslim League and Muhammad Ali JinnahLeague founded in 1906 to represent Muslim interestsJinnah joined in 1916 and helped bring Congress Party and League together

INDIAN OPTIONSThe Emergence of Gandhi and the Nationalist Struggle

India played a significant role in World War IEven the nationalist leaders of India supported the war effortWartime inflation reduced standards of living among the Indian peasantsProduced famine in some regions.

Following the warNationalists were frustrated by the British refusal to move directly toward

independence. Initial promise of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919Offset by the Rowlatt Act, which limited Indian civil rights.

Frustrations led to the Rise of GandhiPermitted Gandhi to build a nationwide protest against colonialismGandhi combined the qualities of a Hindu mystic with the acumen of a Western-

educated lawyerBoth peasants and the middle classes supported his leadershipHis boycotts, campaigns of civil resistance made him acceptable to both radical,

moderate nationalistsAs a Hindu mystic, Gandhi could mobilize widespread support for his movement

WAR, NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST

In the years after World War I Ottoman rule collapsed

Old Ottoman state to be partitions between Allies, Greeks, ArmeniansOnly a small Turkish state built around Ankara remainedConstantinople placed under international controlGreeks seek more lands in Asia Minor, invade rump Turkish state

Rise of Turkish NationalismTurks rally to Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal): organizes, arms Turkish armiesDrive Greek armies out of Asia MinorNegotiates with Allies for return of Turkish landsAbolishes Caliphate, Sultanate in 1922 and creates a republicBegins process of westernization, modernization of Turkish state, cultureMassive liberties granted to women – first such move in Middle East

WAR, NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EASTArabia

Wahhabist State in Central Arabia Prior to World War IWahhabis were puritanical religious fanatics Sought to cleanse Islam of all foreign influencesReligious sect allied to Saud family ruling central Arabia

Arab Uprising against Turks Began in Hejaz (region containing Mecca and Medina) under

Hashemite EmirsAfter World War I Wahhabists conquer Hejaz and expel pro-British

Hashemite emirsCreate unified Arabian state called Saudi Arabia

British make Hashemite emirs rulers of Transjordan and Iraqi mandates

NATIONALISM IN EGYPTThe British and Egypt

British occupation in 1882 following Ahmad Orabi RebellionLeft the Egyptians with both Turkish khedives, British overlordsBritish left Khedival government in place but ran Egyptian foreign policy,

defense Lord Cromer directed British policy in Egypt.

Attempted economic reforms to reduce debts, improve irrigation, public works. The masses of the Egyptian population realized little benefit from the changes.

Ayan (greater landlords) able to extend control farther into the countrysideThe great estates came to monopolize most Egyptian landSmall landholders reduced to tenancy.

Resistance to the British administration of Egypt Resistance by the elite

Emerged from within the lower officer ranks of Egyptian army, Emerged from within the ranks of the Egyptian business classesJournalists were particularly prominent in the nationalist movementJournalists attacked the British administration and British racial attitudes

Three nationalist parties were created

NATIONALISM IN EGYPT To forestall more violent nationalist movements

The British granted a new constitution to Egypt Allowed parliamentary representationWhen World War I broke out, the British suspended the constitution and

imposed martial lawRevolt in Egypt 1919

Martial law in Egypt during World War I imposed great hardships on the peasantry

British refusal to allow Egyptian delegation to attend the peace conferences

This touched off a rebellion but British able to regain control British forced to recognize nationalist Wafd party under Sa'd Zaghlul

Between 1922 and 1936 British forces were progressively withdrawn to the Suez Canal zone They reserved their right to defend their interests in Egypt The Wafd party failed to enact significant social or economic reforms.

ARAB MANDATESEntente powers broke promises made to Arabs

Allies promised Arabs independent states in Middle East following War

Sikes-Pikot TreatyDivided Middle East between Allied NationsGave Arab lands to European powers

Arabs expected independent Arab states British and French forces occupied Ottoman empire Created artificial states within the League of Nations

Called Mandates, placed under control of British, FrenchAllies were supposed to prepare Arabs for independenceFrench did not, British did

Ottoman troops in WWI, preparing for a possible gas attack.

ARAB MANDATES In Syria, Iraq, Lebanon

Arab resistance to the mandate system was common

British eventually placed Hashemite King on Iraqi throne

Palestine, Balfour Declaration and Zionism

Zionist movement largely Eastern Europe until 1894

Zionists were Jews seeking to create Jewish homeland in Palestine

Theodor Herzl

Mobilized West European Zionism

Formed the World Zionist Organization

British Foreign Minister Balfour promised Zionists in 1917 support for Jewish homeland

Pogroms against Jewish communities accelerated migration to Palestine

Both Zionism, British takeover of Palestine seemed to violate assurances

Rising Arab opposition caused the British to limit Zionist settlement in Palestine

Zionists thus began to arm themselves in order to resist both British, Arab opposition

Arabs in Palestine remained without a voice concerning the fate of their region.

PROMISES MADE, PROMISES BROKEN

AFRICADuring World War I

Most Western-educated African elites remained loyal to the colonial regimes. The war effort disrupted African economies

Drew heavily on African manpower: Senegalese, West African, South African troops helped allies

German resistance led to a guerrilla war in East Africa for four years

Women assumed many traditionally male roles during war

After the war Europeans kept few promises of economic improvement This led to strikes and civil disobedience Tariffs and restrictions to trade hurt weak African economies

Dissatisfaction with colonialism spread First nationalist movements appeared in Africa in the 1920s

Emerged in the guise of unworkable pan-African organizations

Charismatic African-American leaders had significant roles in the formation of pan-African movements

The Tirailleurs Senegalais were West African Colonial Army troops who fought for the French during World

War I

West African French Imperial Troops in World War I

AFRICA In French Africa

A literary genre, négritude aroseCelebrated black culture as an attack on European racist attitudesInfluenced by the Harlem Renaissance in the US; Surrealism, World SocialismMovement was very influential in Caribbean, Brazil, too linking areas of African

diasporaFrench Africans often took path of assimilation into French culture AS BLACKS to gain

rightsLittle involvement of Africans in any aspect of colonial government – reserved for French

Europeans In British colonies

British utilized African policemen, lower bureaucrats, civil servants, magistrates Their influence in colonial government grew to form a nationalist and Pan-African

movementActual political parties were slow to emergePolitical associations began the process of developing a mass base and agitating for

political reformEducated African elite and businessmen often became spokesmen for nationalist

movements

GLOBAL CONNECTIONSChanging Realities

World War I undermined Europe's global dominance At end of war the United States was clearly the greatest world

power Rise of United States and Japan in world influence First non-European powers to do so broke European monopoly

Communism as Anti-Imperialism Revolution broke out in Russia and the East Soviet state challenged traditional western dominance Offered an alternative to western capitalist, democratic models

Socialism as Change Socialists gained ground in the western democracies Replaced more traditional conservatives and liberals

GLOBAL CONNECTIONSChanges in Gender Roles

Gender roles changed dramatically in Western Europe, in Russia

Began to change in Eastern Europe, Turkey

During war, many women allowed to assume economic roles which they had never had

After World War I many Western states gave women the vote

The War Encouraged Economic Changes

Increased industrialization in the US and changing industries in war powers significant

Export by Latin American nations added non-European nations to the Global Economic scene

Beginning of Decolonialization

The empires of the Entente nations actually grew but change had begun

Liberation movements gained ground as a result of the war

Successful nationalist revolutions in Saudi Arabia and Turkey offered hope

Indian independence movement had gained in influence

Africans granted roles during war which they had not had before