Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

الكويت State of Kuwait دولةالتربية Ministry of Education وزارة

االنجليزية للغة العام الفني ELT General Supervision التوجيه

الخاصة الفصول لمعلمي التدريبية الدورة

التعلم) ( بطييء

A Training Course for the Teachers of Slow Learners

إعدادELT General Supervision

1

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

التدريبية للدورة العلمية المادة و الزمني الجدولالخاصة التعلم ) للفصول (بطييء

الصفحالموضوعم

ة

عدد

الساعات

االبتدائية- 1 المرحلتين في المتعلمين نمو خصائص

التعلم ) ( بطيء والمتوسطة

بطيء- ) الخاصة الفصول طالب مع التعامل طرق

التعلم (

3

13

ميايو

تعا

ساث

ثال

التدريس- 2 في الحديثة التكنولوجيا استخدام

المتنوعة- التدريس طرق

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المسموع- 3 و المقروء االستيعاب تدريس طرق

التحدث- و القواعد تدريس طرق

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الالصفية- 4 و الصفية األنشطة

مصغرة- دروس نماذج تقديم

46

52

المواصفات- / 5 جدول الصفية االختبارات و التقويم

النتائج- تحليل و االختبار بناء

57

للغة العام الفني الموجهاالنجليزية

2

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

األول الموضوع

في المتعلمين نمو خصائص والمتوسطة االبتدائية المرحلتين

( التعلم ) بطيء

Characteristics of Slow Learners

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

INTRODUCTION

Slow learners are students who learn more slowly than their peers, yet do not have a

disability requiring special education )Griffin, 1978). As a supervisor, during my regular

visits to schools in my region I have noticed that teachers of English face challenges in

dealing with such learners. One reason for this is that these teachers do not receive any

particular training in how to support slow learners. However, there has been no research in

Oman into how teachers of English identify and deal with slow learners and the purpose of

this study is to explore these issues. I also hope through this study to draw attention to the

existing problem of slow learners and to raise awareness of the methods of detection and

the interventions which English language teachers in my region )and elsewhere in the

country) might benefit from.

SLOW LEARNERS DefinitionPsychologists and educational researchers use a range of terms to refer to learners whose

achievement is low. In this study I use the term slow learners, who are defined as “children

who are doing poorly in school, yet are not eligible for special education” )Shaw, Grimes &

Bulman, 2005: 11). As Lescano )1995) explains, it is important to distinguish between slow

learners and those who are learning disabled: The first is the student who does not learn

successfully due to general socio-cultural problems, frustrating past language classroom

experiences, inadequate use of strategies, or lack of interest. The second type of slow

4

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014learner is the student formally diagnosed as “learning-disabled” by specialists in child

psychology. A number of factors may account for slow learners. Khan )2008) lists several,

such as a lack of emotional growth, the lack of a secure environment, limited opportunities

for learning, absenteeism from school, untrained teachers and large class size. It is

important for teachers to be aware of this range of problems that can cause a child to be

considered a slow learner. In terms of language learning, slow learners may have had

negative past experiences of learning and consequently lost interest; they may also be

characterized by the inadequate use of learning strategies. Of course, slow language

learners’ problems are not solely related to language learning; more general problems listed

above, and additional factors such as family problems at home, can also be influential.

Slow Learners: How are they Identified and Supported?Younis Salim Al-HashmiBatinah South RegionIdentifying Slow LearnersA website called ‘Helping slow learners’ )www. foundationosa.org/slow.htm) lists ten

characteristics of a slow learner:

1. Functions at ability but significantly below grade level.

2. Is prone to immature interpersonal relationships.

3. Has difficulty following multi-step directions.

4. Lives in the present and does not have long range goals.

5. Has few internal strategies )i.e. organizational skills, difficulty transferring, and

generalizing information.)

6. Scores consistently low on achievement tests.

7. Works well with "hands-on" material )i.e. labs, manipulative, activities.)

8. Has a poor self-image.

9. Works on all tasks slowly.

10. Masters skills slowly; some skills may not be mastered at all.

5

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014This list highlights issues which teachers can attend to in identifying slow learners. Various

tools need to be used in collecting data about these issues. These can be teacher-made or

commercially produced, and include tests, checklists, and rating scales. Also, as Genesee &

Upshur )1996: 77) note, “observation is basic to assessing human skills and behaviors”, and

thus is a useful strategy in identifying behavioural problems. In addition, much useful

information can be obtained from interviewing parents, teachers, classmates, and the

students themselves.

Lescano )1995) comments specifically on the characteristics of slow language learners. He

suggests that “their weakest skills are generally writing and reading. That is why, for

example, hyperactive or attention-deficit students tend to disturb the class and misbehave

whenever these skills are emphasized”. He adds that many slow learners show difficulties in

perception. They tend to ignore details and go for overall comprehension and production.

They do not notice, for instance, the apostrophe or the plural forms when reading. In the

same way, some may omit forms of speech when writing or speaking. Working with Slow LearnersHarmer )2001) suggests that students learn more quickly if the teaching methods used

match their preferred learning styles. As learning improves, so too does self esteem. This

has a further positive effect on learning. Students who have become bored with learning

may become interested once again. The student-teacher relationship can improve because

the student is more successful and is more interested in learning. A number of strategies are

suggested in the literature for supporting and motivating slow learners. Lescano )1995), for

example, suggests the following:

• Give daily evaluations.

• Use simple vocabulary in directions and instructions.

• Use standard formats and limited types of responses for each assignment.

• Provide multi-sensory prompts to elicit correct responses.

• Analyze and break down difficult tasks.

• Increase time-on-task rates )more teacher questions, group participation, effective use of

signals, gestures, etc.).

A further list of strategies is presented in Table 1 below.

6

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014 METHODOLOGY Research QuestionsThis study addressed the following questions:

1. How do Grade 10 teachers of English in Oman identify slow learners?

2. How do these teachers support slow learners?

3. What difficulties do teachers say they face in working with slow learners?Context & ParticipantsThe population of my study is all Grade 10 teachers of English in the Batinah South

Educational Region. All of these teachers were present at two examination marking centres

at the end of the 2008 school year and I administered a questionnaire to them there. I

administered 140 questionnaires and just over 74% of these were returned. The sample for

this study thus consists of 104 Grade 10 teachers of English in my region.

Table 1: Strategies for supporting slow learners )www.foundationosa.org/slow.htm)

• Reduce distractions by providing a quiet, private place to work.

• Emphasize strengths. Use lots of praise and reinforcement frequently.

• Make lessons short. Limit the working time and have several short work periods rather

than one long one.

• Add variety to the academic routine. Do active things and use educational games, puzzles,

and other techniques as much as possible.

• Work on material that is somewhat challenging but allows success. Work that is too hard

or too easy is a turn-off.

• Make learning fun and comfortable. Your positive attitude is very important.

• Communicate with your students.

• Go over his/her daily work to reinforce the learning. Slower learners need repetition.

• Provide meaningful, concrete activities rather than abstract.

• Give short specific directions and have your child repeat them back to you.

• Encourage your child to explore areas of interest to him/her. Career opportunities often

come from these interests.Data Collection & Analysis

7

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014The questionnaire is an appropriate way of eliciting the opinions of a large number of

respondents. It is also an efficient research method, in terms of the time it takes to collect

and analyze data )see Dِrnyei, 2003; Bryman, 2001 for further discussion of questionnaires).

I recognize, though, that questionnaires can provide a breadth of responses without

providing in-depth detail.

The questionnaire I used here consisted of three parts. Part 1 elicited background

information about the participants. Part 2 asked teachers about the strategies they use in

identifying slow learners, while Part 3 focused on the ways in which teachers support slow

learners and the challenges they face in doing so. Most questions were of the Likert-scale

type, but some open-ended questions were also included.

The design of my questionnaire was influenced by my literature review and my experience

of my context. I piloted my questionnaire with some teachers and amended it according to

their feedback. For example, I added the Arabic equivalent for terms such as counsellor and

social worker to minimize misunderstandings.

The closed questionnaire responses were converted into numbers and analyzed

quantitatively )using descriptive statistics). Open-ended responses were analyzed

thematically and categorized into groups.

FINDINGS Background InformationOne of the questions in Part 1 of the questionnaire asked the teachers whether they had a

counsellor ) ) or a social worker ) ) in their school. All 104 respondents said they had a

social worker but none said they had a counsellor. The teachers were also asked about the

number of periods they teach each week. Over 61% said they taught at least 21 lessons,

while around 39% said they taught a maximum of 20 lessons. I also asked teachers about

the size of their classes. Half the respondents said they taught classes of 31-35 learners,

with 20% saying their classes were larger than 35.Identifying Slow LearnersIn Part 2 of the questionnaire teachers were asked about how they identify slow

learners. The results for this question are shown in Table 2. This shows the

percentage of the 104 teachers who said they use each of the strategies listed.

8

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Table 2: Identifying slow learners

How do you identify slow learners?

1 I use an entry test at the beginning of the semester 67.0 %

2 I use the students’ exam results from previous years 59.7 %

3 I use the result of continuous assessment 86.5 %

4 I use an intelligence test 24.0 %

5 I use observation of the learners in class 96.0 %

6 I don’t identify slow learners 10.0 %

Only 10% of the respondents said they did not identify slow learners. Amongst those who

said they do, the most commonly used strategy was observation, followed by continuous

assessment.

Table 3: Supporting slow learnersStrategies Always/

UsuallySometimes / Rarely

Never

I modify my language to suit their levelI try to develop a good relationship with themI make use of excellent students to support slow learnersI praise them when possibleI react politely to their responses even if they are incorrectI mix slow learners with excellent students in group activities to benefitfrom each otherI use a variety of techniques to suit the different students’ learning stylesI provide clear feedbackI analyze and break down difficult tasksI use simple vocabulary in directions and instructionsI try to understand the reasons behind their weaknessesI provide longer wait time after asking questions in order to give slow learners a time to think

969391868686

848483796663

81112181818

202018233131

001000

0032710

I engage slow learners in extra curricular activitiesI anticipate their difficulties and prepare activities to help themI use tasks and activities that add fun to the lessonI concentrate on fluency rather than accuracyI ask the social worker in the school about the slow learners’ backgroundI use tutorials to support slow learnersI organise meetings with slow learners’ parents to discuss their child’sdifficultiesI write the lesson aims on the board at the beginning of the lesson

61605952494230

19

37394550474762

43

650281512

42

9

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Supporting Slow LearnersPart 3 of the questionnaire asked the teachers about the strategies they use to support slow

learners. A number of strategies were listed and teachers were asked to indicated how often

they used each on a five-point scale of Always to Never. The results are given in Table 3

above. Here ‘Always/Usually’ responses are collated, as are ‘Sometimes/Rarely’ answers.

The strategies are listed in descending order according to frequency teachers said they used

them.

The three most frequently used strategies for supporting slow language learners, according

to these teachers, were modifying teacher talk to the learners’ level, developing a good

relationship with them and using better learners to support the slower ones. The three

strategies least used were tutorials, meeting slow learners’ parents, and writing lesson aims

on the board.

Teachers were also asked to suggest any further strategies they used to support slow

learners. Few additional ideas emerged here; one was using games and competitions to

motivate learners and make learning enjoyable. Additionally, teachers were also asked to

comment on difficulties they faced in supporting slow learners. The issues they mentioned

were:

• large classes

• slow learners’ lack of response to teachers’ instructions

• limited time to provide special support due to heavy workloads

• lack of support from parents

• lack of motivation in learners.

DISCUSSIONThis study provides some preliminary descriptive information about English teachers’

practices in identifying and supporting slow learners. Regarding the first of these issues,

teachers seem to rely on less formal methods for identifying slow learners, such as

observation and continuous assessment; more formal strategies which involve specific tests

are not used, and this may reflect the fact that, according to these teachers, specialist

counsellors with the appropriate background in educational psychology are not available in

schools. The picture that emerges here is that there is no systematic approach to identifying

10

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014slow learners and that individual teachers must take responsibility for this in any way that

they feel is appropriate. It is also worth noting that 10% of the teachers here said they did

not take any specific action to identify slow learners. This may mean that the slow

learners in these teachers’ classrooms do not receive any particular support.

In terms of the strategies teachers use to support learners, some of these reflect those

suggested in Lescano )1995) )e.g. use simple vocabulary, break down tasks –see earlier

discussion), but the strategy reportedly used by most teachers here was simplifying teacher

talk to enhance learner understanding. More able learners were also widely used to support

slow learners. Overall, the teachers here reported using a wide range of strategies to support

slow learners. Some, though, such as tutorials and meetings with parents, were not widely

used.

The teachers also identified particular challenges they faced in supporting slow learners.

Finding the time to do so was an issue, as teachers felt their workloads were already heavy.

In some cases teachers also felt that parents were not sufficiently involved in supporting

slow learners and that this made the teacher’s work harder. Large classes were also seen to

be an issue )as noted earlier, 70% of the teachers said they taught classes of 30 or more

learners).

On the basis of these results there would seem to be scope for in-service training which

focuses on the issue of slow learners and which engages teachers in discussions of how they

can identify and support them. Findings from this study could be usefully fed into such

training in order to provide a basis for awareness raising and discussion among teachers.LimitationsThe findings of this study apply to the participants and context studied here. Further

research with other groups of teachers in other parts of Oman would make it possible to

assess the extent to which similar patterns hold true elsewhere. This study also relied on a

questionnaire which consisted largely of closed items; further research seeking more

qualitative understandings of teachers’ work with slow learners would thus also be valuable

given the limitations of questionnaire data in providing in-depth understandings of

participants’ responses.

CONCLUSION

11

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014It is my hope that this exploratory study can create greater awareness and discussion in

Oman about slow learners. Learners in this category will exist in almost every class, yet at

present a systematic way of identifying and supporting them does not exist. I am sure that

individual teachers have developed many effective techniques for supporting those learners

who need additional help. It would be valuable therefore if opportunities could be created

for teachers to share and discuss their work with slow learners. It is also important for

further research to build on this initial study and for the Ministry to develop guidelines to

assist teachers in supporting slow learners.

REFERENCESBryman, A. )2001). Social research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dِrnyei, Z. )2003). Questionnaires in second Language research: Construction,

administration and processing. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Genesee, F. & Upshur, J.A. )Eds.). )1996). Classroom-based evaluation in second language

education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Griffin, D. )1978). Slow learners: A break in the circle: A practical guide for teachers in

secondary schools. Andover: Chapel River Press.

Harmer, J. )2001). The practice of English language teaching )3rd ed.). London:

Longman.

Helping slow learners. Retrieved 25 January 2009 from

http://www.foundationosa.org/slow.htm

Khan, S.M. )2008). Education of slow learner. Retrieved 25 January 2009 from

http://research-educationedu.

blogspot.com/search/label/Education%20of%20Slow%20Learner

Lescano, A.A. )1995). The remedial English project. English Teaching Forum, 33)4).

Retrieved 20 January 2009 from

http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol33/no4/p40.htm

Shaw, S., Grimes, D., & Bulman, J. )2005). Educating slow learners: Are charter

schools the last, best hope for their educational success? The Charter Schools12

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Resource Journal, 1)1). Retrieved 20 January 2009 from

http://www.ehhs.cmich.edu/~tcsrj/shaw4.pdf

الثاني الموضوع الفصول طالب مع التعامل - طرق

الخاصة( التعلم ) بطيء

Strategies for Dealing with Slow Learner

13

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Classroom Management

Creating Classroom Rapport

Rapport is tricky to understand. Perhaps that is why the voluminous literature on

college and university teaching essentially ignores it. Rapport has been avoided in

favor of other variables, such as methods of teaching, modes of testing, and

techniques of assessing teaching effectiveness, which can be more readily

conceptualized and manipulated. Nonetheless, it is worth considering the role of

rapport if for no other reason than its contributions to effective teaching.

Tips for Rapport-Building

How might we build rapport with our students? Try any or all of the following suggestions for developing rapport with your students:

Learn to call your students by name.

Create and use personally relevant class examples.

Arrive to class early and stay late -- and chat with your students.

Explain your course policies-and why they are what they are.

Post and keep office hours.

Get on line-use e-mail to increase accessibility to your students.

Interact more, lecture less -- emphasize active learning.

14

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014 Reward student comments and questions with verbal praise;

Be enthusiastic about teaching and passionate about your subject matter.

Lighten up - crack a joke now and then.

Learn something about your students' interests, hobbies, and aspirations.

Listen to what students say without comment. Use eye contact, non-verbal cues such

as a nod, and facial expression to indicate that you're interested.

Don't dismiss student comments with a vague phrase such as "uh-huh," or "okay."

Don't interrupt student comments or responses.

Try to incorporate student comments and responses into your material.

Encourage students to respond to each other by inviting them to comment on a

remark a classmate has made.

Be humble and, when appropriate, self-deprecating.

Write good responses or comments on the board to emphasize the value of student

contributions to your class.

If you are not sure what a student is asking, ask some questions which will help you

clarify. Don't say, "I don't understand what you mean."

If you cannot answer a question, be frank with the class. Ask for help; maybe one

of the students can give an example to help you out.

Repeat and paraphrase student answers. This shows that you were listening, helps

you check that you understood what the student meant, and ensures that everyone in

class hears what was said.

Never try to capitalize on students' confusion by ridiculing or joking about incorrect

responses. "Humour" of that kind is bound to backfire and create the very kind of

inhospitable climate that you are trying to avoid.

Be respectful.

Don't forget to smile!

How to Build Classroom Rapport on Day One in ESL Classes Establishing classroom rapport remains essential - on day one - for English

language teachers. Some students have volunteered, some have been assigned.

15

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Abilities, backgrounds, motives, and personalities differ. ESL teachers must

establish a tolerant, rigorous, and friendly atmosphere, creating a unified class.

Difficulty: Moderately ChallengingInstructions

things you'll need: Sign in sheet with a relevant personal question A course syllabus A marker A student interest form A list of compelling questions A smile1- Select a question for your sign-in sheet. Create 3 columns: full name, nickname and

a question

What's your favorite book?

Where were you born?

Why do you want to speak English?

What's your favorite word or expression in English?

2- Pass the sign-in sheet around. Make sure everyone reads the sheet and answers the

question.

3- Compare the sign-in sheet with the class roster. Confirm names, completing your

bureaucratic duty and meeting students.

4- Circle the room, using student responses to create short conversations.

5- Make sure you smile, check the pronunciation of students' names, and shake hands.

Tips & Warnings You might ask students who chose their name.

You can ask students if their name has some special meaning.

Spend approximately the same amount of time talking with each student.

Allow students 20 minutes to interview their new classmates.

Have students briefly introduce their classmate.

Leave at least 5 minutes to wrap the class, comment on "good mistakes" you heard in introductions, praise the class' diversity, and assign homework.

16

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014 Many students feel insecure, nervous, and awkward during their first class. You

need to reassure students, provide a clear agenda, and establish both your authority and the value of the course.

Students may join the class later.

Some students may not know the word "nickname".

Make sure to give a practical, flexible exercise for homework.

Mubarak Al-Kabeer ELT Supervision

الثالث الموضوع

الحديثة التكنولوجيا استخدام التدريس في

Using Technology in Teaching

17

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Using Technology in TeachingClassroom teaching is a demanding job. Most people outside education probably

think teachers spend most of their time teaching, but teachers are responsible for many

tasks that have little to do with classroom instruction. Beyond planning and implementing

instruction, teachers are also expected to be managers, psychologists, counsellors,

custodians, and community "ambassadors," not to mention entertainers.

Gone are the days when the teacher stood in the front of the classroom and lectured

while students simply took notes. Today the classroom is an interactive world where the

teacher as well as the student is engaged with technology. Because today's young people

are hooked up and plugged in all of the time, whether it is with text messaging, iPods,

social networking websites and more, it is important that teachers find a way to engage

them on a technology level. Technology in the classroom is doing just that--keeping

students stimulated by using the latest and greatest inventions in computers and digital

media.

So teachers can use technology in the classroom and many are already doing it.

Some teachers in some places use interactive Smart Boards in place of traditional chalk

or white boards in their classroom. These flat screen monitors are networked with the

teacher’s classroom computer and the school’s internet connection. Interactive lessons in

math, spelling, science and other subjects can be put on screen for students to participate

18

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014in. The boards use touch screen technology and in some cases, kids are given handheld

remote “clickers” that act as controllers for answering questions presented on screen.

Some teachers encourage school students to sign up for email updates or text

message alerts to receive homework assignments and reminders for tests and projects.

Many kids respond well to these types of communications and thus, respond better to the

assignments themselves.

Examples of Classroom Technology

Technology has infiltrated many areas of society, including education. Educators

are looking for ways to integrate technology into curricula and assignments. There are

many ways to use technology with your students. If you're just starting, some of these

examples might spark ideas for how you can use technology with your classes.

1. Using Video in the ClassroomAccording to the National Teacher Training Institute, using video helps students

retain more information. Video also helps students grasp difficult concepts. There are

several ways you can incorporate video into your teaching. If you're teaching about

anatomy, you can show your class a video of a frog or worm dissection. Of course, using

video in the classroom should not replace any portion of your lesson. Instead, it should

complement your existing teaching methodology.

2. Collaborative WritingA wiki is a website that users can edit without having any programming skills. This

makes wikis great for use in the classroom. Several companies )Wiki spaces) provide free

wikis for teachers. You can use a wiki for a group project in which you want your students

to incorporate videos and/or images. You could also use a wiki to translate or annotate

poems, plays or passages from books. A wiki allows you and your students to add and edit

text, add images and videos upload different files and create links to other WebPages.

Changes made in the wiki are tracked by user, which makes it easier to evaluate individual

student work on group projects.

3. Social Networking and Blogs

19

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Teachers can use the Internet to connect to students while they're at home. Some

teachers, for instance, have found that creating a blog on a free site, like

www.blogspot.com or www.wordpress.com, is particularly helpful. Teachers can use these

blogs to post assignments for absent students or so that parents can know what's happening

in the classroom. The teacher can also post additional links or files that students might find

helpful when they're learning about a new topic. Teachers should allow students to post

comments on their blogs so they can have input too. Some teachers might also find it

beneficial to create a social networking group or site for their class on a site such as Face

book. In this social media network, teachers could create a professional page for

themselves, or they could also start a classroom group to keep students informed on class

happenings and to encourage communication. This works particularly well if students are

part of a more specialized, independent class, such as the yearbook or debate.

4. Audio Files

Auditory learners might benefit from having text, content and teacher's instructions

presented in an audio file format. Students can listen to a piece of content in the

classroom---an audio file created on a computer or even a compact disc---and then discuss

what they've learned with other students. If files are able to be uploaded appropriately,

students could even have access to these clips at home.

5. ProjectorsProjectors are a basic way to introduce technology to students in the classroom. The

projector is hooked up to the teacher's laptop and projects the screen from the laptop to the

white board in the front of the room. This enables students to see a larger version of what

is on the laptop screen. A teacher can project a word document and show students' note-

taking strategies. The teacher can also show PowerPoint presentations to students using

the projector. Students can follow the teacher as he or she goes onto educational websites

as well. A projector in the classroom is a remarkable tool in engaging the student with

technology.

20

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

6. SMART TechnologiesSMART Technologies are leading the way in classroom interaction between

students and teachers using computers. SMART boards are a fantastic way for students to

stay engaged in lessons. A SMART board is an interactive white board that allows the

teacher to project an image from a laptop to the front of the room. The amazing part is that

the teacher can then digitally draw on that image. Graphs and tables are available

templates in SMART boards. SMART boards can store lessons and digitally enhance plain

templates into customized learning tools. Hundreds of applications are possible with this

technology, and students are benefiting immensely from it.

7. Mimio BoardsMimio boards are similar to SMART boards. They are interactive white boards that

allow the teacher to manipulate computer functions on the white board in the front of the

room. Sensors are in place in the board that allow the teacher to use a special pen that acts

like a mouse. Teachers maneuver through websites, graphs and other lessons using this

technology. Students can even participate by using the board for PowerPoint presentations.

This is a fantastic tool in interactive classroom lessons.

8. Classroom PCsSome educators are lucky enough to have individual PCs for every student in the

class. When every student has his or her own laptop, learning takes on a whole different

dynamic. For example, a teacher can allow students to follow along during a writing

lesson on Word programs. In addition, students can research and explore on their own.

PCs can store a student's work more efficiently than folders. Bulky encyclopaedias and

dictionaries are unnecessary if every student can access the Internet on his or her own time

using a personal computer. A paperless world in the classroom can be organized as well as

environmentally friendly. Finally, students become empowered in their education by

having their own personal tool to better their academic outcomes.

9. I Pad Applications for Teachers and studentsThere’s no doubt that the I Pad is an excellent device. Once more students have

IPADS, this will be a great resource to use for speech classes. Students can practice and 21

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014record themselves and then share their speeches with their groups for feedback. We can

even evaluate students' speeches using IPAD applications. Obviously IPADs are not

something all students can afford but as prices come down, more students will have

access.

There is a great educational app for the I Pad called My Lesson Plan. You can create

and save lesson plans and present them in the classroom all from the I Pad.

10. Language labThe language laboratory is an audio or audio-visual installation used as an aid

in modern language teaching. By pressing the record key in the booth, the student would

simultaneously hear the playback of the program whilst being able to record his or her

voice in the pauses, using the microphone. This is known as an audio active-comparative

system.

The language laboratory has about twenty five booths, each equipped with a tape deck, headphones and a microphone. This technology is organised in such a way that students can work on their own, can be paired or grouped with other pupils, or can interact on a one – to- one basis with the teacher. The teacher can broadcast the same taped

material to each booth, or can have different students or group of students work with different material.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Education

Technology has revolutionized the classroom but is not without its disadvantages--

not in its use, but in what its use replaces. Many classrooms are being retrofitted with

Smart boards and computers but they cannot replace old methods of teaching.

Potential

The technology available today has made a wealth of knowledge available to

students, which offers great potential for the speed and style of learning. Information is

presented in so many ways that any type learner, whether gifted or disabled, can find and

use the necessary material. This fact relates not only to the Internet, but to all the many

technological improvements in learning, from smart boards to handheld dictionaries.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Loss of SkillsWith this increased access to knowledge also comes a probable loss of

communication skills and interactive abilities between students and teacher, and students

to peers. These skills are not as necessary in a classroom of computers, where individuality

is a component of learning and is encouraged. Aside from learning, conflict resolution and

socialization used to be two prominent reasons why children came to school. The

emphasis now has shifted away from these areas.

Access to AllEducation is no longer the elitist privilege it once was. The information on the

Internet is there for all who have access, without discrimination. People of all social strata

are able to use technological advances, which is a fairly new academic development in

America.

Poor Remain PoorWhile general access is not denied, some children may not be exposed to computers

and other technology because of socio-economic status. A child may live in a home

without a computer, and chances are he will attend a poor school district with limited

numbers of computers available. A student may get to use a computer for a short time, or

only as a once-a-week activity instead of a regular class period. This puts these children at

a disadvantage in learning technological functions. Poor districts are also most likely not

to be the recipients of other technological modes of learning.

Advantages vs. DisadvantagesThe computer age is here; this cannot be debated. Is it better for children to have

access to computers with all their data at the loss of interpersonal skills? Is it acceptable

that a student can talk to someone halfway around the world via instant messaging but not

be able to get along with the student sitting next to her in a classroom? Technology can

enhance traditional methods of learning but cannot replace the human touch. Ultimately,

the quality of the class will depend solely on the quality of the teacher and not the

presence of technology.

23

طرق التدريستدريس طرق

المقروء االستيعابو المسموع و

التحدث و القواعد

الموضوع الرابع

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

References:

www. Ehow.education

www.cmu.edu

www.edtecheacher.org./teaching-technology

www.mashable.com

www.faculty.fullerton.edu/tgreen

www.wisegeek.com

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Teaching Methods &Approaches

History of Teaching EnglishApproaches and methods on language teaching.

I- The Grammar-Translation Method.

As modern languages began to enter the curriculum of European schools in the eighteenth century, they were taught using the same basic procedures that were used for teaching Latin. Emphasis was on learning grammar rules, lists of vocabulary, and sentences for translation which usually had little relationship to the real world. Speaking the foreign language was not the goal, and oral practice was limited to students reading aloud the sentences they had translated. This method came to be known as the grammar-translation method and was the offspring of German scholarship. The main failures of the method are that it does not sound natural to a native speaker; produces difficult mistakes to eradicate; tedious experience of memorizing endless lists of unusable grammar rules and vocabulary; and little stress on accurate pronunciation; and often creates frustration for students.

II- The Direct Approach

This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.

Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.

III- The Reading Approach

This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.

The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken. Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill. Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the written text.

IV- The Audio-lingual Method

This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.

New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.

Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 20141. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possible so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.7. Intersperse short periods of drill )about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.8. Introduce the drill in this way:a. Focus )by writing on the board, for example)b. Exemplify )by speaking model sentences)c. Explain )if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)d. Drill9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.--tomorrow--in the cafeteria tomorrow--will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow--Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.

V-   The Communicative Approach What is communicative competence?

Communicative competence is the progressive acquisition of the ability to use a language to achieve one's communicative purpose.

Communicative competence involves the negotiation of meaning between two or more persons sharing the same symbolic system.

Communicative competence applies to both spoken and written language. Communicative competence is context specific based on the situation, the role of

the participants and the appropriate choices of register and style.  For example:  The variation of language used by persons in different jobs or professions can be either formal or informal.  The use of jargon or slang may or may not be appropriate.

Communicative competence represents a shift in focus from the grammatical to the communicative properties of the language; i.e. the functions of language and the process of discourse.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014 Communicative competence requires the mastery of the production and

comprehension of communicative acts or speech acts that are relevant to the needs of the L2 learner. Characteristics Of The Communicative Classroom    

The classroom is devoted primarily to activities that foster acquisition of L2.  Learning activities involving practice and drill are assigned as homework. 

The instructor does not correct speech errors directly. Students are allowed to respond in the target language, their native language, or a

mixture of the two. The focus of all learning and speaking activities is on the interchange of a message

that the acquirer understands and wishes to transmit, i.e. meaningful communication.

The students receive comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment and are personally involved in class activities. Comprehensible input has the following major components:             a. a context            b. gestures and other body language cues            c. a message to be comprehended            d. a knowledge of the meaning of key lexical items in the utterance Stages of language acquisition in the communicative approach 1. Comprehension or pre-production        a. Total physical response        b. Answer with names--objects, students, pictures 2. Early speech production        a. Yes-no questions        b. Either-or questions        c. Single/two-word answers        d. Open-ended questions        e. Open dialogs        f. Interviews 3. Speech emerges        a. Games and recreational activities        b. Content activities        c. Humanistic-affective activities        d. Information-problem-solving activities

VI- The Silent Way

Procedures

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014This method begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the following: To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher. To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime. To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it.

Materials:The complete set of materials utilized as the language learning progresses include: A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded phonic chart)s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets

VII-   Total Physical Response

James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response )TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation. The basic tenets are:

Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.

TECHNIQUE Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action. Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action. Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.  

VIII-The Natural Approach: Theoretical Base

The influence of Stephen Krashen on language education research and practice is undeniable.  In 1983, he published The Natural Approach with Tracy Terrell, which combined a comprehensive second language acquisition theory with a curriculum for language classrooms.  Krashen's Natural Approach to acquiring a second language is based on five central hypotheses:

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis         First is the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, which makes a distinction between

“acquisition,” which Krashen defines as developing competence by using language for “real communication” and “learning.” which he defines as “knowing about” or “formal knowledge” of a language.

The Natural Order Hypothesis         The second hypothesis is simply that grammatical structures are learned in a

predictable order.  Studies found striking similarities in the order in which children acquired certain grammatical morphemes. 

The Monitor Hypothesis

The role of conscious learning is defined in this hypothesis. The role that such “learned” competence can have is an editor on what is produced.  Output is checked and repaired, after it has been produced, by the explicit knowledge the learner has gained through grammar study.  The implication is that the use of this Monitor should be discouraged and

that production should be left up to some instinct that has been formed by “acquisition.”The Input Hypothesis

        Here Krashen explains how successful “acquisition” occurs:  by simply understanding input that is a little beyond the learner’s present “level” – he defined that present “level” as i and the ideal level of input as i +1.  In the development of oral fluency, unknown words and grammar are deduced through the use of context , rather than through direct instruction.  Krashen has several areas which he draws on for proof of the Input Hypothesis.  One is the speech that parents use when talking to children , which he says is vital in first language acquisition.  He also illustrates how good teachers tune their speech to their students’ level, and how when talking to each other, second language learners adjust their speech in order to communicate.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis         This concept receives the briefest treatment in “The Natural Approach”.  Krashen

simply states that “attitudinal variables relate directly to language acquisition but not language learning.”  He cites several studies that examine the link between motivation and self-image, arguing that an “integrative” motivation )the learner wants to “be like” the native speakers of a language) is necessary.  He postulates an “affective filter” that acts before the Language Acquisition Device and restricts the desire to seek input if the learner does not have such motivation.  Krashen also says that at puberty, this filter increases dramatically in strength .

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

According to Jill Kerper Mora, from San Diego State University, the Natural Approach is based on the main five hypotheses and is supported by the following ones:

The aptitude hypothesis          There is such a thing as a language learning aptitude.  This aptitude can be measured

and is highly correlated with general learning aptitude.  However, aptitude relates more to learning while attitude relates more to acquisition.

The first language hypothesis          The L2 learner will naturally substitute competence in L1 for competence in L2. 

Learners should not be forced to use the L1 to generate L2 performance.  A silent period and insertion of L1 into L2 utterances should be expected and tolerated.

The textuality hypothesis The event-structures of experience are textual in nature and will be easier to produce,

understand, and recall to the extent that discourse or text is motivated and structured episodically.  Consequently, L2 teaching materials are more successful when they incorporate principles of good story writing along with sound linguistic analysis.

The expectancy hypothesis Discourse has a type of "cognitive momentum."  The activation of correct expectancies

will enhance the processing of textual structures.  Consequently, L2 learners must be guided to develop the sort of native-speaker "intuitions" that make discourse predictable.  IX- Suggestopedia:

In the 1980s and 1990s, an extremely obscure method was developed by a Bulgarian psychiatrist- educator called Georgi Lozanov. The most outstanding features of this mystical method are, according to Rivers )1981), its arcane terminology and neologisms, and secondly, the arrangement of the classroom to create an optimal atmosphere to learning, by means of decoration, furniture, the authoritative behavior of the teacher and specially, through the use of music. Therapy theories are the reason of using music in the classroom as Lozanov calls upon in his use to relax learners as well as to structure, pace, and punctuate the presentation of linguistic material. Lozanov acknowledges following a tradition on yoga and Soviet psychology, borrowing techniques for altering states of consciousness and concentration, and the use of rhythmic breathing. In fact, teachers are trained in a special way to read dialogues, using voice quality, intonation, and timing. Lozanov also claims that his method works equally well whether or not students spend time on outside study and promises success to the academically gifted and ungifted alike. In the own words of Lozanov )1978), Suggestopedia prepares students for success by means of yoga, hypnosis, biofeedback or experimental science. Its main features such as scholarly citations, terminological jargon, and experimental data have received both support and criticisms. However, Suggestopedia is acknowledged to appear effective and harmonize with other successful techniques in language teaching methodology.

X- The Integrated Approach 31

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014One image for teaching English as a second or foreign language )ESL/EFL) is that of a tapestry. The tapestry is woven from many strands, such as the characteristics of the teacher, the learner, the setting, and the relevant languages )i.e., English and the native languages of the learners and the teacher). For the instructional appear to produce a large, strong, beautiful, colorful tapestry, all of these strands must be interwoven in positive ways. For example, the instructor's teaching style must address the learning style of the learner, the learner must be motivated, and the setting must provide resources and values that strongly support the teaching of the language. However, if the strands are not woven together effectively, the instructional loom is likely to produce something small, weak, ragged, and pale—not recognizable as a tapestry at all.In addition to the four strands mentioned above—teacher, learner, setting, and relevant languages—other important strands exist in the tapestry. In a practical sense, one of the most crucial of these strands consists of the four primary skills of listening, reading, speaking, and writing. This strand also includes associated or related skills such as knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, syntax, meaning, and usage. The skill strand of the tapestry leads to optimal ESL/EFL communication when the skills are interwoven during instruction. This is known as the integrated-skill approach.If this weaving together does not occur, the strand consists merely of discrete, segregated skills—parallel threads that do not touch, support, or interact with each other. This is sometimes known as the segregated-skill approach. Another title for this mode of instruction is the language-based approach, because the language itself is the focus of instruction )language for language's sake). In this approach, the emphasis is not on learning for authentic communication.By examining segregated-skill instruction, we can see the advantages of integrating the skills and move toward improving teaching for English language learners.

In this approach, the emphasis is not on learning for authentic communication. By examining segregated-skill instruction, we can see the advantages of integrating the skills and move toward improving teaching for English language learners.

Segregated-Skill InstructionIn the segregated-skill approach, the mastery of discrete language skills such as reading and speaking is seen as the key to successful learning, and language learning is typically separate from content learning )Mohan, 1986). This is contrary to the integrated way that people use language skills in normal communication, and it clashes with the direction in which language teaching experts have been moving in recent years. Skill segregation is reflected in traditional ESL/EFL programs that offer classes focusing on segregated language skills. Why do they offer such classes? Perhaps teachers and administrators think it is logistically easier to present courses on writing divorced from speaking, or on listening isolated from reading. They may believe that it is instructionally impossible to concentrate on more than one skill at a time. Even if it were possible to fully develop one or two skills in the

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014absence of all the others, such an approach would not ensure adequate preparation for later success in academic communication, career-related language use, or everyday interaction in the language. An extreme example is the grammar-translation method, which teaches students to analyze grammar and to translate )usually in writing) from one language to another. This method restricts language learning to a very narrow, non-communicative range that does not prepare students to use the language in everyday life.

Two Forms of Integrated-Skill InstructionTwo types of integrated-skill instruction are content-based language instruction and task-based instruction. The first of these emphasizes learning content through language, while the second stresses doing tasks that require communicative languageuse. Both of these benefit from a diverse range of materials, textbooks, and technologies for the ESL or EFL classroom.

Content-Based Instruction:In content-based instruction, students practice all the language skills in a highly integrated, communicative fashion while learning content such as science, mathematics, and social studies. Content-based language instruction is valuable at all levels of proficiency, but the nature of the content might differ by proficiency level. For beginners, the content often involves basic social and interpersonal communication skills, but past the beginning level, the content can become increasingly academic and complex. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach )CALLA), created by Chamot and O'Malley )1994), shows how language learning strategies can be integrated into the simultaneous learning of content and language. At least three general models of content-based language instruction exist: theme-based, adjunct, and sheltered. The theme-based model integrates the languageskills into the study of a theme )e.g., urban violence, cross-cultural differences in marriage practices, natural wonders of the world, or a broad topic such as change). The theme must be very interesting to students and must allow a wide variety of language skills to be practiced, always in the service of communicating about the theme. This is the most useful and widespread form of content-based instruction today, and it is found in many innovative ESL and EFL textbooks. In the adjunct model, language and content courses are taught separately but are carefully coordinated. In the sheltered model, the subject matter is taught in simplified English tailored to students' English proficiency level.

Task-Based Instruction: In task-based instruction, students participate in communicative tasks in English. Tasks are defined as activities that can stand alone as fundamental units and that require comprehending, producing, manipulating, or interacting in authentic language while attention is principally paid to meaning rather than form )Nunan, 1989). The task-based model is beginning to influence the measurement of learning strategies, not just the teaching of ESL and EFL. In task-based instruction, basic pair

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014work and group work are often used to increase student interaction and collaboration. For instance, students work together to write and edit a class newspaper, develop a television commercial, enact scenes from a play, or take part in other joint tasks. More structured cooperative learning formats can also be used in task-based instruction. Task-based instruction is relevant to all levels of language proficiency, but the nature of the task varies from one level to the other. Tasks become increasingly complex at higher proficiency levels. For instance, beginners might be asked to introduce each other and share one item of information about each other. More advanced students might do more intricate and demanding tasks, such as taking a public opinion poll at school, the university, or a shopping mall.

Advantages of the Integrated-Skill Approach:The integrated-skill approach, as contrasted with the purely segregated approach, exposes English language learners to authentic language and challenges them to interact naturally in the language. Learners rapidly gain a true picture of the richness and complexity of the English language as employed for communication. Moreover, this approach stresses that English is not just an object of academic interest nor merely a key to passing an examination; instead, English becomes a real means of interaction and sharing among people. This approach allows teachers to track students' progress in multiple skills at the same time. Integrating the language skills also promotes the learning of real content, not just the dissection of language forms. Finally, the integrated-skill approach, whether found in content-based or task-based language instruction or some hybrid form, can be highly motivating to students of all ages and backgrounds.

Integrating the Language Skills:In order to integrate the language skills in ESL/EFL instruction, teachers should consider taking these steps:

o Learn more about the various ways to integrate language skills in the classroom )e.g., content-based, task-based, or a combination).

o Reflect on their current approach and evaluate the extent to which the skills are integrated.

o Choose instructional materials, textbooks, and technologies that promote the integration of listening, reading, speaking, and writing, as well as the associated skills of syntax, vocabulary, and so on.

o Even if a given course is labeled according to just one skill, remember that it is possible to integrate the other language skills through appropriate tasks.

o Teach language learning strategies and emphasize that a given strategy can often enhance performance in multiple skills.

Conclusion. On revising the literature on language teaching theories, it is possible to get a sense of the wide range of proposals from the 1700’s to the present, with their weaknesses and strengths, from grammar-based methods to more natural approaches. There is still present a constant preoccupation for teachers and linguists

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014to find more efficient and effective ways of teaching languages. This proliferation of approaches and methods is a relevant characteristic of contemporary second and foreign language teaching, and is only understood when the learner’s need is approached from an educational perspective. These approaches have been called natural, psychological, phonetic, new, reform, and direct, among others. In the middle -methods period, a variety of methods were proclaimed as successors to the then prevailing Situational Language Teaching and Audio-Lingual methods. These alternatives were promoted under such titles as Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, and Total Physical Response. In the 1980s, these methods in turn came to be overshadowed by more interactive views of language teaching, which collectively came to be known as Communicative Language Teaching. These CLT approaches include The Natural Approach and Community Language Learning. Special attention has also been paid to the role of the teacher as a commander of classroom activity )e.g., Audio-Lingual Method, Natural Approach, Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response) whereas others see the teacher as background facilitator and classroom colleague to the learners )e.g., Communicative Language Teaching, Cooperative Language Learning). Language learning theories have approached second language learning on adults and children around first language acquisition model. Schools such as Total Physical Response and Natural Approach claim that second language learning must be developed in the same way as first language acquisition although this is not the only model of language learning we have. However, the Silent Way and Suggestopedia schools claim that adult classroom learning must be developed in a different way children do, due to different cognitive and psychological features. With careful reflection and planning, any teacher can integrate the language skills and strengthen the tapestry of language teaching and learning. When the tapestry is woven well, learners can use English effectively for communication.

ReferencesJack C. Richards, & Theodore S. Rodgers. )1988) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.Dr. Jawaher Al-Dabbous, & Dr. Graham Howells. ) 1994( Teacher Training .Chamot, A. U., & O'Malley, J. M. )1994). The CALLA handbook:Implementing the cognitive-academic language learning approach.Nunan, D. )1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Oxford, R. )1990). Language learning strategies: What every teachershould know. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.Oxford, R. )1996). Language learning strategies around the world:Cross-cultural perspectives. Manoa, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014 TEACHING TECHNIQUES

I- How to Teach Vocabulary

An important criterion in the pre-teaching or revision of vocabulary before a listening or a reading activity is economy- economy in both the choice of key items to pre-teach, and the time spent on each. Teachers should not spend more than two minutes per item and preferably less and not more than a total of ten minutes )and again preferably less) on the whole pre-teaching stage.

The essential stages for each are as follows:A: Presentation

The more concrete, the better. Visual contexts, whenever possible should be preferred to verbal ones. And of course, the quicker, the better. The mother tongue may be used to convey a meaning )a single translation - not a long explanation, especially when dealing with abstract nouns) as a time saving device. The new item should be written on the board when it is presented. Never list the vocabulary items altogether on the whiteboard. Present a voc. item through a situation or by using realia, miming etc. Deal with one voc. item at a time.

Repetition

Individual and/or Choral. Above all, this tells the teacher if the learners have heard the new item correctly.

Comprehension Check

Normally a few questions, re-using the item, can check or reinforce the learners' understanding of it and give some receptive practice at the same time. There is no necessity for a time-consuming routine of fixation and exploitation. If the item is indeed key vocabulary in the coming listening or reading activity, the students soon have opportunities for further exposure to it and for re-use. The objective now is comprehension work, not lexical consolidation.

Teachers should ensure that students copy down notes on all new vocabulary that is taught, whether in pre-teaching for comprehension activity, or in text study afterwards. It is up to the teacher when these notes should be copied down, whether the content is supplied by the teacher or elicited from the learners, and to what precise form the notes take. In some cases, illustrative sentences are best, in others, you may prefer to use synonyms, antonyms, labelled drawings, and sometimes definitions. Again, this note-taking of new vocabulary shouldn't be time-consuming. It is the teacher's duty to ensure that the learners have comprehensible and correct notes which will be an efficient learning tool for them now and later.

RevisionNowhere is revision more important than in vocabulary learning. And while it is partly

the textbook's responsibility, it is mainly all the teacher's duty to see that word families of different sorts are regularly revised. Opportunities for doing so occur in: 36

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014- brainstorming a topic before a writing task,- starting the lesson with a warm-up or a quiz and- giving a short written quiz.

The items that can be used vary in order of increasing complexity. For example: - synonyms, - antonyms, - incomplete sentences, - similarities and - differences.

Teachers should keep a record of lexical sets (word families) and make a note when each item is revised. To help learners develop their lexical systems you need to be systematic yourself.

II- How to Teach Structures

When we teach a grammatical structure , we want the learners to be able to do the following with sentences containing that structure : - understand them when they hear them . - use them correctly in speech and writing. - use them in appropriate contexts in speech and writing.Grammar rules may or may not help the learners to do so.

) A ( – Previewing :

Previewing is often useful if teaching materials include occurrences of a structure before it is formally presented and practiced . This informal introduction or previewing of a structure helps to sensitize the learners to it in advance and develop the learning habit of picking up new grammar , little by little , from what they hear or read .

) B ( – Presentation :

Formal teaching of a new structure begins when the teacher presents it . Presentation should generally be inductive ranging from example to an awareness on the learners' part as to the form and meaning of the structure. This awareness becomes a rule only if it is made explicit . We shouldn't present structures deductively ; that is stating a rule first and then giving examples .

Examples of the new structure should relate to meaningful contexts such as :

- a classroom situation.- a picture or mime .- a verbal context ) description of a situation )

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014 This oral presentation should be accompanied by writing one or two of the examples on the whiteboard.Spoken and written forms should be associated from the beginning. ) C ( – Concept questions to check comprehension :

- Checking the learners comprehension is an essential part in the presentation of any new structure whose meaning is not totally obvious in the content of presentation.

* There are two types of comprehension check of a new structure:

a- having pupils re-use it meaningfully.b- asking them questions to check their grasp of key features of its meaning.These concepts to check questions should be very simple, preferably Yes/No or one-word answers by the students.

Examples of the Structure John is taller than Tom.

Key elements Comparative of meaning

Concept questions - How many boys? - the same or different D- Productive oral practice= mechanical & meaningful types:

- Mechanical practice of a structure is any oral exercise to which the learners can respond correctly without much focus on meaning. The term drills is used for structural practice of this sort, e.g. substitution drills and tables, transformation drills or question and answer drills. - Meaningful structural practice, on the other hand, is any exercise which requires that the learners understand what they are saying in order to respond correctly. Normally the responses to a meaningful exercise are either true or false. The sentences made up by students should be contextualized.The context can be provided by:

- a classroom situation- an imaginary situation- pictures

- shared general knowledgeThis is not, of course, communicative, as there is no information gap. Here the learners are practicing the meaning of the target structures as well as its form, though. - Meaningful oral practice includes: transformations Question/Answer Sentence-building exercises cued by key words.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

E: Communicative practice of a structure:

The oral practice of a structure can be considered communicative when the same structure is used in a series of exchanges the purpose of which is to obtain required information. This means arranging information gap and appropriate student- to- student exchanges for an information-seeking and information-giving. This can be done by means of cue-cards for pair practice.

III- How to Teach Functions

To practise a function, the learners usually need to know two or more different structures prior to the functional work. So, functional teaching is additional to the teaching of structures.

A: Presenting a function and checking comprehension.

There are two basic ways of presenting a communicative function: * Inductively: Give the learners different exponents of the function and ask them to identify the function: what is the speaker doing in all these sentences?

* Deductively: Present a situation in which the function is needed and ask the learners what they could say in that situation i.e. give the function and elicit the exponent. Concept questions to check comprehension of a function or its individual exponents are similar to those for structures. Consider the following example:A: How about going to the cinema?B: Good idea.The teacher can ask:

- Do A and B know each other well?- Are they friends?- Who is making a suggestion, A or B?- Does A want to go to the cinema?- Does B want to go too?

In this exchange A and B use expressions that are always possible ways of making and accepting suggestions in informal conversations.

B: Receptive practice:

Receptive practice is very important with communicative functions and it takes time to sensitize the learners to nuances of meaning or of formality. It also aims to get them

39

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014familiarized with the range of exponents of the function. Possible activities for receptive practice include:

- finding exponents of the function in a dialogue or text,- classifying a list of exponents, which the students are given, into formal and

informal )which ones would you say to a friend/ to your headmaster?), and- classifying a list of exponents according to their precise meaning.

C: Productive practice

Relatively controlled activities for the productive practice of a function include the following:

- transformations between different exponents of the function for example: o T: Could I possibly borrow your newspaper?Another way of asking politely?Or: Now how would you say to a friend?

- question-and -answer work to elicit the use of exponents of a given notion for example for probability:

o T: What are the Kuwait's chances in the World Cup?o Do you think it will rain soon?

Situational Cues:You are in a train compartment with other people. You want to open the window. What do you say?

Functional Categories:

Functional categories can be grouped under the following:PersonalInterpersonalDirectiveReferential Imaginative

Teaching a language function communicatively:What is communicative ability?• One of the most characteristic features of communicative teaching is that it pays systematic attention to fundamental as well as structural aspects of language combining these into a more fully communicative view.• It is not enough to teach pupils how to manipulate the structures of English, they must also develop strategies relating these structures to their communicative functions in real situations and real time.• We must therefore provide our pupils with ample opportunities to use the language themselves for communicative purposes.Structural and Functional Views of Language

40

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014 The structural view of language has not been in any way superseded by functional view. However, it is not sufficient on its own to account for how language is used as means of communication. Let us take an example, a straight forward sentence:"Why don't you close the door?" From a structural viewpoint, it is unambiguously interrogative. From a functional viewpoint, it is ambiguous. In some circumstances, it may function as a question. In others, it may function as a command. In yet other situations, it could be intended as a plea, a suggestion, or a complaint. In other words, the sentence's structure is stable and straightforward, its communicative function is variable and depends on specific situational and social factors. Just as a single linguistic form can express a number of functions, so also can a single communicative function be expressed by a number of linguistic forms. For example, the speaker who wants somebody to close the door has many linguistic options, including: “Close the door, please!“ “Could you please close the door?" "Would you mind closing the door?" Some forms might only perform this directive function in the context of certain social relationship- for example, "You've left the door open!“ could serve as a directive from teacher to pupil, but not from teacher to principal. Other forms would depend strongly on shared situational knowledge for their correct interpretation, and could easily be misunderstood ) e.g." Burr! It's cold, isn't it?")

Teaching Listening, speaking, reading & writing• The natural order of the four skills is:- Listening- Speaking- Reading- Writing

Listening“Listening is an active not a passive operation.”

• The mind is actively searching for meaning. The importance of what Krashen calls 'comprehensible input' )CI) .This seems to imply the importance of ensuring that the language level is matched to the learners, which means teachers, must understand their learners’ abilities.Krashen claims that acquisition proceeds best when 'the acquirer's level of anxiety is low and self-confidence is high.‘This seems to enforce the importance of making the learning environment in our classrooms non-threatening.The teacher would support children's understanding more effectively, if they direct their pupils' attention to specific points that have to be listened for 'using activities that actively

41

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014support learners' understanding and guide their attention to specific parts of the spoken text.'Wells says a lot of children's learning 'is dependent on making connections between what they know and what they are able to understand in the speech they hear' but they don't learn only listening, motivation for learning language is to be able to communicate 'using all the resources they have already acquired to interact with other people about their needs and interests.' This seems to be in line with social constructivist theories.Piaget believed that a young learner 'constructs' or builds understanding over time. Vygotsky believed that learning was ahead of development and for development to occur, interaction with adults or peers who are more knowledgeable is needed. This has been termed the 'zone of proximal development'. Bruner extended Vygotsky's ZPD theory by defining the role of the more knowledgeable 'other' as someone who is actively involved in the learning processes by closing the gap between what has been partially and fully understood. This has been termed 'scaffolding'.

• Some considerations for classroom listeningThese are some of the things to consider when trying to develop your students' listening.Give the children confidence. We should not expect them to always understand every word and they should know this.

Explain why the children have to listen. Make sure the learners are clear about why they are listening, what the main point or purpose of the activity is. Help children develop specific strategies for listening. An important strategy that the teacher should teach is 'intelligent guesswork'. Pupils are used to drawing on their background knowledge to work out something they are not sure of. Set specific listening tasks. Try to think of listening in three stages, pre-listening, while-listening, post listening and have activities for each stage. Listening does not have to rely on the availability of a cassette or pre-recorded material. Most listening is teacher talk.• What to do to be more comprehensibleThere are a number of ways that you can try to make yourself easier to understand.Keep sentences short and grammatically simple.Use exaggerated intonation to hold the child's attention.Emphasize key words.Limit the topics talked about to what is familiar to the child.Frequently repeat and paraphrase.The following are scrambled steps of a listening comprehension lesson. Put them in the correct order.

• a. Make the students listen to a dialogue or conversation on tape. • b. Present them with a reading text )or conduct an informal talk or discussion)• c. Make them read through questions )to be answered while listening).• d. Make them fill in a chart/form or match pictures with what they heard. • e. Make them do role play/simulation activities )or extend notes into written

responses). • f. Make them look for specific items of information.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014• g. Ask them to identify relationships between speakers. • h. Preview language.

Types of listening• Extensive listening aims to develop global understanding of spoken language.• Intensive listening is listening for detailed information.• Selective listening is to scan the material selectively for certain information.

Listening activities mostly used• Guessing games• Dialogues for speech models• Communication games• Story telling• Conversations• Practising minimal pairs• Role play• Comprehension passages

Speaking• Activities to trigger speaking:• Questions• Repetitions• Dialogues• Games• Discussions• Comments• Role plays

Reading• Phonemic symbols represent the sounds of the English language. Using them can be

a valuable tool to improving your students' pronunciation. • Why use phonemic symbols?

The alphabet which we use to write English has 26 letters but )British) English has 44 sounds. Inevitably, English spelling is not a reliable guide to pronunciation because

• Some letters have more than one sound. • Sometimes letters are not pronounced at all. • The same sound may be represented by different letters. • Sometimes syllables indicated by the spelling are not pronounced at all.

How do you pronounce gh in 'enough', 'through' and 'ghost'?• )like f in fun, not pronounced, like g in got)• How many syllables are there in 'chocolate'?

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Difficulties with Reading• Decoding difficulties• Comprehension difficulties• Retention difficulties

Writing• Composition work involves the following things:• Mastery of mechanisms• Recall of necessary structure and vocabulary• Spelling• Punctuation• Imagination• Organization of ideas

Types of composition• Guided or controlled composition• Free composition

Types of Controlled Writing• Substitution tables.• Questions • Rewriting with substitutions.• Parallel writing.• Describing a picture.• Cloze-texts• Matching

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

• ReorderingFree Composition

• Descriptive• Narrative • Expository• Reflective • Imaginative

Stages of teaching composition• Pre-composition stage• Oral composition• Written composition stage• Correction stage

Teachers are requested to do the following when carrying out communicative activities:. Create a situation and set a learner-directed activity on motion.. Pupils should conduct the activity to its conclusion.. Make sure that pupils understand what they are required to do in an activity. . Demonstrate the activity yourself with members of the class.. Select activities which make comparatively light demands on the learner's linguistic and creative abilities.. Equip learners with expressions and language forms that they need for their communicative activities.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

الرابع الموضوع

الالصفية و الصفية األنشطةCo-curricular and Extra-curricular

Activities

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Extra and Co-curricular Activities

What are Extra and co-curricular Activities?

Educational activities that facilitate learning outside the regular )compulsory) school

curriculum are generally called extra and co-curricular activities. Co-curricular

activities are seen as non-academic activities that take place during the school day,

whereas extracurricular activities are the ones that take place outside the school

timetable. In spite of this distinction between co-curricular and extra-curricular

activities, most of the time, they are used to mean the same thing.

Both types of activities are opportunities to engage in extensions of academic

activities and/or non-academic activities under school supervision.

They are optional and supplement the education programme of a school. “The

activities are voluntary, and students do not receive grades or academic credit for

them” )Holloway, 2000, 87). In addition, they can be offered at any time during or

after regular school hours.

Extra and co-curriculum activities are part of informal education, which consists of

learning activities that are voluntary and self-directed, life-long, and motivated

mainly by intrinsic interests, curiosity, exploration, manipulation, fantasy, task

completion, and social interaction. Informal learning provides an experiential base

and motivation for further activity and learning.

The importance of extra and co-curricular activities:

Nowadays, it’s believed that the best educational systems constitute not only a

curriculum but also extra/co-curricular social or cultural activities which have many

advantages. Extracurricular activities are powerful and empowering experiences and

they benefit all students especially those who are at-risk of dropping because they

can often provide the boost of success.

Many studies show that involvement in school extra/co-curricular activities leads to

positive long term outcomes in individual lives. Extra/co-curricular activities give

students positive activities in which to be involved, and they spend their time in a

productive manner.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014The benefits of extra and co-curricular activities fall into different categories:

Academic Performance SociabilityLife Skills Character Building

1. Academic Performance

Research indicates that there is a correlation between involvement in activities and

academic achievement. Extra and co-curricular activities have proven to be

beneficial in building and strengthening academic achievement, even if the activities

are not obviously related to academic subjects. “A number of studies revealed that

students participating in extra/co-curricular activities did better academically than

students who did not participate” )Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 7).

Extra and co-curricular activities can often provide students with the boost of

success and an incentive to do well in their classes.

2. Sociability

Extra/co-curricular activities increase the student’s sociability which is a crucial

ability for personal development. A student’s ability to make friends or to become a

part of a group fuels self-confidence and creates a better atmosphere of liability.

Other benefits include having a sense of team spirit and belonging, personal pride

and an increased sense of honesty and trustworthiness.

Education is not only learned by reading the textbook for students can learn an

incredible amount from their peers through extra and co-curricular activities.

Students learn how to compromise and work in a group. Extra/co-curricular

activities also allow students to meet and interact with peers that may not be within

their close group of friends and therefore become less shy as they share a favorite

activity with their fellow team members.

3. Life Skills

Students can learn different important life skills through extra/co-curricular

activities and these skills benefit their studies. For example, because activities take

time out of the students’ schedules, the involved students must plan their time

wisely and efficiently to complete the assigned tasks and this teaches them time

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014management and how to prioritize things in their life. “In addition to organizational

skills, extra and co-curricular activities in the arts teach students analytical skills and

creative problem solving skills since they have to think creatively to successfully act

in a play, or produce a work of art.” )Rombokas, Mary. 1995, October)

4. Character Building

Extra and co-curricular activities can teach a student a lot about himself and about

his own talents, interests, strengths and weaknesses. He will learn that practice will

improve a person's skills and doing something worthwhile takes effort and time; so

by participating in such activities, students gain a sense of self-respect, self-esteem,

and self-confidence.

Furthermore, engaging in extra and co-curricular activities increases students’

knowledge about new things and their motivation for school.

Characteristics of Effective Extra/co-curricular Activities: The objectives and the goals of the activities should be clear, and the activities

themselves should be organized, structured and age appropriate.

Effective after school activities help children and teens to grow stronger physically,

mentally and emotionally.

The activities should be motivating and allow the students to develop their talents,

abilities and critical thinking.

Having fun should not be overlooked when organizing the activities.

Types of English Extra & Co-curricular Activities

 The following activities can be used in order to inspire the students’ interest in

English learning and improve their English ability:

English Clubs:

An English Club is a place for language learners to use English in a casual setting.

In an English Club, students get a chance to practise many different skills in a

setting that is more like real life.

Morning Assembly programmes:

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014They can be used to reinforce students’ communicative English ability.

English Contests and Competitions

Project Work

Project work motivates students and offers a way of practising English while having

fun. It makes students responsible for their own learning and it helps bridge the gap

between language study and language use as it provides a chance for students to

learn by using the language and it makes learning more natural and authentic.

Arts & Crafts:

Arts and crafts are a good way to deal with different types of learners who have

different learning styles. Hands-on art and craft lessons create a relaxed atmosphere

for language learning and they help to acquire new vocabulary and maintain interest

in the language.

Implementation of Extra and Co-curricular Activities

Although extra and co-curricular activities are best when implemented at the school

level, that doesn’t mean they cannot be used at the classroom level. They can be in

close contact with classroom teachings but not a repetition of them; otherwise, they

will be meaningless.

Teachers can create community in their classroom, just like school clubs and other

activities. They can recreate the peer networking and connection inside the

classroom even if a school lacks in extracurricular activities. Projects create

opportunities where peers work together, apply their learning to real life

circumstances, and practise leadership. Students can be offered the opportunity to do

all of the planning of the activity, because it provides a more fully engaged

experience.

Teachers have a lot of effects and influence on students and can encourage them,

)especially those at-risk), to sign up for activities. Sometimes students lack the

confidence or drive to get involved, and just need to be pointed in the right

direction. The role a teacher plays in encouraging a culture of involvement cannot

be undermined.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Conclusion

Extra and co-curricular activities are powerful and empowering experiences because

they have the “potential to influence students’ belonging and promote positive

academic and psychosocial outcomes” )Akos, 2006, p. 1). These activities prove

that students are able to make a meaningful contribution to something, maintain a

long-term commitment and manage their time and priorities.

Therefore, teachers and school administrations should seriously plan for their

extra/co-curricular activities and encourage students to participate in them in order

to create a better-adjusted, motivated society.

Remember that student’s life is not just persistent learning, but searching for the

self. When academic process and extracurricular activities are combined, it is much

simpler for learners to find themselves.

http://www.asvabprogram.com/downloads/Parent_Newsletter_Winter2010.pdf

http://www.usingenglish.com/forum/editing-writing-topics/73930-advantages-extra-curricular-activities.html

http://www.hobart.k12.in.us/ksms/Success/rombokas.htm

http://www.mychildsfuture.org/parents/item.htm?id=53&edlvl=3

http://thephoenixfalls.wordpress.com/2009/08/27/get-them-hooked-the-benefits-of-extracurricular-activities-in-middle-school/

Hawalli ELT Supervision

51

الدروس المصغرة

Micro-Teaching

الموضوع الخامس

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

52

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Micro Teaching

What is micro teaching?

Microteaching is a training technique whereby the teacher reviews a videotape of

the lesson after each session, in order to conduct a "post-mortem". Teachers find out

what has worked, which aspects have fallen short, and what needs to be done to

enhance their teaching technique. Invented in the mid-1960s at Stanford University

by Dr. Dwight Allen, micro-teaching has been used with success for several decades

now, as a way to help teachers acquire new skills.

Why micro teach?

Microteaching is an organized practice teaching. The goal is to give instructors

confidence, support, and feedback by letting them try out among friends and

colleagues a short slice of what they plan to do with their students. Ideally,

microteaching sessions take place before the first day of class, and are videotaped

for review individually with an experienced teaching consultant. Microteaching is a

quick, efficient, proven, and fun way to help teachers get off to a strong start.

How to micro teach.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014As many as six teachers from the same or similar courses can participate in a single

microteaching session. Course heads, a few experienced instructors, and staff

members are usually invited to serve as facilitators. While one person takes his or

her turn as teacher, everyone else plays the roles of students. It is the job of these

pretend pupils to ask and answer questions realistically. It is the job of the pretend

teacher to involve his or her "class" actively in this way.

Such a scenario typically runs for five to ten minutes. When finished, the person

conducting the class has a moment or two to react to his or her own teaching. Then

everyone else joins in to discuss what they saw that they especially liked. Finally,

the group may mention just a few things that the practice teacher might try doing

differently in the future.

videos of these sessions are for the benefit of those taped and will not be seen by

anyone else without the explicit permission of the practice teacher. Session tapes

can even be erased immediately if the practice teacher wishes. Nearly everyone,

however, finds it extremely helpful to make an appointment to view and discuss

their tape together with a head of department, supervisors or experienced teachers.

What to prepare.

Most course heads provide micro teachers with scenarios to prepare in advance. If

not, think of a few minutes of material that you especially would like to make sure

your students understand by the end of your next class. As always, you should not

only plan out how to treat the subject matter, but also give some thought to how you

are going to present yourself, manage the class, and involve the students. There are,

of course, many different ways of teaching a given lesson well. That is why

participants find that, along with what they learn from their own experience practice

teaching, they can also pick up many helpful ideas from observing fellow micro

teachers.

Feed back

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Feedback in microteaching is critical for teacher improvement. It is the information

that a teacher receives concerning his attempts to imitate certain patterns of

teaching. The built-in feedback mechanism in micro-teaching acquaints the teacher

with the success of his performance and enables him to evaluate and to improve his

teaching behavior. Electronic media gadgets that can be used to facilitate effective

feedback is a vital aspect of micro-teaching.

Component skills approach

Inherent in the process of microteaching is what is called the "component skills

approach", i.e the activity of teaching as a whole is broken down for learning

purposes to its individual component skills. These individual skills which go to make

teaching are:

i) Lesson planning :Having clear cut objectives, and an appropriate planned sequence.

ii) Set induction :The process of gaining pupil attention at the beginning of the class.

iii) Presentation: Explaining, narrating, giving appropriate illustrations and examples,

planned repetition where necessary.

iv) Stimulus variation: Avoidance of boredom amongst students by gestures,

movements, focusing, silence, changing sensory channels etc.

v) Proper use of audio : visual aids.

vi) Reinforcement: Recognizing pupil difficulties, listening, encouraging pupil

participation and response.

vii) Questioning :fluency in asking questions, passing questions and adapting

questions.

viii) Silence and nonverbal cues )body language)

ix) Closure : method of concluding a teaching session so as to bring out the relevance

of what has been learnt, its connection with past learning and its application to future

learning.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Advantages of micro teaching

Microteaching has several advantages. It focuses on sharpening and developing

specific teaching skills and eliminating errors. It enables understanding of behaviors

important in classroom teaching. It increases the confidence of the teacher. It is a

vehicle of continuous training applicable at all stages not only to teachers at the

beginning of their career but also for more senior teachers. It enables projection of

model instructional skills. It provides expert supervision and a constructive

feedback and above all if provides for repeated practice without adverse

consequences to the teacher or his/her students.

Criticism

Lack of adequate and in depth awareness of the purpose of microteaching has led to

criticisms that microteaching produces homogenized standard robots with set smiles

and procedures. It is said to be )wrongly) a form of play acting in unnatural

surroundings and it is feared that the acquired skills may not be internalized.

However, these criticisms lack substance. A lot depends on the motivation of the

teacher to improve himself/herself and the ability of the observer to give a good

feedback. Repeated experiments abroad have shown that over a period of time

microteaching produces remarkable improvement in teaching skills.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

السادس الموضوع

الصفية االختبارات و التقويم / المواصفات جدول

النتائج تحليل و االختبار بناء - On-going Assessment and

Test Evaluation

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Evaluation and Assessments.

@ What is Evaluation ?

*Evaluation is a purposeful, cyclical process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting

relevant information in order to judge and make educational decisions .

*Evaluation may focus on the quality, appropriateness, worth or relevance of teachers,

students, classroom instruction, instructional materials and activities, or whole courses or

programmes of instruction.

*The process of evaluation includes different stages and aspects such as measurement,

assessment, appraisal and judgment .

@ Types of Assessment :

Ongoing - assessment :

The assessment here is done on daily bases and the final grade is some kind of

combination of the grades the learner received for various assessments during the whole

period/course / year “ Testing should be an integral part of instruction. The main purpose is

to know how well the pupils have mastered each step or unit so that teachers can make

necessary modifications in the process of teaching and prepare effective remedial plans .

For these reasons assessment should be present in every lesson .

Testing :

@What is a test ?

The word "test" is usually used to describe a systematic procedure for obtaining a

sample of student behavior, while "assessment" is often used to describe a broader process

of collecting information. Whatever name you use -- test, assessment, examination -- all

rely on the same basic technology.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014 Tests are assessments in which students must individually demonstrate their

knowledge and abilities They can sometimes check on the learning of a discrete point of

instruction , such as vocabulary or a grammar point .They can also assess broader areas of

reading or writing . Test results are usually expressed quantitatively with numbers. In

addition, tests play a role in classroom assessment but they are only one type of

assessment.

Characteristics of A Good Test :

1- Validity: A test is considered as valid when it measures what it is supposed to measure "content validity ". Exam papers should have "face validity", i.e., the papers should look professionally produced, be easy to read, no smudges or typing errors, have clear instructions. Otherwise students are faced with problems not connected with the subject being tested.

2- Reliability : A test is considered reliable if it is taken again by the same students under the same circumstances and the score average is almost the constant , taking into consideration that the time between the test and the retest is of reasonable length.

3- Objectivity: The questions and answers should be clear and definite so that the marks would give a score a student deserves.

4- Comprehensiveness: A good test should include items from different areas of material assigned for the test. This enable teachers to know accurately the extent of pupils' knowledge.

5- Difficulty: The test questions should be appropriate in difficulty neither too hard nor too easy. Besides they should be progressive in difficulty in order to reduce stress and tension.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 20146- Practicality : A practical test is easy to administer and to score without wasting too much

time and efforts.

7- Balance : A test should evaluate both linguistic and communicative competences.

8- Time : A good test should be appropriate in length for the allotted time.

References :

The Document of the Primary Stage . ) A main source about the Achievement File )On going Assessment forms of ELT General Supervision .Oral Assessment /Types of Questions )Grade Four &Five ) / Forms of ELT General

Supervision.

For teachers who want more information about assessment and evaluation , you can search in the following websites :

www.itea.orgwww.anglaisa.edunet.tnwww.specialed.about.com www.etni.org.ilhttp://honolulu.hawaii.eduwww.admira.comwww.bc.eduhttp://schoolsutah.gov

Testing students

It is worth noting at the beginning of this course to confirm that we apply an ongoing assessment in the primary stage.

A) Different types of test:There are four main reasons for testing, which give rise to four categories of

test:

1 •Placement tests :

Placing new students in the right class in a school is facilitated with the

use of placement tests. Usually based on syllabuses and materials the students

will follow and use once their level has been decided on, these test grammar and

60

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014vocabulary knowledge and assess students’ productive and receptive skills.

Some schools ask students to assess themselves as part of the placement

process, adding this self-analysis into the final placing decision.

2 •Diagnostic tests :

While placement tests are designed to show how good a student’s

English is in relation to a previously agreed system of levels, diagnostic tests can

be used to expose learner difficulties, gaps in their knowledge, and skill

deficiencies during a course. Thus, when we know what the problems are, we can

do something about them.

3 •Progress or achievement tests: These tests are designed to measure learners’ language and skill progress

in relation to the syllabus they have been following.

Achievement tests only work if they contain item types which the students are

familiar with. This does not mean that in a reading test, for example, we give them

texts they have seen before, but it does mean providing them with similar texts

and familiar task types. If students are faced with completely new material, the

test will not measure the learning that has been taking place, even though it can

still measure general language proficiency.

Achievement tests at the end of a term (like progress tests at the end of a unit,

a fortnight, etc.) should reflect progress, not failure. They should reinforce the

learning that has taken place, not go out of their way to expose weaknesses. They

can also help us to decide on changes to future teaching programmes where

students do significantly worse in (parts of) the test than we might have expected.

4 •Proficiency tests: Proficiency tests give a general picture of a student’s knowledge and

ability rather than measure progress. They are frequently used as stages people

have to reach if they want to be admitted to a foreign university, get a job, or

obtain some kind of certificate.

Proficiency tests have a profound backwash effect since, where they are external

exams, students obviously want to pass them, and teachers’ reputations 61

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014sometimes depend (probably unfairly) upon how many of them succeed.

C Types of test items : Whatever purpose a test or exam has, a major factor in its success or failure as a

good measuring instrument will be determined by the item types that it contains.

C1 Direct and indirect test itemsA test item is direct if it asks candidates to perform the communicative skill, which

is being tested. Indirect test items, on the other hand, try to measure a student’s

knowledge and ability by getting at what lies beneath their receptive and

productive skills. ‘Whereas direct test items try to be as much like real-life

language use as possible, indirect items try to find out about a student’s language

knowledge through more controlled items, such as multiple choice questions or

grammar transformation items. These are often quicker to design and, crucially,

easier to mark, and produce greater scorer reliability.

Another distinction needs to be made between discrete-point testing and

integrative testing. Whereas discrete-point testing only tests one thing at a time

(such as asking students to choose the correct tense of a verb), integrative test

items expect students to use a variety of language at any one given time — as

they will have to do when writing a composition or doing a conversational oral test.

In many proficiency tests where students sit a number of different papers, there is

a mixture of direct and indirect, discrete-point and integrative testing. Test

designers find that this combination gives a good overall picture of student ability.

Placement tests often use discrete-point testing to measure students against an

existing language syllabus, but may then compare this with more direct and

integrative tasks to get a fuller picture.

C2 Indirect test item typesAlthough there is a wide range of indirect test possibilities, certain types are in

common use:

• Multiple-choice questions (MCQs): a traditional vocabulary multiple-choice

question looks like this:

The journalist was ----------------- by enemy fire as he tried to send a story by radio.62

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014a wrongedb woundedc injuredd damaged

For many years MCQs were considered to be ideal test instruments for measuring

students’ knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. Above all this was because they

were easy to mark, and since the advent of computers the answer books for these

tests can be read by machines, not people, thereby cutting out the possibility of

scorer error.

However, there are a number of problems with multiple choice questions. In the

first place, they are extremely difficult to write well, especially in the design of the

incorrect choices. These ‘distracters’ may actually put ideas into students’ heads

that they did not have before they read them. Second, while it is possible to train

students so that their MCQ abilities are enhanced, this may not actually improve

their English. The difference between two student scores maybe between the

person who has been trained in the technique and a person who has not, rather

than being a difference of language knowledge and ability.

MCQs are still widely used, but though they score highly in terms of practicality

and scorer reliability, their ‘validity’ and overall ‘reliability’ is suspect.

• Cloze procedures: cloze procedures seem to offer us the ideal indirect but

integrative testing item. They can be prepared quickly and if the claims made for

them are true, they are an extremely cost-effective way of finding out about a

testee’s overall knowledge.

Cloze, in its purest form, is the deletion of every nth word in a text (somewhere

between every fifth or tenth word). Because the procedure is random, it avoids

test designer failings. It produces test items like this:

They sat on a bench attached 1 ---------- a picnic table. Below them they 2 -------- see the river gurgling between overgrown 3 ----------. The sky was diamond blue, with 4 ---------- white clouds dancing in the freshening 5 ----------. They could hear the call of 6 ---------- and the buzzing of countless insects. 7 ---------- were completely alone.

Cloze testing seems, on the face of it, like a perfect test instrument,

since, because of the randomness of the deleted words, anything maybe tested

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014(e.g. grammar, collocation, fixed phrases, reading comprehension), and therefore

it becomes more integrative in its reach. However, it turns out that the actual score

a student gets depends on the particular words that are deleted, rather than on

any general English knowledge. Some are more difficult to supply than others,

and in some cases there are several possible answers. Even in the short sample

text above it is clear that whilst there is no doubt about items such as 1 and 8, for

example, item 4 is less predictable. Different passages produce different results.

Despite such problems of ‘reliability; doze is too useful a technique to abandon

altogether, however, because it is clear that supplying the correct word for a blank

does imply an understanding of context and a knowledge of that word and how it

operates. Perhaps it would be better, therefore, to use ‘rational’ or ‘modified’ doze

procedures where the test designer can be sure that the deleted words are

recoverable from the context. This means abandoning the completely random

nature of traditional doze procedure. Instead, every eighth or tenth word is

deleted, but the teacher has the option to delete a word to the left or right if the

context makes this more sensible.

Modified doze is useful for placement tests since students can be given texts

that they would be expected to cope with at certain levels — thus allowing us to

judge their suitability for those levels. They are useful, too, as part of a test battery

in either achievement or proficiency tests.

• Transformation and paraphrase: a common test item asks candidates to

rewrite sentences in a slightly different form, retaining the exact meaning of the

original. For example, the following item tests the candidates’ knowledge of verb

and clause patterns that are triggered by the use of I wish:

I’m sorry that I didn’t get her an anniversary present.

I wish---------------------------------------------------------------- .In order to complete the item successfully the student has to understand the first

sentence, and then know how to construct an equivalent, which is grammatically

possible. As such they do tell us something about the candidates’ knowledge of

the language system.64

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014• Sentence re-ordering: getting students to put words in the right order to make

appropriate sentences tells us quite a lot about their underlying knowledge syntax

and lexico-grammatical elements. The following example is typical:

Put the words in order to make correct sentences.

called / I / I’m / in / sorry / wasn’t / when / you

Re-ordering exercises are fairly easy to write, though it is not always possible to

ensure only one correct order.

There are many other indirect techniques too, including sentence fill-ins (Jan -------

to the gym every Tuesday morning), choosing the correct tense of verbs in

sentences and passages (I have arrived/arrived yesterday), finding errors in

sentences (She noticed about his new jacket), and choosing the correct form of a

word (He didn’t enjoy being on the (lose) -------------- side). All of these offer items

which are quick and efficient to score and which aim to tell us something about a

student’s underlying knowledge.

C3 Direct test item typesFor direct test items to achieve ‘validity’ and to be ‘reliable, test designers need to

do the following:

• Create a ‘level playing field’: in the case of a written test, teachers and

candidates would almost certainly complain about the following essay question:

Why was the discovery of DNA so important for the science of the twentieth

century?

Since it unfairly favours candidates who have sound scientific knowledge and

presupposes knowledge of twentieth-century scientific history.

However, the following topic comes close to ensuring that all candidates have the

same chance of success:

Some businesses now say that no one can smoke cigarettes in or even near any of their offices. Some governments have banned smoking in all public places, whether outside or inside. This is a good idea but it also takes away some of our freedom.

Do you agree or disagree?Give reasons for your answer.65

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014Receptive skill testing also needs to avoid making excessive demands on the

student’s general or specialist knowledge. Receptive ability testing can also be

undermined if the means of testing requires students to perform well in writing or

speaking (when it is a test of reading or listening). In such a situation we can no

longer be sure that it is the receptive skill we are measuring.

Replicate real-life interaction: in real life when people speak or write they

generally do so with some real purpose. Yet traditional writing tests have often

been based exclusively on general essay questions, and speaking tests often

included hypothetical questions about what candidates might say if they happened

to be in a certain situation. More modern test writers now include tasks which

attempt to replicate features of real life. Tests of reading and listening should also,

as far as possible, reflect real life. This means that texts should be as realistic as

possible, even where they are not authentic. Although there are ways of

assessing student understanding (using matching tasks or multiple choice

questions) which do not necessarily satisfy these criteria, test items should be as

much like real reading and listening as possible.

The following direct test item types are a few of the many which attempt to meet

the criteria we have mentioned above:

SPEAKING• an interviewer questioning a candidate about themselves

• ‘information gap’ activities where a candidate has to find out information either

from an interlocutor or a fellow candidate .

• ‘decision-making’ activities, such as showing paired candidates ten photos of

people and asking them to put them in order of the best and worst dressed.

• using pictures for candidates to compare and contrast, whether they can both

see them or whether (as in many communication games) they have found

similarities and differences without being able to look at each other’s material

• role-play activities where candidates perform tasks such as introducing

themselves, or ringing a theatre to book tickets

66

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014WRITING

• writing compositions and stories.

• ‘transactional letters’ where candidates reply to a job advertisement, or pen a

complaint to a hotel based on information given in the exam paper.

• information leaflets about their school or a place in their town.

• a set of instructions for some common task.

• newspaper articles about a recent event.

READING• multiple choice questions to test comprehension of a text.

• matching written descriptions with pictures of the items, or procedure, they

describe.

• transferring written information to charts, graphs, maps, etc. (though special care

has to be taken not to disadvantage non-mathematically minded candidates)

• choosing the best summary of a paragraph or a whole text.

• matching jumbled headings with paragraphs.

• inserting sentences provided by the examiner in the correct place in the text.

LISTENING• completing charts with facts and figures from a listening text.

• identifying which of a number of objects (pictures on the test paper) is being

described

• identifying which (out of two or three speakers) says what.

• identifying whether speakers are enthusiastic, encouraging, in disagreement, or

amused.

• following directions on a map and identifying the correct house or place.

In the interests of ’reliability’, listening tests are most often supplied on tape to

ensure that all candidates have the same opportunities, irrespective of the

speakers’ voices, speeds, or expressions. Sometimes, as in the computerized

TOEFL test, candidates work with headphones from an individual computer.

Where a group of students listen to the same tape or disk, however, we need to

be sure that the material is clearly and easily audible .

67

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014D Writing and marking testsAt various times during our teaching careers we may have to write tests for the

students we are teaching, and mark the tests they have completed for us. These

may range from a lesson test at the end of the week to an achievement test at the

end of a term or a year.

D1 Writing testsBefore designing a test and then giving it to a group of students, there are a

number

of things we need to do:

• Assess the test situation: before we start to write the test we need to remind

ourselves of the context in which the test takes place. We have to decide how

much time should be given to the test-taking, when and where it will take place,

and how much time there is for marking.

• Decide what to test: we have to list what we want to include in our test. This

means taking a conscious decision to include or exclude skills such as reading

comprehension or speaking (if speaking tests are impractical). It means knowing

what syllabus items can be legitimately included (in an achievement test), and

what kinds of topics and situations are appropriate for our students.

Just because we have a list of all the vocabulary items or grammar points the

students have studied over the term, this does not mean we have to test every

single item. If we include a representative sample from across the whole list, the

students’ success or failure with those items will be a good indicator of how well

they have learnt all of the language they have studied.

• Balance the elements: if we are to include direct and indirect test items we

have to make a decision about how many of each we should put in our test. A

200-item multiple choice test with a short real-life writing task tacked onto the end

suggests that we think that MCQs are a better way of finding out about students

than more integrative writing tasks would be.

Balancing elements involves estimating how long we want each section of the test

to take and then writing test items within those time constraints. The amount of 68

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014space and time we give to the various elements should also reflect their

importance in our teaching.

• Weight the scores: however well we have balanced the elements in our test,

our perception of our students’ success or failure will depend upon how many

marks are given to each section or sections of the test. If we give two marks for

each of our ten MCQs, but only one mark for each of our ten transformation items,

it means that it is more important for students to do well in the former than in the

latter.

• Making the test work: it is absolutely vital that we try out individual items and/or

whole tests on colleagues and students alike before administering them to real

candidates.

When we write test items, the first thing to do is to get fellow teachers to try them

out. Frequently they spot problems, which we are not aware of and/or come up

with possible answers, and alternatives that we had not anticipated.

Later, having made changes based on our colleagues’ reactions, we will want to

try out the test on students. We will not do this with the students who are going to

take the test, of course, but if we can find a class that is roughly similar - or a class

one level above the proposed test - then we will soon find out what items cause

unnecessary problems. We can also discover how long the test takes. Such

trialling is designed to avoid disaster, and to yield a whole range of possible

answers/responses to the various test items. This means that when other people

finally mark the test we can give them a list of possible alternatives and thus

ensure reliable scoring.

D2 Marking testsWhen Cyril Weir gave copies of the same eight exam scripts to his postgraduate

students they marked them first on the basis of ‘impressionistic’ marking out of a

possible total of 20 marks. The results were alarming. Some scorers gave higher

marks overall than others. But for some of the EFL student scripts, the range of 69

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014marks was excessive. For one script the lowest mark awarded was 5, whereas

another scorer gave it 20. For another the range was 1-15. As Cyril Weir writes

‘the worst scripts ... if they had been marked by certain markers, might have been

given higher marks than the best scripts !

There are a number of solutions to this kind of scorer subjectivity:

• Training: if scorers have seen examples of scripts at various different levels and

discussed what marks they should be given, then their marking is likely to be less

erratic than if they come to the task fresh. If scorers are allowed to watch and

discuss videoed oral tests, they can be trained to ‘rate the samples of spoken

English accurately and consistently in terms of the pre-defined descriptions of

performance ’

• More than one scorer: reliability can be greatly enhanced by having more than

one scorer. The more people who look at a script, the greater the chance that its

true worth will be located somewhere between the various scores it is given. Two

examiners watching an oral test are likely to agree a more reliable score than one.

Many public examination boards use moderators whose job it is to check samples

of individual scorers’ work to see that it conforms with the general standards laid

down for the exam.

• Global assessment scales: a way of specifying scores that can be given to

productive skill work is to create ‘pre-defined descriptions of performance. Such

descriptions say what students need to be capable of in order to gain the required

marks, as in the following assessment (or rating) scale for oral ability:

Score Description0 -The candidate is almost unintelligible, uses words wrongly, and shows no sign

of any grammatical understanding.

1 -The candidate is able to transmit only very basic ideas using individual words

rather than phrases or fuller patterns of discourse. Speech is very hesitant and the

pronunciation makes intelligibility difficult

2 -The candidate transmits basic ideas in a fairly stilted way. Pronunciation is

sometimes problematic and there are examples of grammatical and lexical 70

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014misuse and gaps which impede communication on occasions.

3 -The candidate transmits ideas moderately clearly. Speech is somewhat

hesitant and there are frequent lapses in grammar and vocabulary use.

Nevertheless, the candidate makes him/herself understood

4 -The candidate speaks fairly fluently, showing an ability to communicate ideas

with not too much trouble. There are some problems of grammatical accuracy

and some words are inappropriately used.

5 -The candidate speaks fluently with few obvious mistakes and a wide variety of

lexis and expression. Pronunciation is almost always intelligible, and there is little

difficulty in communicating ideas

Global assessment scales are not without problems, however: perhaps the

description does not exactly match the student who is speaking as in a case for

the scale above where he or she had very poor pronunciation but was

nevertheless grammatically accurate. There is also the danger that different

teachers will not agree on the meaning of scale descriptors’. Global assessment,

on its own, still falls short of the kind of reliability we wish to achieve.

• Analytic profiles: marking gets more reliable when a student’s performance is

analyzed in much greater detail. Instead of just a general assessment, marks are

awarded for different elements.

For oral assessment we can judge a student’s speaking in a number of different

ways such as pronunciation, fluency, use of lexis and grammar, and intelligibility.

We may want to rate their ability to get themselves out of trouble (repair skills) and

how well they successfully completed the task which we set them.

The resulting analytic profile might end up looking like this:

Criteria Score (see analytic scales)PronunciationFluencyUse of vocabulary

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Use of grammarIntelligibilityRepair skillsTask completion

For each separate criterion, we can now provide a separate ‘analytic scale’ as in

the following example for fluency:

Score Description0 The candidate cannot get words or phrases out at all.

1 The candidate speaks hesitatingly in short, interrupted bursts.

2 The candidate speaks slowly with frequent pauses.

3 The candidate speaks at a comfortable speed with quite a lot of pauses and hesitations

4 The candidate speaks at a comfortable speed with only an occasional pause or upset.

5 The candidate speaks quickly with few hesitations.

A combination of global and analytic scoring gives us the best chance of reliable

marking. However, a profusion of criteria may make the marking of a test

extremely lengthy and cumbersome; test designers and administrators will have to

decide how to accommodate the competing claims of reliability and practicality.

• Scoring and interacting during oral tests: scorer reliability in oral tests is

helped not only by global assessment scores and analytic profiles but also by

separating the role of scorer (or examiner) from the role of interlocutor (the

examiner who guides and provokes conversation). This may cause practical

problems, hut it will allow the scorer to observe and assess, free from the

responsibility of keeping the interaction with the candidate or candidates going.

In many tests of speaking, students are now put in pairs or groups for certain

tasks since it is felt that this will ensure genuine interaction, and will help to relax

students in a way that interlocutor—candidate interaction might fail to do on its

own. However, at least one commentator worries that pairing students in this way

leads candidates to perform below their level of proficiency, and that when

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014students with the same mother tongue are paired together their intelligibility to the

examiner may suffer.

E Teaching the testWhen students are preparing for a public exam or school test it is the teacher’s

responsibility not only to help them get their English to the level required, but also

familiarize them with the kinds of exam items they are likely to encounter, and give

them training in how to succeed.

Students can be prepared for future tests and exams in a variety of ways:

• Training for test types: we can show the various test types and ask them what

the item is testing so that they are clear about what is required. We can help them

to understand what the test or exam designer is aiming for; by showing them the

kind of marking scales that are used, we can make them aware of what

constitutes success. We can then give them training to help them approach such

items more effectively. After they have completed a test item type we can tell them

what score an examiner might give and why. We will also equip students with

appropriate negotiating language to help them get over awkward moments in such

tasks.

When training students to handle reading test items we will discuss with

them the best way to approach a first reading of the text, and how that can be

modified on second reading to allow them to answer the questions provided.

If the test or exam is likely to contain multiple choice questions, we can help

students to appreciate the advantages of finding the obvious distractor(s) first.

They can then work out what similarities and differences the other distractors have

so that they can identify the area of meaning or grammar that is being targeted.

• Discussing general exam skills: most students benefit from being reminded

about general test and exam skills, without which much of the work they do will be

wasted. Such general skills for written tests include studying questions properly,

and then reading them again so that they are absolutely sure what they should do.

Students need to check their work over thoroughly before considering that they

have finished. They need to pace themselves so that they do not spend a 73

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014disproportionate amount of time on only one part of an exam.

• Doing practice tests: students need a chance to practise taking the test or

exam so that they get a feel for the experience, especially with regard to issues

such as pacing. At various points in a course students can sit practice papers, or

whole practice tests, but this should not be done too often since not only will it

give teachers horrific marking schedules, but it will also be less productive than

other test and exam preparation procedures are.

• Promoting autonomy: although we can do a lot of exam preparation in class,

we need to impress on students that their chances of success are far greater if

they study and revise on their own. We will want them to read more, listen more,

work on self-study exercises, and use dictionaries and other means to build up

their language store. All of these activities are desirable for any student, but are

especially appropriate when an exam is approaching.

• Having fun: just because students need to practise certain test types does not

mean this has to be done in a boring or tense manner. There are a number of

ways of having fun with tests and exams.

If a typical test item asks candidates to put words in order to make sentences

(see B2 above), the teacher might prepare the class for this kind of item by giving

students a number of words on cards which they have to physically assemble into

sentences. They can hold them above their heads (so that they cannot see the

words on them) and their classmates have to tell them where to stand to make a

‘human sentence’ Students can play ‘transformation tennis’ where one student

‘serves’ a sentence, e.g. India is the country I would like to visit more than any

other and the receiving student has to reply with a transformation starting with The

country, e.g. The country I would most like to visit is India. They can change the

sex of all the people in direct and indirect test items to see if the items still work

and if not, why not.

Students can be encouraged to write their own test items, based on language

they have been working on and the examples they have seen so far. The new test

items can now be given to other students to see how well they have been written 74

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014and how difficult they are. This helps students to get into the minds of their test

and exam writers.

• Ignoring the test: if students who are studying for an exam only ever look at test

types, discuss exam technique, and take practice tests, lessons may become

monotonous. There is also the possibility that general English improvement will be

compromised at the expense of exam preparation.

Designing Test QuestionsDescriptions follow with uses, advantages, disadvantages, and tips for writing

test questions in the following formats .

True/False Matching Multiple Choice Short Answer EssayOral Exams

Student Portfolios Performance

1 -True/False Questions

Good for Knowledge level content

Evaluating student understanding of popular misconceptions

Concepts with two logical responses

Advantages Can test large amounts of content

Students can answer 3-4 questions per minute

Disadvantages They are easy

It is difficult to discriminate between students who know the material and

those who don't

Students have a 50-50 chance of getting the right answer by guessing

Need a large number of items for high reliability

Tips for Writing Good True/False items Avoid double negatives.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Avoid long/complex sentences.

Use specific determinants with caution: never, only, all, none, always, could,

might, can, may, sometimes, generally, some, few.

Use only one central idea in each item .

Don't emphasize the trivial.

Use exact quantitative language

Don't lift items straight from the book.

Make more false than true (60/40). (Students are more likely to answer true.)

2 -Matching

Good for Knowledge level

Some comprehension level, if appropriately constructed

Types Terms with definitions

Phrases with other phrases

Causes with effects

Parts with larger units

Problems with solutions

Advantages Maximum coverage at knowledge level in a minimum amount of space/prep

time

Valuable in content areas that have a lot of facts

Disadvantages Time consuming for students

Not good for higher levels of learning

Tips for Writing Good Matching items Need 15 items or less.

Give good directions on basis for matching.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Use items in response column more than once (reduces the effects of

guessing).

Use homogenous material in each exercise.

Make all responses plausible.

Put all items on a single page.

Put response in some logical order (chronological, alphabetical, etc.).

Responses should be short.

1- Multiple Choice

Good for Application, synthesis, analysis, and evaluation levels

Types * Question/Right answer.

* Incomplete statement

* Best answer

Advantages Very effective

Versatile at all levels

Minimum of writing for student

Guessing reduced

Can cover broad range of content

Disadvantages Difficult to construct good test items.

Difficult to come up with plausible distractors/alternative responses.

Tips for Writing Good --- items Stem should present single, clearly formulated problem.

Stem should be in simple, understood language; delete extraneous words.

Avoid "all of the above"--can answer based on partial knowledge (if one is

incorrect or two are correct, but unsure of the third...).

Avoid "none of the above."

Make all distractors plausible/homoegenous.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Don't overlap response alternatives (decreases discrimination between

students

who know the material and those who don't).

Don't use double negatives.

Present alternatives in logical or numerical order.

Place correct answer at random (A answer is most often).

Make each item independent of others on test.

Way to judge a good stem: student's who know the content should be able to

answer before reading the alternatives

List alternatives on separate lines, indent, separate by blank line, use

letters vs. numbers for alternative answers.

Need more than 3 alternatives, 4 is best.

4 -Short AnswerGood for Application, synthesis, analysis, and evaluation levels

Advantages Easy to construct

Good for "who," what," where," "when" content

Minimizes guessing

Encourages more intensive study-student must know the answer vs.

recognizing the answer.

Disadvantages May overemphasize memorization of facts

Take care - questions may have more than one correct answer

Scoring is laborious

Tips for Writing Good short answer items When using with definitions: supply term, not the definition-for a better judge

of student knowledge.

For numbers, indicate the degree of precision/units expected.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Use direct questions, not an incomplete statement.

If you do use incomplete statements, don't use more than 2 blanks within an

item.

Arrange blanks to make scoring easy.

Try to phrase question so there is only one answer possible.

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

6-Oral Exams

80

5 -Essay

Good for Application, synthesis and evaluation levels

Types Extended response: synthesis and evaluation levels; a lot of freedom in

answers

Restricted response: more consistent scoring, outlines parameters of

responses

Advantages Students less likely to guess

Easy to construct

Stimulates more study

Allows students to demonstrate ability to organize knowledge, express

opinions, show originality.

Disadvantages Can limit amount of material tested, therefore has decreased validity.

Subjective, potentially unreliable scoring.

Time consuming to score.

Tips for Writing Good Essay items Provide reasonable time limits for thinking and writing.

Avoid letting them to answer a choice of questions (You won't get a good

idea of the broadness of student achievement when they only answer a set

of questions.)

Give definitive task to student-compare, analyze, evaluate, etc.

Use checklist point system to score with a model answer: write outline,

determine how many points to assign to each part

Score one question at a time-all at the same time.

Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Good for * Knowledge, synthesis, evaluation levels

Advantages Useful as an instructional tool-allows students to learn at the same time as

testing.

Allows teacher to give clues to facilitate learning.

Useful to test speech and foreign language competencies.

Disadvantages Time consuming to give and take.

Could have poor student performance because they haven't had much

practice with it.

Provides no written record without checklists.

7 -Student Portfolios

Good for Knowledge, application, synthesis, evaluation levels

Advantages Can assess compatible skills: writing, documentation, critical thinking,

problem solving

Can allow student to present totality of learning.

Students become active participants in the evaluation process.

Disadvantages Can be difficult and time consuming to grade.

8 -Performance

Good for Application of knowledge, skills, abilities

Advantages Measures some skills and abilities not possible to measure in other ways

Disadvantages Can not be used in some fields of study

Difficult to construct

Difficult to grade

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Training Course for the teachers of slow learners 2013 – 2014

Time-consuming to give and take

References:

- English language teaching. Jeremy Harmer.

- Grayson H. Walker Teaching Resource Center.

- Internet sites:

o TA handbook: Part III http://www.temple.edu/ATTIC/tahand03.html

o http://www.onestopenglish.com

ELT General Supervision

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