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Vulnerability of Water Resourcesand

Wastewater Reuse

OHGAKI, Shinichiro

Science Council of Asia (SCA)Joint Project meeting on Sustainable Water Resources Management in AsiaMarch 11, 2008Bangkok,with JST-Asian Science and Technology Seminar (ASTS)

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Vulnerability of Water System

Natural vulnerability 自然的脆弱性

- Uncertainty of rainfall snowfall 降雨降雪は、不安定、不確定なもの。

- Uneven distribution of fresh water 淡水資源は偏在。偏在が容易に移動。

- Eco-system is sensitive to water quantity and quantity. 自然生態系生物群

は、水の量と質に敏感。

- All impacts connects to all water components. 循環系ゆえ、一部の変化が水

環境・水資源全体へ広く影響。

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Social vulnerability 社会的脆弱性

-Necessities for sanitation, but water conveys pathogens 衛生的環境を維

持するための素材であるが、疾病を伝播する媒体でもある。

-Supply capacity has been designed for demands, and dose not haveenough margin. それぞれの地域で、水利用のシステムは、基本的には必要

量のみに対応している。降水量の大きな変動など外的変動への適応力は小さい。

-Sensitive to natural disasters 自然災害（地震、洪水、渇水、津波、火山噴

火など）の影響を受けやすい。

-Local and international conflicts for water resources 同じ水資源を巡り、 異

なる利水間で生じる。国際的不安材料。

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Water system in Asia experience six major surges simultaneously:

-Increasing urban population,-Rapid economic growth and centralization,-Unprecedented technological development,-Social and cultural fragmentation, and -Surge of economic globalization-Climate change (mitigation and adaptation)

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Many kind of threats to water resources and water environment especially in mega-cities and the surrounding areas.

These surges cause;

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Natural disaster (extreme case)Groundwater and well damage due to Tsunami

(Sri Lanka, December 2004 )

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8(Dr. Ohta, Center for Sustainable Urban Regeneration, The Univ. of Tokyo)

10 million

Social vulnerability = urbanization Urban Population Distribution of in Africa, Eurasia and Australia Continents

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8 urban regions were over 10 millions 30 urban regions were over 5 millions

(Prof.Okata, cSUR, UT,2008)

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19 urban regions were over 10 millions 41 regions were over 5 millions

(Prof.Okata, cSUR, UT,2008)

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23 urban regions will be over 10 millions, 60 regions will be over 5 millions, 627 millions people will live in these 60 Megacities

(Prof.Okata, cSUR, UT,2008)

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Bandung, Indonesia Bangkok, Thailand

Correlations between regional GDP and groundwater use

(IGES Policy Brief #4, March 2006)

“Surge of economic globalization” caused the change of water use in mega-cities.

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KobeYodo River

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Earthquake (South Hyougo Pref. 1995)

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Urgent stand taps (Ashiya city)

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凡　　例

地点名称（ケース区分）BOD(mg/L)NH4-N(mg/L)

大腸菌群数(個/cm3)

クリプトスポリジウム(個/L)

洛南T放流平常時→ケース①→②=③

18.3→128.1→183.02.07→20.7→20.7

225→22,500→225,000

3.0→100.0→100.0

鳥羽T放流平常時→ケース①→②=③

17.5→122.5→175.01.11→11.1→11.1

105→10,500→105,000

3.0→100.0→100.0

吉祥院T放流平常時→ケース①→②=③

20.1→140.7→201.02.45→24.5→24.5

109→10,900→109,000

3.0→100.0→100.0

伏見T放流平常時→ケース①→②=③

18.5→129.5→185.01.14→11.4→11.4

161→16,100→161,000

3.0→100.0→100.0

石田T放流平常時→ケース①→②=③

18.9→132.3→189.01.55→15.5→15.5

262→26,200→262,000

3.0→100.0→100.0洛西T放流平常時→ケース①→②=③

15.4→107.8→154.01.64→16.4→16.4

145→14,500→145,000

3.0→100.0→100.0

淀川（枚方地点）平常時→ケース①→②→③

1.1→10.0→14.4→13.60.05→1.09→1.09→0.99

434→1,590→12,100→17,800

0.0→8.1→8.1→11.0

冬期結果

下流側には

８ヶ所の浄水場

（すべて高度浄水処理）（出典：藤木修ほか；京都大学環境衛生工学研究会第28回シンポジウム、に加筆）

Yodo river: an example of unintended wastewater reuse for drinking water

8 water purification plants (advanced treatment)

6 Sewage Treatment Plants

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ｸﾘﾌﾟﾄｽﾎﾟﾘｼﾞｳﾑ（Cryptosporidium parvum）

・USA, WisconsinMilwaukee （1993）：

about 400,000 cases

・ Ogose City, Saitama Pref. (1996）：

about 8800cases

（国立感染症研究所寄生動物部ホームページより）

（diameter about ５μｍ）

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Various scale of Water Utilities in Japan (as of March 31, 2006)

Utility scale No. of utilities Population served

More than 5000 people 1,602 117,790,000

Less than 5000 people 7,794 5,790,000

Small scaled 7,611 550,000

Total 17,109 124,120,000

(Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan)

(Another social vulnerability)

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Change of Vulnerability and Adaptation

2008past future

VU

LNE

RA

BIL

ITY

high

low

Adaptation Climate Change

Measures against; Disasters, Health risk, Accidental water pollution,...

Policies for;Energy saving, Water quality improvement, Well governance,……

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Various Atmospheric Temperature in the World

StockholmDe Bilt (Netherlands)BangkokSingaporeBeijingNew YorkSeattleMelbourneSapporoTokyoNaha (Okinawa)

Range of Monthly Average (oC)-5 0 10 20 30

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(Original data source: 2007-Chronological Scientific Tables,National Astronomical Observatory, Japan)

Locally specific solutions are required.

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Extreme droughts

※気象庁資料に基づき国土交通省水資源部で試算

Increasing extreme cases of annual precipitation

Trend of annual precipitation of Japan（1900年～2004）

1994-Drought

22細線：毎年の数値太線：11年移動平均値出典：異常気象リポート2005，気象庁

Trend of Deepest-Snowfall at the Sea of Japan sides

Rat

io to

nor

mal

yea

r dat

a (%

)

North JapanEast JapanWest Japan

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名古屋市

100

200

300

400

500

600

-40 -20 0 20 40

（昭和５３～平成元年）

Wat

er d

eman

d, L

/cap

.d

Atmospheric Temperature （℃）

Water Demand vs. Atmospheric Temperature( Nagoya City, 1978-1989)

出典：建設省土木研究所「平成6年度地球温暖化が水需要に及ぼす影響に関する検討業務」

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Impacts due to 1994 Drought in Japan- 11.8 million people suffered reduced pressure and

intermittent water supply in west Japan.- Around 80% of water environment quality

monitoring station data became worse than 1993.- Land subsidence due to increased groundwater

use:Noubi Plains (Nagoya and surrounding area)subsidence >2cm 1-2cm

1992 2 76 (unit: monitoring1993 0 0 points No. out of1994 69 545 around 1500)1995 1 191996 3 36

（Source; 原沢・西岡編著、地球温暖化と日本、古今書院、２００３）

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Some adaptation options for water supply and demand (the list is not exhaustive)by 4th-IPCC-AR(WGII)

.

Source: IPCC the 4th Assessment Report 2007 WGII Chapter 3, p197,Table 3.5

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Source: IPCC the 4th Assessment Report 2007 WGII Chapter 3, p197,Table 3.5.

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Kagawa Prefecture

Wastewater reuse in agricultural area

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Tadotsu City

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Wastewater reuse system in Tadotsu City, Kagawa Pref

Wastewater Treatment P.

Filter+O3+Act.Carbon（高速濾過、オゾン、活性炭）

Landscape reuse

Recharge to GW

Water Purif. P.(ＲＯ，ＮＦ)

Unc

onfin

ed G

W浅

井戸

Water supply

Wastewater

9 Ponds for agriculturalirrigation

Recharge to stream, orAgric. Irrigation inhigh demand season

１０，０００ｍ３／d

Seto-naikai Sea

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Small landscape reuse

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Wastewater Reclamation Plant (Filter+O3+Activated Carbon)

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Groundwater Recharging Point

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Agricultural Irrigation Pond

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another Agricultural Irrigation Pond

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Irrigation Channel

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Water Purification Plant (ＲＯ and ＮＦ)raw water : unconfined groundwater

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Tokyo Area

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Yagisawa Dam

Fujiwara DamAimata Dam

Yatsuba Dam

Takizawa Dam

Naramata Dam

Tokura Dam

Kuriharakawa Dam

Sonohara DamKusaki Dam

Ogouchi Dam

Sagami Dam

Shiroyama Dam

Urayama Dam

Shimokubo Dam Edogawa riv.

Arakawa riv.

Tamagawa riv.

Tonegawa riv.

Nakagawa riv.

Sagamigawa riv.

Yamaguchi Res. Murayama Res.

Watarase Res.

Watarasegawa riv.

Arakawa Res.

Kasumigaura

Water ChannelsWater Treatment Plants

Water Network in Tokyo

Modified from the source: Bureau of Waterworks, TMG © S.Ishii, COE Project, Tokyo University

under construction

DamsIn operation

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watershed

watershed

watershed

Natural environment

Reuse,Recycle

Tokyo Area

Structure of water flow in Tokyo

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Copyright:Hajime Ishikawa@Tokyo Canal Project

Artery of water in Tokyo downtown

10 km

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Copyright:Hajime Ishikawa@Tokyo Canal Project

10 km

Vein of water in Tokyo downtown

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Copyright:Hajime Ishikawa@Tokyo Canal Project

43Copyright (C) JAPAN STAINLESS STEEL ASSOCIATION All rights reserved

Stainless steel pipe for service pipesSt

ainl

ess

stee

l pip

e fo

r ser

vice

pip

es

Leakage rate

Leak

age

rate

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Around Tokyo Bay

Kitakyushu

Total 3,047 facilities(as of 2005)

Comparison of Wastewater Reuse Facilities Implementationin Area

45Total 3,047 facilities(as of 2005)

Comparison of Wastewater Reuse Facilities Implementationin Building Purposes

Office

School

Conference Hall

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Shinjuku Area

Ochiai Sewage Treatment Plant

Reclaimed Wastewater Use for Toilet Flush in Skyscrapers and Tokyo City Hall, Shinjuku, Tokyo

(Tokyo Metropolitan Government)

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Supply Destinations of Reclaimed Waterfrom Shibaura Wastewater Treatment Plant

Osaki Shinagawa Shiodome

Shibaura STP

TrainWashing

Road Sprinkling

Miscellaneous Water Use

Toilet Flushing

(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan)

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Ozone Tolerance Membrane Separation Systemfor Reclamation of Effluent from Sewage Treatment Plant (Shibaura STP)

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Cos

t(ye

n/m

3)

10 US$

Water Use ( m3 / day )

(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Japan; Water Resources in Japan,2005ver.)

Water supply and wastewater discharge cost

Reclamation and recycle cost

Cost of reclamation and recycle

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Desalination (Fukuoka city)UF + RO + NF(訂正要）

50,000 m3/d

RO膜UF膜（写真出典：東京工業大学・浦瀬太郎准教授ＨＰより)

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Mexico City: Wastewater Use for Irrigation

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Mexico City

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Tianjin City, China:Wastewater Reuse for Toilet Flushing

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Residential area using reclaimed wastewater

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Impacts on quality :need researchStrategy of adaptation against Extreme weather (including low temp and cold ) By-impacts on society by Water supply suspending

is it the same as disaster Operation and maintenance Beyond sectorsDemand sideSupply sideEstimation of cost due to risks

Clarify What kind of information on climate change is required for adaptation by water utilities

Sea water use for toilet flushingin Hong Kong

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Limitation to adaptation and adaptive capacity

IPCC-AR-WGII-Chap.3 says (extracts):1.Physical limit;

e.g.,- impossible to reduce water demand for health, - impossible to adapt where rivers dry up completely……

2.Economic constrains to what is affordable.3.Political and social limits ;

e.g., -to construct new reservoirs, -to reducing standards of water supply services……….

4. The capacity of water management agencies and the water management system as a whole may act as a limit on which adaptation measures (if any) can be implemented.

e.g.; -lack of coordination between agencies, -tensions between national, regional and local scales, -uncertainty over future climate change impacts constrain the ability of organisations to adapt to changes in water supply and flood risk.

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Proposed Concepts on Adaptation to Climate Change (for water supply)

1. Water supply system has various natural and social vulnerable points. These points will be attacked by extreme weather conditions and frequent and/or extended droughts due to climate change.

2. These vulnerable points are locally specific . Water utilities should develop locally specific and flexible measures against extreme weather in cooperation with other sectors, such as wastewater sectors, agricultural sectors.

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3. It is necessary to accelerate drawing up adaptation policies and research/development for adaptation technologies coupled with conventional measures against conventional vulnerabilities.

4. Economic constrains for the implementation should be analyzed quantitatively for public consensus.

5. Impacts of climate change on water quality related to water supply and water environment have been uncertain, and the research on this issues is required.

6. Information which water supply sides need for adaptation policy should be conveyed to climate change researchers.

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Thank you

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SCA: Science Council of Asia

The first SCA conference was held in Bangkok in May 2001.

Next Annual Conference : Qingdao, China, May 27-30, 2008

President (one year term): Prof. Feng Changgen, China

Secretary: Science Council of Japan

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Member countries and organizations:China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Rep. of Korea, Malaysia, Mongolia, The Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam

Joint Project“Sustainable Water Resources Management in Asia” just started.