Water Problems in Monsoon Asia andInternational Contribution

based on Japan’s Experiences

Katumi Katumi MusiakeMusiakeProfessor, Fukushima UniversityProfessor, Fukushima University

Professor Emeritus, University of TokyoProfessor Emeritus, University of Tokyo

モンスーン・アジアの水問題と日本の経験を生かした国際貢献モンスーン・アジアの水問題と日本の経験を生かした国際貢献モンスーン・アジアの水問題と日本の経験を生かした国際貢献モンスーン・アジアの水問題と日本の経験を生かした国際貢献

Contents of My Talk

• To make an overview of “global water problems”

• To clarify what characterizes water problems inmonsoon Asia, especially in humid Asia, anddescribe several examples of water problemsparticular to humid Asia.

• To discuss about international cooperation and contribution in the field of water management, based on Japan’s experiences.

Population & Human Activity Increases

Food Production

Limited Natural Capacity

Climate Change EnvironmentalDeterioration

•• Imbalance between Water Supply & DemandImbalance between Water Supply & Demand•• Water PollutionWater Pollution•• Increase in Increase in WaterWater--related Disasterrelated Disaster PotentialPotential

Energy Consumption

Structure of “Global Water Crisis”Structure of “Global Water Crisis”

Population　　　　in　　　　Future（（（（U.N.　　　　Middle)　人口推計・予測人口推計・予測人口推計・予測人口推計・予測 ((((中位推計中位推計中位推計中位推計))))

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2000

2000

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

2050

2050

2050

YearYearYearYear

Popula

tion (

mill

ions)

Popula

tion (

mill

ions)

Popula

tion (

mill

ions)

Popula

tion (

mill

ions)

OceaniaOceaniaOceaniaOceaniaN. AmericaN. AmericaN. AmericaN. America

C.&S. AmericaC.&S. AmericaC.&S. AmericaC.&S. America

EuropeEuropeEuropeEurope

AsiaAsiaAsiaAsia

AfricaAfricaAfricaAfrica

Projection of World Population（（（（U.N.　　　　Middle)　

６０％

６０％

６０％

６０％

Increment：：：：1.7Billion Rate：５２％：５２％：５２％：５２％

Increment：：：：1.1Billion Rate：：：：161％％％％

Water Scarcity with a Index of Available Water per Capita(by Oki, T. et al)

High Water Stress 　　　　Low

0000 2000200020002000 4000400040004000 6000600060006000

1995199519951995

2025202520252025

EuropeEuropeEuropeEurope

N. AmericaN. AmericaN. AmericaN. America

AfricaAfricaAfricaAfrica

AsiaAsiaAsiaAsia

C.&S.C.&S.C.&S.C.&S.AmericaAmericaAmericaAmerica

OceaniaOceaniaOceaniaOceania

(billion ｍｍｍｍ３３３３)

Global Water Problems –Increase in Global Water Demand

WorldWorldWorldWorld’s Populations Populations Populations Population　　　　Approx. 6 billion (2000Approx. 6 billion (2000Approx. 6 billion (2000Approx. 6 billion (2000））））

Among them:Among them:Among them:Among them:

・・・・ 2.4 billion lack access to good sanitation2.4 billion lack access to good sanitation2.4 billion lack access to good sanitation2.4 billion lack access to good sanitation

・・・・ 1.2 billion lack access to safe water1.2 billion lack access to safe water1.2 billion lack access to safe water1.2 billion lack access to safe water　　　　 ・・・・ 5 to 10 million die every year due to water5 to 10 million die every year due to water5 to 10 million die every year due to water5 to 10 million die every year due to water----relatedrelatedrelatedrelated

diseasesdiseasesdiseasesdiseases

Global Water ProblemsGlobal Water Problems－－－－－－－－Water Shortage & PollutionWater Shortage & Pollution

“Too Little Water” Problems

Global Water Problems Global Water Problems ––Natural DisastersNatural Disasters

Source：World Disasters Report 1999, 2001

Populat ion affected by Natural HazardsPopulat ion affected by Natural HazardsPopulat ion affected by Natural HazardsPopulat ion affected by Natural Hazards

0000

20202020

40404040

60606060

80808080

100100100100

120120120120

140140140140

160160160160

180180180180

1973 to1973 to1973 to1973 to1977197719771977

1978 to1978 to1978 to1978 to1982198219821982

1983 to1983 to1983 to1983 to1987198719871987

1988 to1988 to1988 to1988 to1992199219921992

1993 to1993 to1993 to1993 to1997199719971997

1998 to1998 to1998 to1998 to2000200020002000

million p

eople

million p

eople

million p

eople

million p

eople

Ear thquakeEarthquakeEarthquakeEarthquake

Drought/FamineDrought/FamineDrought/FamineDrought/Famine

FloodsFloodsFloodsFloods

High windHigh windHigh windHigh wind

Land Sl ideLand Sl ideLand Sl ideLand Sl ide

Vo lcandVolcandVolcandVolcand

OthersOthersOthersOthers

Increase in “Too Much Water” Problems

被災人口被災人口被災人口被災人口

AsiaAsiaAsiaAsia AmericaAmericaAmericaAmerica Mid.EastMid.EastMid.EastMid.East／／／／AfricaAfricaAfricaAfrica RegionRegionRegionRegion

TypeTypeTypeType EASEASEASEAS SAASAASAASAA SASSASSASSAS NOANOANOANOA CAMCAMCAMCAM SAMSAMSAMSAM

EuropeEuropeEuropeEurope

MEAMEAMEAMEA CAFCAFCAFCAF SAFSAFSAFSAF

CaribbeanCaribbeanCaribbeanCaribbean PacificPacificPacificPacific

FloodsFloodsFloodsFloods 130130130130 42424242 10 10 10 10 78787878

35353535 5555 3 27 3 27 3 27 3 27

10101010

19191919 9 1 99 1 99 1 99 1 9

2222

6666

TropicalTropicalTropicalTropical StormsStormsStormsStorms

84848484 41414141 1 1 1 1 42424242

13131313 8888 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1

0000

5555 1 0 41 0 41 0 41 0 4

11111111

40404040

SSSStorms, Othertorms, Othertorms, Othertorms, Other 27272727 8 0 8 0 8 0 8 0 19191919

10101010 9999 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

1111

4444 3 1 03 1 03 1 03 1 0

0000

4444

LandslidesLandslidesLandslidesLandslides 26262626 9999 5 5 5 5 12121212

20202020 1111 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18

3333

3333 0 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 3

1111

1111

DroughtDroughtDroughtDrought 6666 2 4 02 4 02 4 02 4 0

0000 0 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 0

0000

15151515 0 11 40 11 40 11 40 11 4

0000

0000

Food ShortFood ShortFood ShortFood Short ----agesagesagesages/ Famine/ Famine/ Famine/ Famine

1111 0 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 0

0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0000

3333 0 1 20 1 20 1 20 1 2

0000

4444

EarthquakesEarthquakesEarthquakesEarthquakes 34343434 10 10 1310 10 1310 10 1310 10 13

20202020 4 5 114 5 114 5 114 5 11

22222222 22222222 19 2 119 2 119 2 119 2 1

0000 4444

EpidemicsEpidemicsEpidemicsEpidemics 41414141 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 34343434

16161616 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 14141414

1111 74747474 3 3 3 3 49494949 22222222

0000 0000

OtherOtherOtherOther 31313131 6 5 206 5 206 5 206 5 20

21212121 14 2 514 2 514 2 514 2 5

7777

5555 2 2 12 2 12 2 12 2 1

1111

7777

Record of World Disasters Causing 100 or More of Deaths , 1963~1992, Classified by Region and Cause of Disaster

（（（（Source: Disaster around the World Source: Disaster around the World Source: Disaster around the World Source: Disaster around the World – A Global and Regional View, World Conf. on IDNDR, Yokohama, JapA Global and Regional View, World Conf. on IDNDR, Yokohama, JapA Global and Regional View, World Conf. on IDNDR, Yokohama, JapA Global and Regional View, World Conf. on IDNDR, Yokohama, Japan, an, an, an, May 1994May 1994May 1994May 1994））））

•The number of disasters which caused 100 or more of deaths in one event

•Aggregated country-base statistics for 30 years from 1963 to 1992

Disasters related to “too much water” such as floods, storms and landslides are much more serious in Asia than in North America/Europe or in Mid. East/Africa.

Roughly speaking, the frequency of serious flood disasters in North America/ Europe or in Mid. East/Africa is one order less compared to that in Asia.

Cause

死者１００人以上死者１００人以上死者１００人以上死者１００人以上の件数の件数の件数の件数

Regional classification for the above tableRegional classification for the above tableRegional classification for the above tableRegional classification for the above table

EAS(Eastern Asia): Japan, Democratic Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, People’s Republic of China, Republic of China, Mongolia, Hong KongMacao, Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea, Thailand, Myanmar

SAA(Southeastern Asia/Australia): New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia,Malaysia

SAS(Southern Asia): Bangladesh, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan, AfghanistanNOA(North America): Canada, United States, MexicoCNA(Central America): Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,

PanamaSAM(South America): Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, Peru,

Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, ArgentinaMEA(Middle East/North Africa): Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Bahrain,

Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen,Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco

CAF(Central Africa): Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Sudan, Chad,Central Africa, Cameroon,Niger, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Senegal,Gambia, Mauritania, Cape Verde

SAF(Southern Africa): Mauritius, Madagascar, Comoros, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, Congo, Zambia, Botswana, South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Gabon,Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome & Principe

Climatic ConditionsClimatic ConditionsClimatic Conditions

Land ConditionsLand ConditionsLand Conditions

Human Activities(Human Intervention to

the Natural Environment)

Human ActivitiesHuman Activities(Human Intervention to(Human Intervention to

the Natural Environment)the Natural Environment)

HydrologicalHydrological CycleCycle

What Characterizes Regional Characteristics of Water Problems ?

We take three factors – climatic and land conditions, andhuman activities (human intervention to the natural environment) - in order to characterize regional regions in water problems.

気候条件気候条件気候条件気候条件

土地条件土地条件土地条件土地条件

人間活動人間活動人間活動人間活動

What Characterizes each of Factors to ExpressRegional Characteristics of Water Problems in Humid Asia

From a Macroscopic Point of View ?

Climatic Conditions Asian Monsoon Climates(Temperate Humid + Humid Tropics=Warm-humid)Climatic Conditions Asian Monsoon Climates

(Temperate Humid + Humid Tropics=Warm-humid)

Land Conditions Tectonic zones（（（（変動帯／造山帯）変動帯／造山帯）変動帯／造山帯）変動帯／造山帯）Land Conditions Tectonic zones（（（（変動帯／造山帯）変動帯／造山帯）変動帯／造山帯）変動帯／造山帯）

Human Activities particular to Humid Asia Paddy Cultivation, Mountain Slope Cultivation, Urban Development on Alluvial Flood Plain, etc.

Human Activities particular to Humid Asia Paddy Cultivation, Mountain Slope Cultivation, Urban Development on Alluvial Flood Plain, etc.

Characteristics of water problems in humid Asia are not sufficiently expressed only by climatic conditions

Warm-humid

World Distribution of Annual Precipitation

Climatic Conditions of Warm-humid Asia• Humid climate is tentatively defined as areas with annual precipitation of

more than 1000mm

• Abundant precipitation with large Intra-/Inter-variability

Land Conditions: Two Major Divisions of the EarthLand Conditions: Two Major Divisions of the Earth’’s Crusts Crust

•Tectonic zones: zones where mountain-making activities take place due to tectonic plate motion

•Stable regions: regions which are composed of old geology and not affected by seismic and/or volcanic activities

Tectonic zone

Stable region

-- Tectonic Zones and Stable Regions --

Alluvial plain Structural plain: erosive river沖積平野沖積平野沖積平野沖積平野 構造平野：侵食河川構造平野：侵食河川構造平野：侵食河川構造平野：侵食河川

変動帯 安定帯

There are two tectonic zones in the worldThere are two tectonic zones in the world--AlpineAlpine--Himalayan ZoneHimalayan Zone :: Alps Alps ---- Mediterranean Coast Mediterranean Coast ---- Middle and Near East Middle and Near East ---- Himalayas Himalayas

---- Sumatra Sumatra –– JavaJava

--CircumCircum--Pacific ZonePacific Zone :: New Zealand New Zealand –– New Guinea New Guinea –– Philippines Philippines –– SouthSouth--western fringe of Asian continentwestern fringe of Asian continent--Japan ArchipelagoJapan Archipelago–– Aleutian Islands Aleutian Islands –– West Coasts of both North and South AmericaWest Coasts of both North and South America

World Distribution of Tectonic Zones

The Asia Pacific region is widely covered by tectonic zones. Land conditions formed by PTM make special characteristics different from stable regions.

Land conditions of Indian peninsula and eastern fringe of Africaare similar to those of TZs

World Distribution of Tectonic Zones

• Humid Asia; superposition of warm-humid climate on tectonic zones

• People’s life placed on - fragile mountain areas affected by seismic / volcanic activities due to plate tectonic motion, and

- alluvial flood-risk plains formed by sedimentstransported from the upper reaches of fragilemountain areas.

• The most densely populated region in the world, supporting about half of world population,and the population is still increasing in many developing countries.

• Abundant precipitation with large variability; torrential rainfall and drought as well.

• We can observe a variety of human-water interactions particular to humid Asia–tectonic zone,which make water issues considerably different from stable regions like most parts of Europeanand American continents.

World Distribution of Annual Precipitation

Warm-humid Climate

Characteristics of Water Problems in Humid Asia

High Potential of Hydro-power Generation

38230600Bangladesh

1137Sri Lanka

14482533572Pakistan

242244894000India

3733439000Vietnam

18223012310Philippine

7205829000Malaysia

26390015000Thailand

1970000378000China

4030127500Indonesia

Ratio (%)

Developed H-Power

(MW)

Developable H-Power

(MW)

38230600Bangladesh

1137Sri Lanka

14482533572Pakistan

242244894000India

3733439000Vietnam

18223012310Philippine

7205829000Malaysia

26390015000Thailand

1970000378000China

4030127500Indonesia

Ratio (%)

Developed H-Power

(MW)

Developable H-Power

(MW)

Economically Developable Potential and Developed Hydropower

in Developing Countries of Asia

（（（（Source: Electric Power Industry in each country (JEPIC 2000) ，，，，APEC ENERGY DATABASE ））））

• (High mountains + Abundant Precipitation) provides “high potential of hydro-power”

• In developed countries along tectonic zones, such as France, Italy, Switzerland, Japan, west coast of Canada and USA, etc., almost of economically developable hydro-power potentials had been developed before the middle of 20th century.

• On the other hand, in developing countries of Asia, most of hydro-power potentials are remained for the future energy development.

Water Problems particular to Humid Asia

包蔵発電水力

• Fragile mountain lands formed up due to mountain making activities, such as slopes of volcanoes, fractured zones, Tertiary formation and weathered granite areas, can be cultivated, if those areas have necessary temperature and water. mountain slope cultivation in humid Asia -tectonic zones

• On the other hand, the areas are disaster-risk lands vulnerable to slope failure, landslide, debris/mud flow, etc..

• “Land productivity” and “Disaster risk” are both sides of coin.

Chugoku district, JAPAN

Cameron Highlands, MALAYSIA

Mountain slope cultivation　　　　山腹農業山腹農業山腹農業山腹農業

Brantas basin, Java, INDONESIA

Water Problems particular to Humid Asia

Debris/mud flow and drifting fallen tree disaster

Debris/mud flow with drifting fallen trees in Ban Nam Kor, Petchaboon ( located along the upper reaches of the Pasak River ), THAILAND, in 11 August 2001.

Debris flow with drifting fallen trees in Kawauchi-cho, Ehime Pref. JAPAN, in 15 September 1999.

Water Problems particular to Humid Asia

- People become to live even at disaster-risk sites inmountain areas concurrently with rapid population growth.

- Damages due to debris/mud flows are increasing in developing countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, etc..

土石流と流木土石流と流木土石流と流木土石流と流木

• The steep slope and fragile geology bring about high sediment yield, slope failure, landslide, volcanic eruption and debris/mud flow in mountainous areas.

Heavy Sediment Yield and Sediment-related Disasters in Mountain Areas

• Sabo engineering(debris control, landslide and slope failure measures, and hazard mapping) can be applied to prevent or mitigate damages due to sediment-related disasters. A debris control dam constructed in the

upper reaches of the Ade river, JAPAN

Water Problems particular to Humid Asia多量の土砂生産と山地災害

Paddy cultivation in the alluvial plain

• Since the alluvial plain is low-lying and wet land, it is used for paddy cultivation if the high temperature and sufficient water can be obtained.

• The paddy cultivation is the most suitable crop for the low-lying wet alluvial plain in humid Asia.

• It has a special water management with irrigation/drainage technologies different from dry crop cultivation in stable regions.

Water Problems particular to Humid Asia沖積平野での水田稲作

Vietnam

Indonesia

Urban areas located in the alluvial plain

Flooding in Jakarta, Indonesia

Water Problems particular to Humid Asia沖積氾濫原に都市が立地

Bangkok, Thailand1983

• The alluvial plain is the most densely populated area in tectonic zones ; big cities, town and villages are located in the alluvial plain.

• Alluvial plains, formed up by flooding of rivers, have a nature vulnerable to be flooded. Therefore, flood control and flood

disaster mitigation measures are much more important in tectonic zones than in stable regions.

• Stable regions: almost of river reaches are erosive and in those reaches the bottom of valley is flood plain , which is relatively only limited areas. Most of population lives on undulating terrains above the valley.

• Tectonic zones: large alluvial flood plains along the middle and down reaches of river, where a lot of people live and human activities are most active.

• Therefore the idea of flood-plain management is basically different between two regions. Cross Section of Down Town Tokyo Metropolitan Area:

Flooding areas are so large

The Thames River and London City Area :Flooding areas are so limited

Difference in flood plain management between SRs & TZs

The Thames

In stable regions, they apply mainly non-structural measures such as land use restriction without the construction of flood control facilities like large-scale embankment, while we cannot help applying structural measures in tectonic zones.

Water Problems particular to Humid Asia

氾濫原管理の考え方の違い

Water Problems particular to Humid Asia“Too little water” problems

Surabaya River, Indonesia

• Although there is much precipitation in humid Asia, serious water shortage istaking place in most of developing countries due to the imbalance between water demand and supply.

Also, serious water pollution and sanitation problems are taking place at thesame time.

• Such “too little water” problems in humid Asia are considerably different in countermeasures to solve them from arid or semi-arid region, where the groundwater is a major source of available water.

水不足・汚染・衛生問題

The Sumida River, Tokyo,around 1960’s

• In the year 1900 The population as same as France and U.K. • In the year 2000 2 times more than France and England

Japan

France

England

Population (Thousand)

year

Japan’s Experiences: Rapid Population Increase

Japan’s Experiences after the 2nd WW

Japan has faced a variety of serious water problems in itsmodernization processes over more than 100 years, especially in a time of rapid socio-economic change after the 2nd World War as showed below;

<Postwar Rehabilitation Period; 1945~the half of 1950’>- Food Shortage- Frequent Flood Disasters in Large River Basins<High Economic Growth Period; ~the first half of 1970’>

- Water Shortage / - Water Pollution- Deterioration of Water-front Environment- Frequent Flood Damages in Urbanizing Areas<Stable Economic Growth Period and After That; ~to Date>- Increasing Demand of Natural Environment Conservationand Restoration from the Public

<Postwar Rehabilitation Period; 1945~the half of 1950’>- Food Shortage- Frequent Flood Disasters in Large River Basins

Flooding of the Tone Riverin Sept. 1947

• 1950 国土総合開発法国土総合開発法国土総合開発法国土総合開発法: Integrated River Basin Development

• 1953 治山治水基本対策要綱：治山治水基本対策要綱：治山治水基本対策要綱：治山治水基本対策要綱：National land conservation onriver basin basis

• 1957 特定多目的ダム法：特定多目的ダム法：特定多目的ダム法：特定多目的ダム法：Coordination/integration of floodcontrol & water utilization

• 1960 治山治水特別措置法／治山治水特別措置法／治山治水特別措置法／治山治水特別措置法／　　　　治水特別会計法：　　　　治水特別会計法：　　　　治水特別会計法：　　　　治水特別会計法：Basis for long-

term flood control planning

• 1964 New River Law: Flood control／water resources planning in river system unit

Down town of Tokyo

Dead & missing:1930 persons

<High Economic Growth Period; ~the first half of 1970’>- Water Shortage / - Water Pollution- Deterioration of Water-front Environment- Frequent Flood Damages in Urbanizing Areas

Serious urban flood disaster around Nagoya in Sept. 2000

• 1977 Comprehensive Flood Control Measures　総合治水対策総合治水対策総合治水対策総合治水対策

- Reinforcement of river improvement works- Introduction of storm runoff reductionmeasures in the watershed

- Land use regulation- flood-risk map ~ flood hazard map

(not sufficiently effective due to increasing urbanization pressure)

• 2003 Law for Urban Flood Damage Mitigation Measures 特定都市河川浸水被害対策法特定都市河川浸水被害対策法特定都市河川浸水被害対策法特定都市河川浸水被害対策法

- Reinforcement of watershed-base measures- Linkage／collaboration among river, sewerageand urban planning sectors

A Direction of International Contribution, Utilizing Japan’s Abundant Experiences

• To overcome these issues, various technological and institutional measures have been applied in a step-by-stepmanner. Some of them are successful and effective, but some of them are not. Although respective critical situations at the beginning timewere overcome, we have still many problems which have not been completely resolved yet.

• Now, many developing countries face serious water problems similar to those which Japan had faced after the 2nd World War, such as water shortage, water pollution and sanitation problem, increase in flood damages, etc..

A Direction of International Contribution, Utilizing Japan’s Abundant Experiences (Contd.)

• Japan’s experiences in technological and institutional measures are not entirely applicable to developing countries in humid Asia. But, there are a lot of lessons learnt from Japan’s experiences, including both successful and unsuccessfulcases. These lessons might be useful for shortening the time to improve the problems.

• Japan should utilize its abundant experiences more in the international contribution in water sectors.

Thank you very much Thank you very much Thank you very much Thank you very much for your attention !! for your attention !! for your attention !! for your attention !!