WORDS OF LATIN AND GREEK ORIGIN IN THE SCIENTIFIC

PROSE STYLE (THE FIELD OF HISTORY)

Diplomová práca

LUCIA STRUHÁROVÁ

ŽILINSKÁ UNIVERZITA V ŽILINE

FAKULTA PRÍRODNÝCH VIED

Vedúci diplomovej práce : Mgr.Zdenka Kráľová, PhD.

Konzultant : PaedDr. Marta Kadorová

Komisia pre obhajoby : Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry

Stupeň odbornej kvalifikácie: magister

Dátum odovzdania práce: 2006-04-15

ŽILINA 2006

CONTENTS

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..4

1. AN OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE………………………………………………………………..6

1.1 Pre-history period………………………………………………………..6

1.2 Old English Period……………………………………………………….7

1.3 Middle English Period…………………………………………………...9

1.4 Modern English Period…………………………………………………11

2. THE INFLUENCE OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGES ON THE

ENGLISH VOCABULARY……………………………………………....15

2.1 New words of classical origin in English ...……………………………15

2.1.2 Affixes…………………………………………………………...15

2.1.3 Compounds ……………………………………………………..16

2.2 Greek and the Greek alphabet…………………………………………..17

2.2.1 Greek affixes …………………………………………………...17

2.2.2 Greek numerals…………………………………………………19

2.3 Latin and the Latin alphabet …………………………………………...21

2.3.1 Latin affixes ……………………………………………………21

2.3.2 Latin numerals …………………………………………………23

2.3.3 Latin abbrevations……………………………………………...24

2.4 Mythology and religion ………………………………………………..26

3. THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY………………………………………..29

3.1 Basic lexicological units of speech …………………………………….30

4. STYLE OF LANGUAGE……..…………………………………………..32

4.1 Functional styles ……………………………………………………….32

4.1.1 Scientific prose style……………………………………………34

4.2 Science …………………………………………………………………37

4.2.1 Medicine………………………………………………………...37

4.2.2 Botany ………………………………………………………….38

4.2.3 Zoology…………………………………………………………39

4.2.4 Astronomy………………………………………………………39

4.2.5 Pharmaceutics and Chemistry………………………………….40

5. INTERFERENCE OF GREEK AND LATIN IN THE FIELD OF

HISTORY………………………………………………….………………41

5.1 The investigation ……………………………………………………….41

5.1.2 Words from the period of Antiquity…………………………….45

5.1.2.1 Semantic aspect …………………………………………..45

5.1.2.2 Morphological aspect …………………………………….48

5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning ………………………………………….50

5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect ……………………………………...52

5.1.2.5 Etymological aspect ……………………………………...54

5.2 Interpretation of particular results ……………………………………...55

Conclusion ….………………..………………………………………………..57

Résumé………….…………………………..………………………………….59

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...61

Appendix ...…………………………………………………………………….63

Introduction

A language presents the highest form of communication and its value is obvious.

The history and wealth of different nations has remained in great works from such fields

as literature, history, art, music, science and many other spheres of human life.

English speaking countries had and still possess the great power in the world and

therefore English has spread to all the continents, especially in the last several hundred

years.

By reason that a language is a dynamic system, various languages have

influenced each other during their historical development. The English language is not

an exception. The greatest changes have been made in its vocabulary system that has

accepted a lot of new words from other languages. On the other hand, English has also

enriched word-stock of many different languages through English borrowings.

Two main languages that have played an important role within the English

language development are Greek and Latin. Consequently this work pays attention to

these classical languages and is divided into the following five main chapters:

1. An outline of the development of the English language

2. The influence of classical languages on the English vocabulary

3. The English vocabulary

4. Style of language

5. Interference of Greek and Latin in the field of history

The first chapter indicates the English language development with the emphasis

on Latin and Greek and their interference on the English vocabulary. As English has

absorbed words from these classical languages through all its existence and

development, there is applied the influence of classical languages, and partly of other

languages, from the very beginning i.e. from the times of the first civilisations to

today’s Modern period.

The following second chapter deals with classical affixes and bases as they also

helped the English language to extend. Moreover, several Latin abbreviations are

presented as they are extensively used in the written form of English.

The work continues with the composition of layers of the English vocabulary.

Because this chapter also deals with the problem of lexical units named words and

terms, the distinction between them is implied.

A list of functional styles and their descriptions, particularly of the scientific

prose style is presented in the fourth chapter. The examples of terms of Greek and Latin

origin are present within more fields of science.

The last fifth chapter deals with the main concern of this work - the study of

words of Latin and Greek origin in the scientific prose style in the field of history.

At first the investigative method will be applied for revealing the origin of English

words. Moreover, there will be implied several approaches for categorizing of words of

classical origin as comparative, etymological, morphological and lexicological. A

sample of words covering the ten pages will serve as a basis for futher statistics that will

be used to see the influence of Latin and Greek within the period of Antiquity. Its

particular results can be observed from corresponding graphs. Moreover, graphical

illustrations can also be found in the chapters 5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning and 5.1.2.4

Lexicological aspect.

1. An outline of the development of the English language

English, like other languages, has been shaped through many centuries. It has

been exposed to various changes during this long process. Any epoch of the language

development has gone along with variations in vocabulary, spelling or pronunciation.

Althought English belogs to the Indo-European family of languages this common

ancestor is not the only factor that influenced today’s form of English. Some language

changes have arisen as the direct result of the social situation, invasions, mixtures of

tribes, migrations, wars, contacts with different nations.

Apparently, the English language has been modified from one generation to

another. Then it is appropriate to look at English from the diachronical point of view

and begin with the historical development of the English language.

There exist several time divisions of the English language development.

According to Donald (1980, p.7) we recognize three main periods in the history of

English:

Old English Period (450 - 1150)

Middle English Period (1150 - 1500)

Modern English Period (1500 - )

1.1 Pre-history period

Britain is an island, but this was not always true. It became one of the

world-wide islands only after the last ice age, around 5000 BC. Its name “comes from

the word “Petrani”, the Creco-Roman word for the inhabitants of Britain.” (McDowall,

1997, p.8)

Probably the first people living in Britain were humans that appeared about

250,000 BC - during the warmer period of the Ice Age.

Within following Stone and early Bronz Ages, non-Indo-European people

inhabited the British Isles. Firstly, groups of fishers, hunters, gatherers started to settle

down and occupied Britain. Later, around 3000 BC, Neolithic people came to Britain

from Europe (Iberian peninsula or North African coast) and started to implement their

way of life including various knowledges, techniques, ideas and methods. After several

hundred years, the cultural life of Neolithic Britons was enriched by the arrival of new

groups of people, called the “Beaker” people. They came to Britain after 2400 BC from

Europe and they brought single culture, language (probably Indo-European) and new

skills (bronze tools). As Britain attracted various human races more and more, the

language of these prehistoric inhabitants was completely wiped out and replaced by a

new language and culture. This happened at the time, when a new kind of

Indo-European settlers, important ancestors in the British history - technically advanced

Celts, came to Britain probably from central Europe or southern Russia, around 700 BC.

Similarly, the Romans began to conquest British Isles in the first century AD.

They brought reading together with writing skills to Britain and so Latin began to be

used in writing and speech. But it was only the language of rich landowners and

dwellers who spoke also Greek. Illiterate peasants still used Celtic language.

Later, German invaders from northern Europe conquered a great part of today’s

England and started to settle after AD 430. They were illiterate and came from three

powerful Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes.

1.2 Old English Period (450 - 1150)

The period of Old English began in the fifth century AD when the Anglo-Saxons

invaded Britain. Before their arrival, various Latin words had enriched their language -

as a result of the Roman domination over Germany. Therefore when Angles and

Saxons came to England their vocabulary already included some borrowed words that

mostly referred to trade, warfare and agricultural products as e.g. : straet (street), ciese

(cheese), butere (butter), win (wine), cuppe (cup), pund (pound), copor (copper), pipor

(pepper). The name of the first tribe, the Angles, served as a basis, from which names

representing their language, Englisc, and their new home, Engla-land, were derived.

“The strength of Anglo-Saxon culture is obvious even today. Days of the week

were named after Germanic gods: Tig (Tuesday), Wodin (Wednesday), Thor

(Thursday), Frei (Friday).” (McDowall, 1997, p.11). Moreover, the Germans

established settlements and towns such as Birmingham, Nottingham or Southampton.

Also some of Anglo-Saxon names denoting kingdoms Essex, Sussex, East Anglia,

Middle Essex, Wessex still exist in the present days. The word aldermen, which was

used to refer to local officials, can also be found in the present English vocabulary.

During the Anglo-Saxon domination, the manorial system gently grew up and the

society started to be divided into classes.

The period from the sixth to the eight century had also visible influence on the

English vocabulary. Missionaries from Rome settled down in Canterbury and spread

their new faith, Christianity, through the country. Learning and culture flourished and

number of monasteries was set up. During this period new objects, concepts, ideas were

introduced by Christianity and so words from Latin and Greek came into English and

became quickly domesticated e. g.: altar, angel, anthem, apostle, bishop, candle,

church, clerk, devil, idol, martyr, mass, minster, monk, pope, priest, prophet, psalter,

rule, school, temple. Latin influenced not only the language of education and Church

but also everyday life beet, camel, cancer, cap, elephant, elm, fever, plant, plaster, sock,

spend, turn. It should be noted that number of “Latin words taken over by Old English

was relatively small, certainly smaller than that which was taken over from Latin by

many other European languages at that period.” (Vachek, 1991, p.98)

Moreover, it should not be forgotten that the Romans had in hands a great

power over large British areas for several hundred years. They provided words of

everyday living cytel (kettle), disc (dish), pyle (pillow) into the English vocabulary

during that period. Soon they established their own culture and their land, Roman

Britain, was represented by their towns. Some of these towns grew out of Celtic military

camps. Even today there exist some city names e.g. Doncaster, Chester, Leicester,

Gloucester, Winchester, Colchester that consist of the Latin term, castra (military

camp).

The British Celts were driven away and many of them became slaves of Anglo-

Saxons. So they left extremly small number of words that were adopted to the English

vocabulary. There were very few Celtic borrowings as cradol (cradle), cross (cross),

cursian (curse), binn (bin).

The majority of words of the Celtic origin represent names of some cities York,

Downs, London, Leeds and rivers Exe, Esk, Avon, Evan, Thames, Dover, Stour,

Severn, Usk, Ux. Also names of kingdoms were derived from the Celtic language Kent,

Deira, Bernicia. Moreover, Latin terms colonia (settlement for retired soldiers), vicus

(village) or portus (port) were part in the Celtic place names as e.g. Colchester,

Norwich, Woolwich, Bridport, Devonport.

Towards the end of the eight century new invaders from Norway and Denmark,

called Vikings, had been attacking Britain several times. Nowaday capital city of

Ireland, Dublin, was founded by them. According to McDowall (1997, p.15) the word,

Vikings, probably meant either “pirates” or “the people of the sea inlets”.

Later they settled, lived together with the Anglo-Saxons and quickly accepted

Christianity. Their language, Old Norse, also marked English. Scandinavian words

were quickly domesticated, because of the close relationship between Old English and

Old Norse.

The political situation of those days caused that only a few of Scandinavian

loanwords penetrated into the English vocabulary. Many of first loan-words that were

absorbed by English dealt with military and legal fields such as battle, fellow, fleet,

husband, knife, law. But later, a huge amount of Scandidavian words was assimilated

into the everyday usage bag, cake, call, egg, gap, gate, happy, ill, leg, loose, low, raft,

raise, score, seat, skin, skill, sky, snub, take, thrust, ugly, want, weak, window, wing,

wrong. There should be noted that many Scandinavian borrowings are recognized

thanks to letters sk- at the beginning of words as for example skin, skill, skirt, sky.

Scandinavian place names Inverness, Woodthorp, Grimsby had its origin in Old Norse.

Also the personal pronoun they and the possessive pronoun their are adapted from

Scandinavian.

1.3 Middle English Period (1150 - 1500)

The greatest event that played an important role not only in the British history

but also in the history of the English language development was the arrival of Norman

French and the Norman Conquest. These events marked the beginning of the new

Middle English Period. In 1066, Duke of Normandy defeated the Saxon army with its

leader Harold in the well-known Battle of Hastings. Soon, Duke William and his

people became representatives of the rulling class. Most of Anglo-Saxon lands passed to

the Norman barons and they started to occupy important posts in church, army,

government, law. These facts greatly affected the new period of the English language

history that followed.

Both languages, English and French were used simultaneosly, one by the upper

and one by the lower class. English was spoken by peasants, whereas Norman French

became the official language of Britain used by aristocracy, nobility. English and

French had only a slight influence on each other at the beginning of these times.

The French language was the official language of the administration for almost

three hundred years and its words penetrated into various spheres of human life. This

fact is obvious in a variety of words that stretched the English vocabulary at that times

e.g. allow, autumn, boil, change, cover, double, enjoy, enter, face, flower, joy, letter,

manner, nice, occupy, pale, plate, please, river, search, supper, sure, table, travel, use.

The earliest French borrowings were prisun (prison), castel (castle), were

(war). Later terms from administration and government administration, authority,

chancellor, council, country, court, crown, government, office, parliament, power, state

were added to the English vocabulary.

Various titles denoting nobilities baron, count, countess, duke , feudal, manor,

noble, peer, prince and words connected with art, architecture and entertainment arch,

beauty, cards, castle, cellar, chimney, colour, couch, curtain, dance, design, image,

lamp, leisure, paint, palace, pleasure, porch, sport, table, trump came into English from

the French language.

The sphere of military was enriched by words as aid, armour, arms, army,

battle, captain, company, defeat, dragoon, enemy, escape, force, lance, navy, officer,

peace, sergeant, siege, soldier, troops, vessel, victory.

New words appeared also in the religion abbey, archangel, Bible, clergy,

Creator, chapel, chaplain, charity, divine, glory, miracle, paradise, passion, pray,

preach, religion, sacrifice, saint, Saviour, service, Trinity, vice, Virgin, virtue

and also in the field of law accuse, acquit, attorney, case, court, crime, damage, false,

guilt, heir, interest, jury, justice, marriage, money, penalty, poverty, rent, session.

Normans maintained the class system that was partly developed by Anglo-

Saxons. Feudal duties were established during the reign of Duke William.The term

feudalism has its origin in the french word feu that according to Scots Law meant “a

right to the use of land, houses, etc in return for payment of feu-duty, a fixed annual

payment.” <http:// www. onelook. com>

Considerable phenomenon is the usage of different terms when reffering to

domestic animals on the one hand and on the other hand to meal prepared from that

animals. The names of animals became from Old English that was used by peasants –

cows, sheep, swine, ox, calf, bear, deer – whereas meals were represented by words of

the French origin – mutton, beef, pork, veal, bacon, venison.

Later, English and French were mingled and spoken both at the same time. So

as French aristocrats learned and picked up some English words, uneducated classes

used borrowed words from French in the current speech. As people had the knowledge

of both these languages, they started to merge them into the one English language.

Therefore the English vocabulary was greatly enriched. Then it is hardly surprising to

come across synonyms such as e.g. begin (English origin) and commence (French

origin), conceal-hide, odour-smell, desire-wish, happiness-felicity.

There should be mentioned that Latin existed and represented mainly the

language of Church and schools, i.e. the language of educated people, at those days.

Famous universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were established. Latin was also used in

fields such as philosophy or science.

1.4 Modern English Period (1500 - )

The period of Modern English started around the year 1500 and has lasted until

the present days. During this period, Renaissance, an important intellectual movement

from Italy began to spread. All aspects of everyday life started to recover slowly after

hard times and declensions in the population, plague “Black Death”, hundred years war

between France and England, starvation, high prices. The period of Renaissance can be

characterized “by the rapid advance of the sciences, a renewal of interest in the Greek

and Roman classics, the rise of nationalism, and by such events as the Protestant

Reformation, the invention of the printing press, and the discovery of the New

World.”(Donald, 1980, p.10)

It is evident that Latin and Greek loanwords penetrated into the English

vocabulary and into various branches of human life not only in the two previous

mentioned periods, but also in the period of Modern English.

Classical loans from such spheres as theatre, literature and rhetoric affected the

cultural life not only of the English people. “At that time, writers all over Europe try to

imitate, as closely as possible, the language and style of distinguished Latin authors.”

(Vachek, 1991, p.104). At this point it must be emphasized that the names of nearly all

literary genres and their related terms are of Greek (or Latin) origin e.g. amatory,

biography, bucolic, comedy, drama, elegy, encomium, novel, ode, oration,

encyclopedia, epic, epigram, epistolary, epitome, fable, fiction, poetry, prose, romance,

satire, tradegy. This is also the case with poetic and rhetorical terms as alliteration,

anacoluthon, anaphora, aposiopesis, apostrophe, ellipsis, euphony, hyperbole, irony,

metonymy, oxymoron, pleonasm, simile, synecdoche, zeugma and others.

The borrowings from classical languages as accomodation, anticipate,

apostrophe, contradictory, exact, explain, fact, monopoly, reliance, submerge can be

found in literary works of William Shakespeare or Thomas Moore.

Other fields that adopted terms from classical languages were politics, law and

other related fields censor, compete, confiscate, delict, negotiate, politics, proletarian.

Some loans that are hard to classify according to specific areas were absorbed

into the everyday English language aborigines, colony, comic, culminate, depopulate,

dialect, enthusiasm, epoch, erace, gradual, hesitate, immigrate, implicate, indignant,

intelligent, introduce, opponent, relaxation, relevant, peninsula, perforate, persist,

regulate, secure, sporadic and many others.

The rapid progress of various branches of science in the last hundred years has

caused the growing amount of Latin and Greek scientific terms in the English language

such as acid, analysis, antenna, appendix, atom, axis, contemplate, diagnosis, diagram,

exist, formula, function, maximum, method, minimum, nucleus, phenomenon, rabies,

radius, skeleton, species, spectrum, theory.

The new terms that expanded the English vocabulary were not only loanwords

from classical languages. Many terms were coined by various combinations of Latin

and Greek elements and words such e.g. encyclopaedia, protestant, telepathy,

telegraph, telescope were created. This process still continues, especially in the field of

several branches of science e.g. allergy, antibiotic, chromosome, cyclotron,

kleptomania, leukemia, orthopedic, protein, protoplasm, psychiatry, schizophrenia. The

combination of classical elements may be realized by combining the Greek roots only as

allergy, antibiotic, hormones, protein, stratosphere, telephone or new Latin terms are

produced by combination of only Latin roots facsimile, introvert, quantum, radioactive,

relativity. Composite words that contain the Latin together with the Greek root as e.g.

sociology, television, petroleum, claustrophobia, automobile are known as hybrids.

The English vocabulary was marked not only by Latin and Greek, but also

distinct languages and cultures touched the English language. Dutch, Italian, Spanish,

German, Portuguese, Slavonic and others influenced English gently, thanks to trade,

art, architecture, politics, music and many other spheres of human life.

Military and nautical terms represent e.g. (Italian) alarm, cartridge, colonel,

firm, pistol, squadron, (Spanish) armada, barricade, breeze, cannibal, cargo, embargo,

escapade, flotilla, (Dutch) bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, keel, skipper, (French)

brigade, corps, marine, police, reconnaissance.

Also fields as architecture and art absorbed various words (Italian) balcony,

cupola, loggia, (Dutch) easel, landscape, sketch, (French) ballet, ensemble, essay,

genre.

Field of music was mainly influenced by the Italian language aria, bass, canto,

cello, concert, duet, finale, piano, replica, sonata, sonnet, solo, soprano, stanza, tenor,

violin. Many terms of the Italian origin penetrated into the English vocabulary through

French.

Some English terms denoting fashion and food also came from other languages

as (Italian) macaroni, pizza, vermicelli, (French) blouse, champagne, chemise, corsage,

cravat, menu, soup.

The discovery of the New World caused contacts with different new objects,

ideas, cultures, changed the style of living. Variety of words enriched the English

vocabulary and some of them became used in everyday life (Italian) canteen, barrack,

manage, pilot, (Spanish, Portuguesse) amok, banana, canoe, cafeteria, chocolate,

cigar, cocoa, maize, mandarin, mosquito, mulatto, negro, pilot, ranch, sherry, teak,

tobacco, tomato, (German) kindergarten, lebensraum, plunder, stroll, waltz, (French)

ball, café, coguette, cortege, detail, hotel, machine, moustache, picnic, progress,

restaurant, ticket.

Finance, commerce and industry adopted terms as (Italian) ducato, florin,

million, (German) cobalt, nickel, zinc.

Also Czech (robot), Russia (Lunik, sputnik, Soviet, steppe, vodka, troika), India

(bungalow, jungle, jute, khaki, loot, punch, pyjamas, yoga, thug) and American Indians

(moccasin, opossum, skunk, tomahawk, wigwam) borrowed its terms to English.

Everyday words as e.g. check, divan, pajamas, tiger came from the Persian language

and terms such as admiral, caravan ,cotton, sirup, sash, sofa from Arabic.

Moreover, the English language absorbed words from such languages as

Greenland Inuit (anorak), Hawaiian (hula), Finnish (sauna), Africaans (aardvark),

Chinese (kung fu), Japanese (kimono), Malay (ketchup), Australian Aboriginal (dingo),

Tahitian (tattoo), Maori (kiwi), West African (storey house).

The

considerable influence of Greek and Latin on the English language is evident from the

previous text. However, the impact of classical languages on the English vocabulary is

much greater. This fact can be observed in the following chapters.

2. The influence of classical languages on the English vocabulary

2.1 New words of classical origin in English

Greek and Latin belong to the Indo-European language family. Classical words

were absorbed into the English vocabulary either directly from Latin and Greek or by

way of French. But also many Greek terms were Latinized, it means they were adopted

to English through Latin. Moreover, the Greek language left lesser mark on the English

vocabulary than Latin.

The vocabulary is the most open part of the language system. From times of the

Old English to the Modern English period, the English vocabulary has been expanded

severalfold as a result of e.g. expansion over new lands, progress of culture and

literature as it is stated in the first chapter. Moreover, word formation processes and the

replacement of old words and meanings by new ones greatly enriched the English

language inspite the fact that many other words were lost and forgotten.

2.1.2 Affixes

One way how to form new words is by the word formation process called

affixation, in other words by adding affixes to the stem of a word. Affixes that are

attached to the beginning of a word are called prefixes. On the other hand affix forms

added to the end of a word are called suffixes.

The fact that learners of English may find the knowledge of classical affixes

beneficial is one of the reasons why this chapter also concentrates on this area. Almost

every prefix has its special meaning that can help us recognize the meaning of the whole

word, in spite we are unfamiliar with it. According to Krill (1990, p.59) some prefixes

“assume no special meaning. In such cases, the meaning of the root to which they

happened to be attached is intensified.” The recognition and classification of words into

particular word classes according to their suffixes can be another advantage. The ability

to recognize classical suffixes could also be helpful in various transformations of words

from nouns into verbs, verbs into adjectives and so on.

2.1.3 Compounds

Another word-building type that is together with conversion and affixation

among the most productive word formation processes, is so-called compounding.

Compounds were already represented by several classical examples in the chapter

1.4 Modern English Period, therefore the principle of compounding was outlined and it

is evident that “new words are produced by combining two or more stems”

(Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.104). According to Antrushina,

Afanasyeva and Morozova there exist three types of compounds. The first of them form

compounds that are combined without any linking elements as e.g. bedroom, bookcase,

film-goer, honey-moon, TV-set, T-shirt, wallpaper and are called neutral. Compounds

formed by a linking vowel or consonant such as Anglo-Saxon, handicap, spokesman

belong to the second group, called morphological compounds. The last type, syntactic

compounds, are combined by the aid of speech elements as articles, prepositions and

others, for example brother-in-law, good-for-nothing and so on.

The chapters above concentrated on two word formation processes, affixation

and compounding, in general and so the following chapters deal with Greek and Latin

affixes and bases in more detail in that they represent productive means of creation of

many English words.

2.2 Greek and the Greek alphabet

The Greeks present one of the civilizations that greatly influenced the English

language. They were wise and creative people that affected almost every sphere of their

life. The direct contact between English and Greek was developed mostly during the

period of Renaissance.

THE GREEK ALPHABET

The Greeks adapted the alphabet into their own language from their trade

partners called the Phoenicians.

Greek name Greek name

2.2.1 Greek affixes

Several of Greek affixes are presented in the following charts. Each chart

contains either the list of prefixes or suffixes together with their meanings and

examples. Moreover, suffixes are divided into noun-, adjective- and verb – forming and

therefore lists in charts correspond to this classification.

Greek affixes and their meanings are quoted from English Words from Latin and

Greek Elements by M.A.Donald (1980). More examples of Greek affixes can be seen in

the appendix 1.

’άλφα alpha

βητα beta

γάμμα gamma

δέλτα delta

’έψιλόν epsilon

ζητα zeta ’ητα eta

θητα theta

’ιωτα iota

κάππα kappa

λάμβδα lambda

μυ mu

νυ nu

ξι xi

’όμικρόν omicron

πι pi

‘ρω rho

σιγμα sigma ταυ tau

’υψιλόν upsilon

φι phi

χι chi

ψι psi

’ωμέγα omega

Greek prefixes

Before consonant Before vowel Meaning Example

α’- a- an- not, without anarchism, atheist

αντί anti- ant- against, opposite antithesis,

antihistamine

δυς- dys- dys- bad, disordered, dyspepsia,

difficult dyslexia, dysfunction

ευ eu- ev- good,well euphoric, euphemism

υπερ hyper- hyper- above, excessive, hyperactive,

over hypersomy

hypersensitive

υπό hypo- hyp- under, below hypogeal, hypothesis

μετά meta- met- after, beyond, metabolism,

change metaphysics

Greek suffixes

Adjective-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-al pertaining to, like, belonging to, hysterical, visual,

having the character of abnormal

-an, -ian pertaining to, like, one concerned with theologian, australian,

academician

-ic, -tic pertaining to, like egoistic, geometric

-ics, -tics art, science, study of politics, genetics

-oid like, having the shape of adenoid, scleroid

-ous, -ious full of, pertaining to, like anonymous

Noun-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-archy rule by patriarchy, oligarchy

-ism belief in, practice of, condition of animalism,

spritualism

- ist one who believes in, one engaged in protagonist, specialist

-logy science of, systematic study of kynology, mycology

-t, -te he who, that which militant

-y, -ia quality of, state of, act of cheesy, leukemia

Verb-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-ize (-ise) to make, to do something with, specialize, criticize

to subject to verbalize, sensitize

2.2.2 Greek numerals

As roots of English compounds may be represented by different word classes,

various words may also be produced by combining parts of Greek words representing

numerals with English ones. In that there exist a huge amount of such words and

because they do not belong to one particular area only, they are commonly used in

almost every branch of science. Therefore they can also be found in the scientific prose

style dealing with the field of history.

Greek Cardinal numeral English meaning Base Example‘έν (μόνος) hen (monos) one, single hen-, mon- monarch

δυο dyo two dy- dyadic

τρεις treis three tri- triangle

τέσσαρες tessares four tetr(a)- tetrarchy

τέτταρες tettares four tetr(a)- tetraatomic

πέντε pente five pent(a)- pentagon

‘έξ hex six hex(a)- hexagon

‘επτά hepta seven hept(a)- heptathlon

’οκτώ oktō eight oct(a)- octave

’εννέα ennea nine enne(a)- ennead

δέκα deka ten dec(a)- decathlon

‘εκατόν hekaton hundred hect- hectare

χίλιοι chilioi thousand kil(o)- kilometer

Moreover, there are other Greek numerical bases that are parts of English

words. For instance, the Greek word ‘ήμισυς provides the root hemi- („half“) that

could be found in such words as hemisphere, hemistich, hemistrumectomy.

The following chapter concentrates on Latin and follows similar arrangement of

chapters as the previous one dealing with Greek. Besides Latin bases and affixes, Latin

abbreviations are presented as they are largely used in the English language.

2.3 Latin and the Latin alphabet

Latin was the language of the ancient Romans. They, unlike the Greeks, were

not devoloping their own cultural life, but they were absorbing Greek literary forms and

philosophical theories. Greek and Latin were in contact during various periods in the

past. Etruscans, ancestors of Romans, were already influenced by Greek culture and

language, because Greeks kept colonies in the southern Italy.

THE LATIN ALPHABET

The English alphabet used today is basically the same as that used by the

Romans in the past. The classic Latin alphabet consisted of 23 letters:

A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z

a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t u (v) x y z

It is obvious that some Latin words or their roots are still used in different

languages, even though Latin is the language that is no more spoken. The following text

deals with the English words formed with the help of the Latin affixes that are still in

common use in English.

2.3.1 Latin affixes

There should be stated that many of suffixes which appear in Greek are found

also in Latin. The following charts present some of Latin affixes and contain quotations

of affixes and their meanings from English Words from Latin and Greek Elements by

M.A.Donald (1980). A larger list of Latin suffixes is presented in the appendix 2.

Latin prefixes

Prefix Meaning Example

ab-, a-, abs- away, from abdicate, abduct, abjure

circum- around circumlocution,

circumstance, circumvent

dis-, di-, dif- apart, in different directions, disqualify, disable,

not disantvantage, disagree

extra-, extro- outside, beyond extrovert, extranet,

extraction

in-, im- in, into, against inside, imprint

not immortal, involuntary

post- after, behind postmortal, post-war,

post-modernism

sub-, sus-, suc- under, up from under, secretely subaqua, subjection

super- above, over super-ego, superimpose

Latin suffixes

Adjective-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-able, -ible able to be, able to, tending to eatable, permissible

-al, -ial, -eal pertaining to, like, belonging to medical, equal,

natural

having the character of surreal, dictatorial

-ant, -ent, -ient person who, that which arrogant, participant, absent

-ary pertaining to, connected with, planetary, primary,

having the character of obituary

-ive tending to, inclined to passive, imaginative

-ous, -ious, -eous full of , having the character of, like gorgeous, numerous

Noun-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-ance, -ancy quality of –ing, state of –ing abundance, assistance

-ary, -arium place for antiquary, planetarium

-ate office of, holder(s) of the office of delegate, directorate

-ence, -ency quality of –ing, state of –ing absence, confidence

-ment result of, means of, act of, state of unemployment, excitement

-ion act of, state of, result of rebellion, production

-or state of, result of horror

one who does, that which does adaptor, toreador, orator

Verb-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-ate to make, to do something with compensate, nitrate

to subject to, to take translate, negotiate

-(i)fic making, causing pacific, specific

-igate, -egate to make, to drive congregate, delegate

2.3.2 Latin numerals

As well as Greek numerical bases occur in some English words the same is true

with Latin numerical roots as can be seen in the chart below. These words are widely

spread and cover large areas of human interest. Therefore they are used in

miscellaneous fields of science. The scienfific prose style, area of history, also includes

such kind of words.

Cardinal numeral English meaning Base Exampleūnus, -a, -um one un- unicycle

duo, -ae, -o two du- duel

trēs, tria three tri- triacontane

quattuor four quadr(u)- quadrant

quīnque five quint- quintan

sex six sext- sextuple

septem seven sept(em)- septempartite

octō eight oct- octagon

novem nine novem- November

decem ten decem- December

centum hundred cent- centena

mīlle thousand mill- millennium

There exist several other Latin numerical bases found in English. For istance, the

Latin cardinal number sēmi that means „half“ can be found in such English words as

e.g. semicircle, semicoma, semiconductive, semicular or cardinal numbers prīmus

(“first”), secundus (“second”), tertius (“third”) are used in English words such as

primacy, primal, secondary, secondo, tertiary, tertio.

Similarly the Roman numerals can be found in a number of sciences and

beacause they are also extensively used in the field of history, the most common Roman

symbols are presented in the table below. Various numerical values are produced with

different combinations of such symbols.

I = 1 X=10 C=100 M=1000

V= 5 L=50 D=500

2.3.3 Latin abbrevations

When the same words are used frequently in the written form it is effective to

use abbreviations. Latin abbreviations are used so largely that it is not hard to find them

also in the scientific prose style. Abbreviations that are presented in the charts below

could be find also in the field of history.

The following Latin phrases together with their corresponding abbreviations and

English meanings are quotated from English Words from Greek and Latin in English

Today by R.M. Krill (1990).

Several Latin abbreviations and expressions are still employed in formal

writings in English. The chart below presents a few of such Latin abbreviations.

Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning

circā ca. approximately, around

et cētera etc. and other things, and so forth

exemplī gratiā e.g. for example

id est i.e. that is

notā bene n.b. mark well

opere citātō op.cit. in the work cited

post scriptum p.s. written after

ut dictum ut dict. as directed

vidēlicet viz. that is to say, namely

The following chart contains several examples of academic titles that are in

common use within the English language.

Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning

Artium Baccalaureus A.B. Bachelor of Arts

Baccalaureus Artium B.A Bachelor of Arts

Artium Magister A.M. Master of Arts

Magister Artium M.A. Master of Arts

Scientiae Baccalaureus Sc.B. Bachelor of Science

Scientiae Magister Sc.M. Master of Science

Jūris Doctor J.D. Doctor of Law

Philosophiae Doctor Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy

Abbreviations are also used as a reference to various aspects of time. This fact

has a very close relation to the field of medicine where we use abbreviations as an

indication when e.g. medication should be taken.

Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning

annō Doiminī A.D. in the year of the Lord

ante merīdiem a.m. before moon

post mēridiem p.m. after noon

bīs in diē b.i.d twice a day

quāque hōrā q.h. every hour

māne et nocte m. et n. morning and night

si opus sit s.o.s. if necessary

Moreover, symbols representing units of English money have their origin in

Latin as for e.g. symbol for the pound sterling - £ (libra), shilling - s. (solidus),

pence - d. (denarius).

As the 1st chapter shows the English vocabulary was enriched by various

languages and fields of human activity. One of the areas that had a notable influence on

English was mythology and religion. The following chapter provides several classical

words and phrases belonging to this field.

2.4 Mythology and religion

The lines below deal shortly with the history and religion of the Greeks and the

Romans as words that belong to the field of mythology and religion could also be found

in the field of history. It is evident that any kind of faith is somehow connected with the

history. In most cases religion or mythology together with history represent inseparable

parts, one is unimaginable without the other and that is the reason why this chapter is

included in this work.

“In the area of theology Hesiod’s Theogony (Race of the Gods) composed about

700 B.C., stands as the earliest Greek work devoted strictly to their gods, the

Olympians.” (Krill, 1990, p.208). Also Greek unforgettable legends present their

supernatural gods as e.g. Zeus (the sky god), Apollo (the sun god), Aphrodite (the

goddess of love), Athena (the goddess of wisdom) and others. At that times people

believed in omens, i.e. they tried to predict future by means of various phenomena.

Words such as ominous, abominate, augurs, auspicium, monster are connected with this

kind of foretelling.

Many words from the Greek mythology possess very interesting historical

meaning. The following examples can serve as an illustration:

Chimera was a fire-breathing creature that was a mixture of three animals. It had

lion’s had, goat’s body and dragon’s trail.

Herculean is the word derived from Hercules that was the strongest hero in the

Greek mythology. The goddess Hera believed that he would die in one of the acts which

she required from him.

Labyrinth was a construction with several complicated ways. King Minos

ordered to built this structure in an ambition to imprison the Minotaur (a monster - half

man, half bull) that would eat King’s enemies placed in the labyrinth.

Odyssey was the Greek hero who is also present in Homer’s poem. After the

Trojan War Odysseus had experienced adventures accompanied by the anger of the

gods. Finally he came back to his family.

Siren was a nymph (part woman, part bird) that used a magic singing to lure

sailors and destruct them. Even though Odysseus had heard the nymph’s song he

survived, because he had been bound to his ship.

Titanic is a word connected with the word Titans that had been rulers of the

universe. These children of Earth and Heaven had been in the war with Olympian gods

that finally defeated them.

The Romans conquered a large deal of the world including Greece and spread

their language throught the Italy to their provinces and colonies. Similarly the

introduction of Christianity was the instrument of the Latin extension. It reached

various parts of Europe and became the chief religion. As was stated earlier in the first

chapter a lot of Greek words and borrowings influenced Latin at that times - the basic

language of Roman Catholic Church.

Even today people are borrowing names of famous historical personalities from

Bible. For example, when someone is a traitor we refer to him as a Judas or a

misbeliever is called a doubting Thomas.

Classical words such as animism, baptism, canonical, catholic, censorship,

communion, creation, eulogy, evangelism, evolution, hierarchy, immortality,

incarnation, inspiration, liturgy, monastery, obscene, occult, parable, prophecy,

sacrament, schism, spirituality, synagogue belong to the area of religion and

spirutalism.

The following table presents several of Latin (Greek) mottoes from biblical or

classical literature that are used in areas of government and education even today. Such

phrases usually “contain an uplifing message or espouse a virtue, such as courage, hope,

justice, truth, wisdom or knowledge.” (Krill, 1990, p.242) Others concentrates mainly

on religion.

Latin / Greek Motto Translation

Ad majōrem Deī glōriam To the greater glory of God.

Deī sub nūmine viget Under the providence of God it flourishes.

In Deō spērāmus In God we trust.

Incipit vīta nova A new life is beginning.

ПІΣТЕІ ТΗΝ ΑΡΕТΗΝ, ΕΝ ΔΕ Courage is your faith, but knowledge

ТНΙ ΑРΕТΗΙ ТΗΝ ГΝΩΣΙΝ in your courage.

Vēritās Christō et ecclēsiae Truth to Christ and the church.

The chart above contains quotations of Latin and Greek mottoes and their

translations from English Words from Greek and Latin in English Today by R.M. Krill

(1990).

It was already stated that the vocabulary of the English language has undergone

many changes. It should also be mentioned that the English vocabulary does not

represent a homogeneous system but it can be classified into layers and so the following

chapter presents such a view on the English vocabulary.

3. The English vocabulary

Elements of the English vocabulary are interrelated, interconnected and

independent. However, according to some linguists it is hard to classify the vocabulary

precisely into a system. According to Galperin (1981, p.70) the vocabulary of the

English language is divided into:

1. the literary layer

2. the neutral layer

3. the colloquial layer

These layers, except one-neutral layer, are divided into subgroups that share a

common feature within a layer, called aspect. The common words of above mentioned

layers form so-called the standard English vocabulary. The scheme of the English

vocabulary can be seen in the appendix 3.

Antrushina, Afanasyeva and Morozova (2001, p.38) refer to words that are

classed under the Galperin’s literary layer as formal and on the other hand to words

belonging to the colloquial layer as informal words.

As various languages have affected English to such an extent that borrowed

words form a dominant element in the English vocabulary, it can be said that “ ‘current’

English is a mixture of words derived from different languages at different times.”

(Wright, Hope, 1996, p.204)

According to Wright and Hope the majority of words that are used today come

back to the period of Old English. From Old English and Old Norse words representing

various word classes penetrated into the English language, for instance articles (the),

prepositions (at, up), conjuctions (and), pronouns (they, their), verbs (take, want), nouns

(battle), adjectives (happy), adverbs (almost). From such languages as Latin, Old

French, French for example adjectives (different), verbs (allow, enter) and nouns (court,

mixture) were absorbed by the English vocabulary. It is evident that words that are most

commonly used and by help of which phrases are formed - are the oldest one. This

closed class of words can be found in all kinds of texts as they form an informal or

neutral stratum of the vocabulary. On the other hand, words that have their origin in Old

French, French and Latin tend to be used in more formal styles. Moreover, words

derived from Germanic languages i.e. Old English and Old Norse are much more

shorter than the classical or French ones to which we usually refer as “long” words. This

fact can be seen in the following examples: rise (German) – mount (French) – ascend

(Latin), ask – question – interrogate. It is obvious that German words are less abstract

than French ones and simirarly French words are less abstract than Latin ones.

3.1 Basic lexicological units of speech

The aim of this work is the investigation of classical terms in the scientific prose

style, therefore the text below concentrates on the difference between two grammatical

units, terms and words.

Words are studied in a branch of linguistics called Lexicology. Before the

distinction between words and terms will be outlined, it should be pointed out that there

is no precise and sufficient definition of a word. Moreover, linguists do not agree on

several problems dealing with terms, as can be seen in the following lines.

A word can be defined as “a speech unit used for the purposes of human

communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning,

susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic

unity.” (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.10) So the word is a grammatical

unit that functions within the sentence or its part and convey one of its meanings, it

means the word is capable of getting the new meaning. On the other hand, a term is “a

word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a particular branch of science,

technology, trade or the arts to convey a concept peculiar to this particular acitivity.”

(Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.33) In other words it can be said that in

fact all terms are words that are used within one or more fields of science, but not all

words represent terms as e.g. if they are used in the colloquial speech. In that it is

evident that terms are mainly used in the scientific prose style, thus it can be said that

terms belong to the style of the scientific language. Also terms, unlike words, can be

substituted by other terms with more simplicity. Although terms belong to special

literary vocabulary of English, as can be obvious from the appendix 3., when they

become well-known to common people they enter the neutral stratum of the vocabulary.

At this point a question whether a term loses its terminological status or not arises.

Another problem is that some linguists claim that terms should be monosemantic, but in

fact there exist not only a large number of polysemantic terms, but also terms

synonymous in their meanings.

The next chapter concentrates on the functional styles of the English language,

as the style of scientific prose represent one of them. Moreover, there are also present

some fields of human acitivity where this type of style is used.

4. Style of language

The word style is used in a variety of senses for example the life style, the style

of behaviour, painting, dancing, living, speaking, writing. It is evident that all objects

that are classified under the same kind of style share some common features e.g.

healthy life-style, diplomatic style of behaviour etc. The word style is derived from the

Latin word stilus that was used in a completely different sense as it is used in English

nowadays.

A branch of general linguistics, Stylistics, deals with spoken and written styles of

language i.e. with certain types of texts. These types of texts are called functional styles

of language. “Stylistics means the study of style, with a suggestion, from the form of the

word, of a scientific or at least a methodical study.” (Turner, 1973, p.8) There exists a

great number of heterogenous definitons of the word style in Stylistics. But all these

definitions somehow suggest that style is some kind of an individual “language” that is

used by an individual author. For instance, Vachek (1991, p.125) writes “Style we

regard as individual, unifying character which is present in any work resulting from

intentional activity.” Also Seymour Chatman provides the most frequent definition of

style and claims that “Style is a product of individual choices and patterns of choices

(emphasis added) among linguistic possibilities.”(Galperin, 1981, p.12)

Another field of investigation in Stylistics is the study of special language means

called expressive means and stylistic devices dealing with the aesthetic function of

language, synonymous ways of expression, emotional colouring of ideas, individual

manner of author’s expression etc.

4.1 Functional styles

Functional styles represent mainly a part of the standard English literary

language. The development of writing caused that English literary language was

devided into several subsystems and every one of these obtained particular features and

distinctive style of writing. A functional style of language can be characterized as “a

system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication.”

(Galperin,1981, p.33)

There exist several divisions of functional styles in language. Galperin (1981,

p.33) distinguishes 5 types of functional styles:

1. The language of belles-lettres

2. The language of publicistic literature

3. The language of newspapers

4. The language of scientific prose

5. The language of official documents

Each of the above mentioned functional styles contains several substyles. These

substyles share common features within particular functional style and moreover within

particular substyle.

Functional styles Division Description of a FS1.The belles-lettres A. The language of poetry aesthetico-cognitive function, Style B. Emotive prose genuine lingustic features, huge  C. The language of the amount of words with more than  drama one meaning, personal attitude     of the author, colloquial language,    individual selection of     language means and vocabulary2. Publicistic style A. Oratory and speeches deep influence on recipients,

  B. The essay persuasive, coherent, logical  C. Journalistic articles structure of utterances, emotional    words, individual style3.Newspaper style A. Brief news items informative , instructive and   B. Advertisements and influential character, individual  announcements style - specific vocabulary  C. The headline    D. The editorial  4.The style of A. The language of use of special system of clichés, official documents business documents terms and set expressions, use   B. the language of legal of abbreviations, conventional   documents symbols, contractions, use of  C. of diplomacy of words in their logical   D. of military documents dictionary meaning, greetings,    conventional phrases,     informative in character

The table above contains the classification of functional styles and the most

important features of each style. The next chapter deals with the scientific prose style in

more detail and so this type of functional style is not present in the table.

4.1.1 Scientific prose style

The aim of the scientific prose style is “to prove a hypothesis, to create new

concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between

different phenomena, etc.” (Galperin, 1981, p.307)

According to Galperin (1981, p.34) the scientific prose style can be devided into

the following three substyles:

The language style of humanitarian sciences

The language style of “exact” sciences

The language style of popular scientific prose

Galperin (1981, p.307) says that there are several main features that characterize

the scientific prose style:

1. logical sequence of utterances

The utterances are interdependent. Scientific prose style is the one in which

the utterances are arranged in such a logical way that is hardly found in any other

functional style.

2. use of terms

Every science possesses its own terminology. However, it is possible to

find the same terms in more than one science as a result of exchanging terms among

various branches of science. Also many scientific and technical terms used outside

a particular science acquire new meanings. This process is called de-terminization.

Terms used in the scientific prose style are concise and unambiguous. It should also

be stated that there is no other field that produces new words in such extent as an

area of science. These new words are called literary coinages or neologisms. The

words naming new concepts as a result of the development of the science are called

terminological coinages. As noted in previous chapters neologisms often consist of

Latin or Greek elements.

3. sentence – patterns can be divided into the following tree types:

a) postulatory

Every scientific work is based on facts that are known and therefore need

no proof.

b) argumentative

Writer’s ideas, arguments within sentences by the help of which he sum

up the result of his investigation.

c) formulative

Formulative sentence-patterns are author’s expressed ideas that represent

theories of a principle.

4. quotations and references

Any piece of the scientific prose contain quotations that fit into the

context. “A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech

and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further

speculation on the matter in hand.”(Galperin, 1981, p.186) Quotations are

accompanied by references to authors quoted or reffered to, titles of works, places

and years works were published etc.

5. foot – notes

Foot-notes are used when some idea is connected with the context but it is

not logical to use this idea in the context because it can interrupt coherence of the

text.

6. impersonality

The science “must be ‘invariant to all observers’ and experiments, not

experimenters, were the centre of interest.” (Turner, 1973, p.181) This is one of the

reasons why the impersonal style is implied by authors of scientific works. The

impersonality is emphasized by the use of passive constructions and frequent use of

verbs as suppose, assume, conclude, point out and others. Another indicator of

impersonality is an extensive use of abstract nouns that are formed from adjectives

or verbs. Since language of science concentrates on facts therefore it must be

unemotianal, objective, factual.

It should be pointed out that there are used so called supra-phrasal units, that is

units larger than a sentence, in all the types of functional styles. For instance, a

paragraph may serve as an example of such supra-phrasal unit. “A paragraph is

a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the

beginning and a break in the line at the end.” (Galperin, 1981, p.198) There are different

requirements for the usage of the paragraph in different functional styles.

The paragraph, as a linguistic category, can be charecterized by the use of

purely linguistic means as intonation, pauses, semantic ties, etc. When the paragraph is

built on logical principles, it is used as a logical category and so there must be

coherence and unity of ideas expressed. This is the case with the scientific prose style as

it is noticeable from the beginning of this chapter. The paragraph in the scientific prose

style usually has a topic sentence that indicates the main ideas within the paragraph.

Moreover, the scientific prose style could also be found in other functional styles

and their substyles. At this point it should be stated that there is some transformation of

the style of scientific prose as it is used for special purposes wanted to be achieved in

another functional style. Therefore it is possible to use scientific language in belles-

lettres style or in other functional styles.

From the chart in the chapter 3.2.1 Functional styles and from this chapter it is

obvious that there are some features shared within more functional styles. For instance,

logical sequence and connectivenes of utterances within paragraphs is important besides

the scientific prose style also in the publicistic style. Or another example is the usage of

non-emotinal words in both scientific prose style and the style of official documents.

4.2 Science

Many names representing particular branches of science have their origin in

Latin or Greek as for instance philosophy, chemistry, biology, medicine and they

together with many other worldwide known words form a group of international words.

This chapter deals with several fields of science that have been influenced by

classical languages to a large extent, as it is already known that Latin and Greek have

been important languages in the developing terminology of various sciences in the past

and even today.

The charts in each chapter below contain quotations of Latin, Greek and English

phrases, bases and meanings from English Words from Greek and Latin in English

Today by R.M. Krill (1990).

4.2.1 Medicine

One of the branches of science greatly influenced by classical languages is the

field of medicine. The fact that modern medical terminology contains a great number of

words of Latin and Greek origin is not surprising as many works dealing with medical

subjects dated to ancient times have survived to this day.

Some medical examples denoting external body parts are presented in both Latin

and Greek in the chart below.

Greek English base Latin English base Meaning

πρόσωπον prosop- faciēs faci- face

στόμα(τος) stom(at)- ōs, ōris or- mouth

χειλος ch(e)il- labium labi- lip

χείρ ch(e)ir- manus manu- hand

δάκτυλος dactyl- digitus digit- finger

κνήμη cnem- crūs, crūris crur- leg

γόνυ gon(y)- genu genu- knee

It is known that Latin universal technical names are given to specific medical

conditions or diseases in the field of medicine and therefore they are used all over the

world. The following table presents several of such examples.

Latin phrase English phrase

anorexia nervōsa nervous loss of appetite

maculae albidae white spots

partus caesareus Cesarean birth

angīna pectoris pain of the chest

encephalītis neonātōrum brain inflammation of new-borns

4.2.2 Botany

Many classical terms are also found in the field of botany. Scientists were

interested in plants and animals and their categorizing already in the antiquity. Since the

18th century Latin has become the basic language for assigning names to plants, animals

and other subjects connected with botany thanks to scientist Carolus Linnaeus that

followed Aristotle’s scientific classifications made in Greek.

The following table presents several scientific binomial names of some specific

trees and plants.

Latin name English name

Aeschylus hippocastānum horse chestnut

Citrus sineenis orange

Liriodendron tulipfera tulip tree

Mālus pumila apple

Abiēs balsamea balsam fir

Pīnus resinōsa red pine

Cholorophytum comōsum spider plant

Begonia semperflōrēns wax begonia

Gladiōlus psittacinus gladiola

Narcissus incomparābilis daffodil

4.2.3 Zoology

As there were developed several divisions of plants and trees in the field of

botany, scientists established several classifications of animals and their related topics

also in the field of zoology. Today all animals, from the smallest to the largest one, are

identified with its binomial Latin names.

The table below contains several examples of simple Latin names as well as

scientific binomial terms denoting animals.

Latin name English name

aquila eagle

canis dog

tīgris tiger

ursus, ursa bear

Equus caballus domestic horse

Ailuropoda melanoleuca giant panda

Delphīnus delphis common dolphin

4.2.4 Astronomy

Modern technologies used today did not exist in ancient times and so several

speculations and theories about the Earth and universe were established by a number of

scientists and philosphers. Already “the Egyptians and Babylonians were quite active in

the study of the stars.” (Krill, 1990, p.229)

All planets’names of the solar system have their origin in classical languages in

that they were named after Greek or Roman gods as can be seen below.

English name Latin

Venus Venus, Veneris

Roman god of love and beauty

Mars Mars, Martis

Roman god of war

Uranus Uranus

Greek sky god, personification of “heaven”

Pluto Pluto

Roman god of the underworld

Moreover terms denoting signs of the zodiac for instance Leo, Aries, Scorpius,

Taurus have their origin in classical languages as well as names of constellations and

stars such as e.g. Aquila, Cassiopeia, Draco, Orion, Pegasus, Vulpecula.

4.2.5 Pharmaceutics and Chemistry

“Just as thousands of words unique to medicine and other sciences have entered

the English language from Greek and Latin, so also is the case with chemistry and

pharmacy.” (Krill, 1990, p.234)

Symbols denoting chemical elements are derived not from English but from their

Latin names as it is obvious from the following chart.

Latin Abbreviation English

argentum Ag silver

ferrum Fe iron

hydrargyrum Hg mercury

plumbum Pb lead

stannum Sn tin

5. Interference of Greek and Latin in the field of history

Each language is a great and complex system and so it is studied from variuos

angles by many linguistic sciences. These branches of science help people to understand

a lot of possible questions about languages as for e.g. why there exist so many

languages in the world, how they are related or why some words we use in one language

are similar or even the same in the other one. Similarly, this work might help see the

richness of the English vocabulary in that various languages have influenced each other

to such an extent that even sometimes it is impossible to specify the origin of a

particular word.

As noted earlier words of classical origin can be found in various fields within

the English language so the field of history is not an exception to this fact. The very

term history that is used in various senses and contexts has its origin in Greek. What

does this word suggest? The statement that the history can be understood as a chain of

events might be sufficient enough. The history is present in books, magazines, media

and so it has become a part of the everyday human life, althought it might happen

unconsciously. Also the fact that modern people know more about the past than ever

before is undisputed. Within a minute we can see or learn about something that in fact

lasted for several hundred years. We can witness the great transformation from the first

civilisations, through wars, revolutions, economic, cultural, political changes and life to

a modern man.

People retain their past in the form of memoirs, experiences, photographs,

letters, various objects important for them. Alike the history of religion, nations,

cultures, customs, science etc. has retained in different forms. For instance, there

remained scarce books about history of almost everything through the use of “written

word”.

5.1 The investigation

Practical part of this work consists in finding out the foreign nature of English

words. This is also the major task of the linguistic science called Etymology that studies

the origin of words. The English book of history The Western Experience served as a

material for the exploration of classical origin of English words in this field.

We may distinguish the following historical periods:

Primeval Ages - 3000 B.C.

Antiquity 3000 B.C. - 500

Middle Ages 500 - 1492

Modern Times 1492 - 1918

Recent Epoch 1918 -

It must be said that words of classical origin occur in large numbers in English.

For the reason that this work is limited and there is not enough space for all such words

that occur in the above mention book, the list of words presented in the appendix 4.

contains words of Latin and Greek origin from the period of Antiquity only. Words

found in the appendix 4. are presented in their basic form but for illustration their

derivations can be seen in the chapters below within the morphological aspect. The

appendix 4. is available on CD-ROM that is attached to this work.

As words of Latin or Greek origin occur in all the historical periods the

following lines show several examples of words found in other four periods:

Primeval Ages

abandon Latin (bannum) proclamation

calendar Latin (calendae) first day of the month

domesticate Latin (domus) house

excercise Latin (arcere) to restrain

fashion Latin (facere) to make

gorilla Greek (gorillai) name given to wild, hairy people

Homo erectus Latin (Hom rctus) upright man

Homo sapiens Latin (Hom sapins) wise man irrigate Latin (irrigare) to water

mathematics Greek (manthanein) to learn

territory Latin (terra) earth, land

valid Latin (valere) be strong

Middle Ages

aggressive Latin (aggredi) to approach, attack

Byzantine Latin (Byzantinus) art style, later in reference to the

complex, devious, and intriguing character of the royal

court of Constantinople

discussion Latin (discutere) dash to pieces

effect Latin (efficere) work out, accomplish

farmer Latin (firmus) firm

period Greek (periodos) cycle, circuit, period of time

philosopher Greek (philosophia) love of knowledge, wisdom

protect Latin (protectus) protect, cover in front

qualification Latin (qualificare) attribute a quality to

rule Latin (regula) straight stick, standard

sacred Latin (sacrre) sacred

theme Greek (tithenai) put down, place

Modern Times

activity Latin (agere) to do, set in motion, drive, urge, chase

colonist Latin (colere) to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice

change Latin (cambire) exchange

expertise Latin (experiri) try out

impact Latin (impactus) to push against, to push into, dash against

missionary Latin (mittere) to send

monarch Greek (monarkhia) absolute rule, ruling of one

occupant Latin (occupationem) a taking possession, business

product Latin (productus) something produced

rival Latin (rivalis) a rival

superstition Latin (superstitionem) prophecy, soothsaying, excessive

fear of the gods

traditionally Latin (traditus) deliver, hand over

Recent Epoch

appeal Latin (appellare) to accost, address, appeal to, summon,

name

balance Latin (bilanx) scale, having two pans

chapter Latin (caput) head

decade Greek (dekas) group of ten

destruction Latin (destruere) tear down

figure Latin (fingere) make, shape

legal Latin (lex) law

million Latin (mille) thousand

minister Latin (ministeri) servant, priest's assistant

rapidly Latin (rapidus) hasty, snatching

reform Latin (reformare) to form again, change, alter

summary Latin (summa) whole, gist

5.1.2 Words from the period of Antiquity

The following five chapters are arranged according to the approach that is used

for the analysis of words of the classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity.

There is a sample of English words of Latin or Greek origin present in each chapter.

5.1.2.1 Semantic aspect

Each word has its own one or more meanings althought there are some words in

English that denote similar or even the same things. Words used in any language can be

classified into various semantic fields according to their meaning and relationship

among objects they represent e.g. bread, butter, wine can be classified under the

semantic field named food. Consequently the first classification of words applied is

according to the semantics of words. Words of classical origin from the period of

Antiquity are placed into several semantic groups, which names are related to human

life and interest at those times (art, education, government, religion, science). It must

also be stated that many of words are hard to classify and therefore they are placed

among general words. And on the other hand several words may belong to more than

only one semantic field.

Words sharing common features are divided into the following semantic fields:

1. art

architecture, bust, collonnade, comedy, drama, inspiration, museum, picture,

portray, prologue, style, talent, theme

2. a change of status (words denoting a change of status)

collapse, conquer, consolidate, desert, destruction, enlarge, enclose, expanded,

explosion, intrusion, locate, modify

3. education

alphabet, Aristotle, cuneiform, diameter, docile, Horace, language, letter, pi (π),

scholar, Socrates

4. general words and words hard to classify

attempt, condition, control, decision, estimate, exclusive, included, level,

movement, normal, preserve, severe, sudden, transmit

5. geographical names and objects

Athens, Babylon, delta, Egypt, lake, Macedonia, Mediterranean, Mesopotamia,

mountain, Orient, Re, river, valley

6. government

administration, court, dynasty, empire, govern, judgement, legal, military,

occupation, official, politics, province, reign, rule, state

7. land

agriculture, area, country, farming, grain, nature, province, region, street,

territory, terrace

8. man’s products

bust, channel, chant, compass, discovery, fable, invention, monument, pyramid,

sphinx, survey, stele, story, tower, villa

9. metals and currency

bronze, coin, copper, drachma, florin, metal

10. names of people or gods

Achilles, Antigone, Aphrodite, Aristotle, Cleopatra, Epicurus, Horace, Lucius,

Julius, Pericles, Pindar, Socrates, Themistocles

11. numbers, measures and words connected with them

dual, dozen, inch, million, mile, meter, unique

12. words denoting people

citizen, collector, commoner, creator, Egyptian, expert, genius, historian, human,

invander, judge, slave, Macedonian, mother, noble, parent, Roman

13. qualities and features

beauty, character, feature, fertility, honor, identical, immense, original, parallel,

particular, patience, permanent, primitive, principal, special

14. relations

adultery, commitment, compete, discussion, dispute, divorce, enemy, incest,

jealous, offend, rivalry

15. religion

creation, Christian, demon, divine, miracle, monotheism, Nike, pray,

resurrection, salvation, spirit, temple, Venus

16. science

astrology, calendar, cure, diagnosis, diameter, geography, germ, mathematics,

medicine, mythology, planet, suffix, surgery, symptom, theory, Venus

17. words denoting “something written” or “someone who writes”

almanac, biography, catalog, chapter, chronicle, document, epigram, scribe,

script, sign, testament, text

18. time

almanac, chapter, chronicle, date, era, future, interval, Lunar, millenium, minute,

November, Paleolithic, period

5.1.2.2 Morphological aspect

Words found in the period of Antiquity belong to various word classes. As it was

stated earlier there is only the basic form of words applied in the appendix 4. and so this

chapter provides a list of words that are derived from them.

According to Yule (1985, p. 60) we disthinguish the following types of

morphemes:

free morphemes

ordinary words

bound morphemes

derivational

New words are produced by means of affixation and therefore often

belong to a different word class as the word they were derived from.

inflectional

These morphemes indicate aspects of the grammatical function of

words (singular, plural, comparative, past tense and so on.)

It is worth to say that there occurs the past form of the verbs very frequently, but

it is not surprising as the investigation was made in the field of history and verbs denote

things that had happened in the past. The similar case is with the singular and plural

form of nouns.

Several examples are chosen for the illustration of all the forms of particular

basic words that can be found in the period of Antiquity. This fact is obvious from the

lines below.

Basic word Derivational Inflectional

morphemes morphemes

change exchange (ex)changes, (ex)changed,

(ex)changing

Christ Christian(ity),christen Christians

connect interconnected, connection connected, connections

constant constantly, constancy

defeat defeater, defeation, defeating, defeated, defeats

defeated defeations

Hellene Hellenistic, (Pan)Hellenic Hellenes

individual individuality, individualism individuals, individualities

individualized, individually,

individualist(ic,ally)

loyal (dis)loyalty, loyally, loyalties

loyalist

military militarism, militarily, militia

militarization, militarist(ic),

militarized

rival rivalry, unrivalled rivals, rivalling, rivalled

slave slavery, enslave(ment) slaves

tyranny tyrannical(ly), tyrannized, tyrants

tyrannize, tyrant

5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning

Sometimes the meaning of words has remained the same from the past to the

present days and sometimes it has been changed completely. It is also the case with the

investigated words from the period of Antiquity. This chapter provides a couple of

words of classical origin for the illustration of both above mentioned possibilities.

From appendix 4. it is obvious that more words of classical origin remained their

original meanings to the present. Even some words used in English today do not mean

exactly the same as the words they are derived from, but their new meaning is

connected with their primary one logically, for example the English word advice meant

in my view in Latin.

Words with unchanged meaning:

ability Latin (habilis) easy to manage, handy

complete Latin (completus) fill

doubt Latin (dubitare) hesitate, waver in opinion

fidelity Latin (fidelitatem) faithfulness, adherence

Greek Greek (Grakoi) a Greek

import Latin (importare) bring in, convey

olive Greek (elaia) olive

paradox Greek (paradoxos) contrary to opinion

senior Latin (senior) older

theory Greek (theoria) contemplation, theory

Words with changed meaning:

adorn Latin (ordo) order

amateur Latin (amatorem) lover

calendar Latin (calendae) first day of the month

era Latin (aes) copper, money, bronze coin

falcon Latin (falx) sickle

place Greek (plateia) broad

prestige Latin (præstigiæ) juggler's tricks

problem Greek (proballein) propose

strategy Greek (stratos) multitude, army, expedition, that which is

spread out

temenos Greek (temenos) to cut

The following graph shows percentual presentation of English words that

retained their original Greek or Latin meaning to the present and on the other hand

words used in a completely different sense as the classical words they are derived from.

Fig. 1. Shift of meaning of English words

5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect

This chapter provides another point of view on words of classical origin. As it

can be seen in the appendix 4. there exist several English words that have their origin in

the same Latin or Greek word. The sample of words in the following table shows that

some English words derived from the same classical word denote completely different

things today. It should be stated this chapter does not concentrate on morphemes of

derivated English words.

The table below presents both the classical word and its meaning and English

words derived from the particular classical base (right column).

words with changed meaning

words with unchanged meaning

the classical word meaning example of the English word

caput head capital

chapter

chief

civis townsman city

civilization

finis end final

financial

fine

nasci be born nation

nature

ordo order adorn

ordain

order

ordinary

stare to stand constant

contrast

stage

state

tribus one of the three political/

ethnic divisions of the tribe

original Roman state tribute

unus one unique

unit

videre to see envy

evident

revise

villa country house villa

villein

The major part of the graph below presents English words that are derived from

the common classical base. It means that there must be at least two English words that

are derived from the same Greek or Latin base. The other part of the graph is created by

such English words when there is only one English word derived from one classical

word.

Fig. 2. Common classical origin of English words

5.1.2.5 Etymological aspect

Words of classical origin did not appear all at the same time in the English

language and consequently the last approach consists in the grouping of words

according to the time words of Latin and Greek origin appeared and started to be used in

the English language. It should be stated that majority of words of classical origin

belonging to the period of Antiquity appeared in English in the period from the 11th to

the 19th century.

The lines below contain examples of such words that are arranged uplink

according to centuries.

words with common classical base

other words

13th century: year

capital 1225 Latin ( caput) head

mayor 1297 Latin (major) large, great

14th century:

Babylon 1362 Greek (Bab-ilani) the gate of the gods

genius 1390 Latin (gignere) beget, produce

prologue 1300 Greek (prologos) prologue of a play, speaker of a

prologue

15th century:

column 1440 Latin (columna) pillar, top, summit

dynasty 1460 Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power

succumb 1489 Latin (succumbere) submit, sink down, lie under

16th century:

anarchy 1539 Greek (anarkhia) lack of a leader

collect 1573 Latin (collectus) gather together 1573

17th century:

compete 1620 Latin (competere) strive in common, to come

together, agree

series 1611 Latin (serere) to join, link, bind together, put

5.2 Interpretation of particular results

This chapter provides three interpretations of the words of classical origin. Each

point of view is accompanied by a particular graph for illustration.

The first analysis of words was made according to the ten pages chosen randomly

from the period of Antiquity. A further investigation showed that from all the words

covering the ten pages (3500) there is 2048 words of classical origin. In percentual

formulation it is 59 % that present words of Latin and Greek origin and 41%

representing words of other than the classical origin. The graphical illustration can be

seen in the graph below.

Fig. 3. Amount of English words of classical origin according to the above

mentioned statistics

Later statistics was applied according to whether words of classical origin found

earlier were of Greek or Latin origin. It was found out that from all the words of

classical origin (2048) there are 311 words, that is 15% of Greek and the rest, that is

1737 (85%) of Latin origin. This fact can be observed in the following graph.

words of other than classical origin

words of Latin and Greek origin

Fig. 4. The proportion between the English words of Latin and Greek origin according to the above mentioned statistics

As all the words of classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity are

present in the appendix 4., consequently the last graph illustrates the proportion between

the words of Latin and Greek origin applied in the above mentioned historical period.

Fig. 5. The proportion between the English words of Latin and Greek origin

according to appendix 4.

.

Conclusion

English belongs to the most widely used languages. This fact is not surprising as

the English language is the native language of such great nations as USA or Great

words of Greek origin

words of Latin origin

words of Greek origin

words of Latin origin

Britain. In the past English has been in contact with various languages but as the most

influential are considered classical languages i.e. Latin and Greek.

This work proves that the interference of Greek and Latin on the English

language has been enormous. Because we want to show that classical languages have

already been extending the Eglish vocabulary from the times of Old English, the work

starts with the brief description of the English language development. For illustration,

words of classical origin that penetrated into the English language in particular

historical periods are presented in each subchapter. As Latin and Greek are not the only

languages that helped the English vocabulary to expand there are also mentioned other

main influential languages.

The following second chapter deals with Greek and Latin in more detail. A list

of Greek and Latin affixes is presented as they are used frequently in everyday English.

Similarly a lot of English words consists of classical roots representing numerals and so

examples of such English words together with classical numerals and bases are applied

in this chapter. Moreover, there can be observed examples of Latin abbreviations as

they are known and used quite frequently in English. One subchapter is devoted to

Greek and Latin religion as we always come across allusions about faith of people and

mythology in the field of history.

The next third chapter pays attention to the structure of the English vocabulary.

The main concern of this chapter is to show the possible distinction between two lexical

units i.e. words and terms.

The last chapter of the theoretical part concentrates on functional styles and their

classification. The chart with functional styles together with their main features is

presented. As the purpose of this work is the field of scientific prose style there is the

special subchapter dealing with this type of functional style only. In that scientific prose

style is the “language” of science there are chosen several fields of science and

particular classical examples in the following subchapter.

The founding and consistent analysis of words of classical origin is the major

interest of the practical part. Because of limitations for this work we chose words of

Latin and Greek origin from the period of Antiquity. But for illustration there can be

found several examples of words belonging to other historical periods. There are

applied five approaches according to which the further analysis of words was made.

Each approach is presented in the special subchapter.

At first words are placed according to their semantics into the eighteen semantic

fields. As these words could also be used outside the group they are classified into it can

be stated that such words of classical origin cover large areas of human interests and

many of them are used in the everyday English.

The second approach provides several examples of words of Latin or Greek

origin together with all their forms they occur in the period of Antiquity. The most

frequent form of words is the past tense in that they describe historical events.

The following third aspect consists in classifying of English words according to

whether their present meanings differ from their original one or not. The fact that more

words have the same or similar meanings as the classical words they are derived from is

obvious from the particular graph.

The major task of the fourth approach was the research of English words that

have their origin in the same classical word. The number of such words is not very high

as it is also evident from the appendix 4.

The next etymological point of view shows several examples of words of Latin

and Greek origin together with the year they had occured in the English language.

From the following statistics it is obvious that words of classical origin cover a

great number of English words. Moreover, there is a greater number of words of Latin

origin than words of Greek origin in English. These facts can also be seen from

particular graphs that accompany this subchapter.

This work may serve as a helpful material for further study of Latin and Greek

within the English language. It could be a model for the investigation of classical words

in other areas than the field of history. Moreover, both teachers and students might

benefit from this work as they can enrich their English vocabulary. This work may also

extend the knowledge teachers and students have about Greek and Latin and finally

about English. Teachers could use the information given in the work during their

lessons. Also students would better understand the meaning of English words if they are

familiar with Latin and Greek affixes and bases.

Résumé

Anglický jazyk patrí k najpoužívanejším svetovým jazykom. Táto skutočnosť

nie je prekvapujúca, keďže angličtina je materský jazyk takých mocných krajín ako

USA alebo Veľká Británia. V minulosti sa anglický jazyk dostal do kontaktu s rôznymi

inými jazykmi, z ktorých za najvplyvnejšie sa považujú dva antické jazyky t.j. latinčina

a gréčtina.

Táto práca je dôkazom toho, že latinčina a gréčtina mala veľmi veľký vplyv na

anglickú slovnú zásobu. Keďže antické jazyky ovplyvňovali slovnú zásobu anglického

jazyka už v časoch Starej angličtiny, táto diplomová práca začína stručným historickým

vývojom anglického jazyka. V každej podkapitole sú pre ilustráciu uvedené slová

antického pôvodu, ktoré prenikali do angličtiny v jednotlivých obdobiach jej vývinu.

Taktiež je tu zmienených niekoľko ďalších významných jazykov, ktoré mali vplyv na

rozšírenie anglickej slovnej zásoby.

Nasledujúca druhá kapitola sa podrobnejšie zaoberá latinským a gréckym

jazykom. Sú tu uvedené predpony a prípony antického pôvodu, vzhľadom k faktu, že sa

bežne používajú v každodennej angličtine. Navyše, mnoho anglických slov je

utvorených z antického základu reprezentujúceho slovný druh číslovky. Preto sa v tejto

kapitole nachádzajú príklady takýchto anglických slov spolu s antickými číslovkami a

slovnými základmi. Podobným prípadom sú latinské skratky, ktoré sú tiež známe a

pomerne často vyskytujúce v angličtine. Keďže v oblasti histórie veľa krát narazíme na

zmienky o mytológii a viere človeka, jednu podkapitolu sme venovali antickému

náboženstvu.

V tretej kapitole sme sa zaoberali slovnou zásobou anglického jazyka a jej

štruktúrou. Hlavným cieľom tejto kapitoly je poukázanie na prípadný rozdiel medzi

dvomi lexikálnymi jednotkami t.j. slovami a termínmy.

Hlavnou problematikou poslednej kapitoly patriacej do teoretickej časti sú

Funkčné jazykové štýly a ich klasifikácia. Jednotlivé jazykové štýly sú usporiadané do

prehľadnej tabuľky, v ktorej sú naviac uvedené ich hlavné znaky. Keďže zámerom tejto

diplomovej práce je výskum v oblasti vedecko-odborného štýlu, jedna podkapitola sa

zaoberá výlučne týmto funkčným štýlom. Je zrejmé, že vedecko-odborný štýl je

hlavným “jazykovým prostriedkom” v oblasti vedy. Vzhľadom k tomuto faktu sa v tejto

kapitole nachádadza niekoľko vedeckých disciplín, v rámci ktorých sú uvedene príklady

latinských a gréckych slov.

Praktická časť tejto práce pozostávala z vyhľadávania a následnej analýzy slov

antického pôvodu. Keďže je táto práca obmedzená počtom strán, zamerali sme sa na

slová latinského a gréckeho pôvodu patriace do obdobia Staroveku. Pre ilustráciu sme

uviedli aj príklady slov antického pôvodu z iných historických období. Na analýzu

jednotlivých slov sme použili päť metód, z ktorých každá zodpovedá osobitnej kapitole.

Nájdené slová sme najprv rozdelili podľa ich významu do osemnástich

sémantických polí. Keďže roztriedené slová môžu byť použité aj mimo skupiny do

ktorej boli zaradené, prišli sme k záveru, že slová antického pôvodu pokrývajú širokú

oblasť ľudskej činnosti a záujmov. Taktiež v každodennej angličtine je možné nájsť

veľké množstvo slov latinského a gréckeho pôvodu.

Druhý prístup poskytuje vzorku slov antického pôvodu, ktoré sú uvedené v ich

základnom tvare a tiež vo všetkých ďalších tvaroch v akých sa nachádzajú v období

Staroveku. Najčastejšie používanou morfémou je minulý čas slovies, keďže sa

odvolávajú na udalosti, ktoré sa odohrali v minulosti.

Nesledujúce hľadisko spočíva v roztriedení anglických slov podľa toho, či sa ich

súčasný význam odlišuje od pôvodného. Z príslušného grafu je zrejmé, že väčšina

anglických slov má v súčasnosti taký istý alebo podobný význam ako slová z ktorých sú

odvodené.

Dominantnou úlohou štvrtej použitej metódy bolo vyhľadanie anglických slov,

ktoré vznikli z rovnakého antického základu. Z prílohy 4. je evidentné, že počet týchto

slov nie je veľmi vysoký.

Nasledovný etymologický aspekt poskytuje niekoľko príkladov slov latinského a

gréckeho pôvodu zároveň s rokmi ich výskytu v anglickom jazyku.

Fakt, že angličtina má veľké množstvo slov antického pôvodu vyplýva z

nasledovnej štatistiky. Z tejto kapitoly je zrejmé, že väčšina anglických slov má svoj

pôvod v latinčine. Konkrétne výsledky výskumu sú znázornené graficky.

Táto diplomová práca môže poslúžiť ako pomocný materiál pre ďalšie štúdium

latinčiny a gréčtiny v rámci anglického jazyka. Taktiež je možné použiť ju ako vzor pre

výskum antických slov v iných oblastiach ako je oblasť histórie. Učitelia aj žiaci by

mohli nájsť úžitok v tejto práci a obohatiť si svoju slovnú zásobu a tiež si rozšíriť svoje

doterajšie vedemosti o latinčine a gréčtine a nakoniec aj o angličtine. Učitelia môžu

používať informácie zahrnuté v práci počas svojich vyučovacích hodín a prednášok.

Navyše, znalosť latinských a gréckych prípon, predpôn a základov by mohla pomôcť

študentom k lepšiemu porozumeniu významu anglických slov.

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Appendix 1. GREEK AFFIXES

Greek prefixes

Regural form Before vowel Meaning Example

amphi- amph- both, around amphitheatre,

amphibious

ana- an- back, again, up anaesthesia, analogue

apo- ap- from, off apologetic

cata- cat- down, against, very catadioptre

dia- di- through, across, diaglyph, diagonal,

between diameter, diaphragm

ec- ex- out, out of exaggerate, eccentric

en-, em-, el- en-, -em,-el in , into encapsulate,

enarthrum

endo-, ento- end-, ent- within endoscope

epi- ep- upon, to, epicolic,

in addition to epicentral

exo-, ecto- exo-, -ecto outside, external exodus, exorcise

para- par- beside, disordered parachromatopsia

peri- peri- around, near perimeter

pro- pro- before, in front of prognosis

pros- pros- toward, in addition to prostration

syn-, sym-, syl-, sy-, sys with, together, alike symbiosis, sympathy

Greek suffixes

Noun-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-arch one who rules patriarch, monarch

-cracy rule by, type of government democracy

-crat one who advocates or practices rule by bureaucrat

-gram thing written autogram

-graph writing, instrument for writing barograph, autograph

-graphy writing, art or science of writing calligraphy

-ician specialist in, practitioner of physician, electrician

-ite one connected with, inhabitant of

(also used to denote chemicals, minerals..) anthracite

-ma, -m, -me result of dilemma, stigma

-mania madness about, passion for bibliomania,

pyromania

-maniac one having a madness or passion for kleptomaniac

-meter measure, instrument for measuring, photometer,

number of feet in poetry speedometer

-metry art or science of measuring geometry

-nomy science of, system of laws physiognomy

-phobia abnormal fear of homophobia,

pedophobia

- phobe one who fears or hates Anglophobe

-sis, -se, -sy, -sia act of, state of, result of synthesis, amnesia

-scope instrument for viewing, to view thermoscope,

rhinoscope

Appendix 2.LATIN AFFIXES

Latin prefixes

Prefix Meaning Example

ad-, ac- to, toward adopt, admit, adhere

ambi- both, around ambient, ambiguity

ante- before, in front of antecedent, anteroom

con-, com-, co- with, together, very cooperate, cohabit

contra-, contro- against contrary, contradict

de- down, of, thoroughly deprecate, defrost

e-, ef-, ex- out, from, completely exacerbate, effective,

ex -wife

infra- below, beneath infralinear, infrapatellar

inter- between, among interaction, intercession

intra-, intro- within introduce, introvert

non- not noncomformity

ob-, oc- toward, against, completely obstruct, obdurability

per- through, wrongly, completely perambulate, perdition

pre- before, in front of preside, premature

pro- forward, in front of, for probation, prognosis

re-, red- back, again reactivate, realign

retro- backward, behind retrograde, retrospect

se-, sed- aside, away separate, secret

tra-, tran-, trans- across, through transcontinental

ultra beyond, exceedingly ultralight, ultraviolent

Latin suffixes

Adjective-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-acious tending to, inclined to audacious

-an, -ane, -ian pertaining to, like, belonging to, Lutheran, optician,

having the character of suburban

-ar pertaining to, like, belonging to, triangular, popular,

having the character of spectacular

-ate possessing, being, characterized by passionate, affectionate

-ic, -tic pertaining to, like romantic , scenic, plastic

-id tending to, inclined to stupid, lurid

-il, -ile pertaining to, like, belonging to, sterile, fragile

having the character of senile

-ile able to be, able to, tending to reptile

-ine pertaining to, like, of feminine

-itious tending to, characterized by repetitious

-u(lent), -(o)lent full of, disposed to malevolent, turbulent

-ory tending to, serving for illusory, advisory

-ose, -iose full of verbose

-ulous tending to, inclined to tremulous

-ous tending to, inclined to conspicious, poisonous

Noun-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-acity quality of being inclined to capacity

-acy quality or state of being or having adequacy, federacy

-i(mony) quality of , state of harmony

-(i)tude quality of, state of exactitude, latitude

-ity, -ety, -ty quality of, state of polarity, variety

-(u)lence, -(o)lence state or quality of being full of violence, turbulence

-men result of, means of, act of, state of specimen

-ory ,-orium place for laboratory, observatory

-rix she who does testatrix

-ure act of, result of pleasure, posture

-y quality of, state of, act of, result of affinity, sterility

Verb-forming suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-esce to begin, to become coalesce

-(i)fy, -(e)fy to make verify, specify, crucify

The diminutive suffix

In Latin a diminutive suffix was used to reflect smallness of an object.

Suffix Meaning Example

-cule, -(i)cle little folicule, clavicle

-el little vessel

-il(e) little chervil, codicil

-ol(e), -ule little capsule

Appendix 3. THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY ACCORDING TO GALPERIN (1981, p.71)

Appendix 4. WORDS OF CLASSICAL ORIGIN BELONGING TO THE PERIOD OF

ANTIQUITY (3200 B.C – 500)

abduct Latin (abducere) lead awayability Latin (habilis) easy to manage, handyabolish Latin (abolescere) to die out, decay little by littleabrupt Latin (abruptus) broken off, precipitous, disconnected absent Latin (absentem) be awayabsolute Latin (absolutus) to set free, make separate absorb Latin (absorbere) to swallow up absurd Latin (absurdus) out of tune, senselessabstract Latin (abstrahere) to drag awayabundant Latin (abundantia) fullnessabyss Greek (abyssos) bottomlessacanthus Greek (akanthos ) flower with thornsaccept Latin (acceptare) take or receive willinglyaccelerate Latin (accelerare) quickenaccident Latin (accidentum) happen, fall outaccompany Latin (companionem) bread fellow, messmateaccomplish Latin (accomplere) to fill up account Latin (computare) calculate accumulate Latin (accumulare) to heap up in a massacquisition Latin (acquirere) get in additionaccuracy Latin (accuratus) prepared with care, exact acquiesce Latin (acquiescere) to have a restacquire Latin (aequirere) gain, profitacropolis Greek (akropolis) citadelact Latin (agere) to doactual Latin (actualis) active acute Latin (acutus) sharp, pointedadd Latin (addere) add to, join address Latin (directus) straight, directadequate Latin (æquus) level, even, justadjust Latin (adjuxtare) to bring nearadminister Latin (administrare) serve, manageadmire Latin (admiratus) admire adopt Latin (adoptare) to chooseadorn Latin (ordo) order adult Latin (adultus) grow up, matureadultery Latin (adulterare) to corruptadvance Latin (abante) from beforeadverse Latin (adversus) turned against, hostileadvice Latin (mi est visum) in my viewadvocate Latin (advocatus) to call aegis Greek (Aigis) the shield of Zeus or Athenaaesthete Greek (aisthanesthai) to perceive, to feelaffect Latin (affectre) to strive after, to affect, influenceaffirm Latin (affirmare) to make steady, strengthen, corroborate

affront Latin (frons) foreheadage Latin (aevum) lifetime, period of lifeagent Latin (agere) to doaggression Latin (aggredi) to approach, attackagora Greek (ageirein) to assembleagriculture Latin (agri + cultura) cultivation of landaim Latin (aestimare) appraisealien Latin (alienus) of or belonging to anotherallege Latin (allegare) to dispatch, citeally Latin (alligare) bind toalluvial Latin (alluere) wash againstalmanac Greek (almenichiakon) calendaralphabet Greek (alphabetos) Greek alpha and betaaltar Latin (altare) burnt offeringsamateur Latin (amatorem) loverambiguity Latin (ambiguus) having double meaning, shifting, changeable,

doubtfulambition Latin (ambitus)to go aroundamenity Latin (amoenus) pleasantamnesty Greek (amnestia) oblivionamount Latin (admontem) mountainanalogy Greek (analogia) proportionanalysis Greek (analyein) to break upanarch Greek (anarkhia) lack of a leaderancestor Latin (antecedere) precede anchor Greek (ankyra) anchor, hookancient Latin (ante) beforeangel Greek (angelos) messengerannex Latin (annexare) to bind toannihilate Latin (annihilare) to reduce to nothinganonym Greek (anonymos) without a nameanthropomorphic Greek (anthropos) human beingantique Latin (antquus) former, ancientanual Latin (annus) yearanxiety Latin (anxietatem) angerapathy Greek (apathes) without feelingapex Latin (apex) summit, peak, tip apostle Greek (apostellein) send away, send forthappeal Latin (appellare) to accost, address, appeal to, summon, nameappear Latin (apparere) to appearappease Latin (pacem) peaceapproach Latin (appropiare) go nearer appropriate Latin (appropriatus) to make one's own April Latin (Aprilis) (month) of Venus aqueduct Latin (aquæductus) conveyance of waterarbitrary Latin (arbitrarius) witness, judgearch Latin (arcus) a bow, archarcheology Greek (archaiologia) archeologyarchetype Greek (archetypos) archetypalarchitect Latin (architectus) architect

archive Greek (arche) rule, governmentarchon Greek (arkhon) rulerarea Latin (area) flat piece of unoccupied land, open space arena Latin (harena) place of combataristocracy Greek (aristokratia) government, rule of the best arm Latin (armata) to arm, act of armingarrogance Latin (arrogantem) assuming, overbearing, insolentart Latin (ars) artarticle Latin (artus) joint, limbartifice Latin (artificium) of or belonging to art ascetic Greek (askein) to exercise, train, to train for athletic competition,

practice aspect Latin (aspectus) seeing, looking, appearanceassemble Latin (assimulare) to make like, think like, to gather togetherassert Latin (serere) join, connectassess Latin (taxare) to evaluate, estimateassign Latin (assignare) to mark out, to allot by signassist Latin (assistere) assist, stand byassociate Latin (associatus) join withassume Latin (assumere) to take up aster Latin (aster) starastonish Latin (extonare) to thunder astrology Greek (astrologia) telling of the starsastronomy Greek (astronomia) arranging, regulating of starsathlete Greek (athletes) contestant in the gamesatmosphere Greek (atmosphaera) the air of a localityatom Greek (atomos) uncutatrium Latin (atrium) central court or main room of an ancient Roman

houseatrocity Latin (atrocitatem) crueltyattempt Latin (temptare) to try, testattend Latin (attendere) give heed to, to stretch towardattention Latin (attentus) to heed attitude Latin (aptitudinem) fitattract Latin (trahere) to draw, pullattribute Latin (attributus) assign toaudacity Latin (audacis) braveaudience Latin (audire) to hearaudit Latin (audire) to hearaura Greek (aura) breath, breezeaustere Greek (austeros) bitter, harshauthentic Greek (authentes) one acting on one's own authorityauthor Latin (auctor) enlarger, founderauthority Latin (auctor) enlarger, founderautocracy Greek (autokrates) ruling by oneselfautomatic Greek (automatos) self-actingautonomy Greek (autonomos) independent, living by one's own lawsavenge Latin (vindicare) to claim, avenge, punish axis Latin (axis) axle, pivot, axis of the earth or skybalance Latin (bilanx) scale, having two pans

bankrupt Latin (rupta) to breakbaptize Greek (baptizein) to immersebarbar Greek (barbaros) foreign, strange, ignorantbarber Latin (barba) beardbarrage Latin (barra) bar, barrierbase Latin (bassus) thick, stumpy, lowbeast Latin (bestia) wild creaturebeauty Latin (bellus) fine, beautifulbenefactor Latin (benefactum) good deedbenefit Latin (benefactum) good deed besiege Latin (sedere) sitbias Greek (epikarsios) slanting, obliquebible Greek (biblion) paper, scroll, the ordinary word for bookbill Latin (bulla) decree, seal, document, amulet for the neckbiography Greek (biographia) biograhpybiology Greek (biologia) study of lifebishop Greek (episkopos) watcher, overseerblasphemy Greek (blasphemein) to speak evil ofbound Latin (bodina) boundary, boundary marker branch Latin (branca) a claw, pawbrave Latin (pravus) crooked, depraved brilliant Latin (berillus) beryl, precious stonebronze Latin (bronzium) bronzebrute Latin (brutus) heavy, dull, stupidbucolic Greek (boukolos) herdsmanburlesque Latin (burra) trifle, nonsense, flock of woolbust Latin (bustum) funeral monument, tomb, funeral pyrecalamity Latin (calamitatem) damage, disaster, adversitycalculate Latin (calculus) reckoning, account, pebble used in countingcalendar Latin (calendae) first day of the monthcamera Greek (kamara) vaulted chambercamp Latin (campus) open field campaign Latin (campus) a fieldcanal Latin (canna) reedcancel Latin (cancelli) grating, latticecandidate Latin (candidatus) white-robedcanon Greek (kanon) rulecapacity Latin (capere) to take capital Latin ( caput) headcaptive Latin (captus) to take, hold, seize capture Latin (captus) to take, hold, seize career Latin (carrus) chariot, car cartography Latin+ Greek (carta graphein) cartographycastrate Latin (castrationem) to castrate, prunecatacomb Latin (catacumbae) the region of underground tombs catalog Greek (katalogos) a list, register catastrophe Greek (katastrephein) to overturncatholic Greek (katholikos) universal, general cause Latin (causa) a cause, reason, judicial process, lawsuitcavalry Latin (caballus) horse

cede Latin (cedere) to yield, to go, leavecelebrate Latin (celebratus) to frequent in great numbers, assemble to honorcelibacy Latin (cælebs) unmarriedcell Latin (cella) small room, hutcemetery Greek (koiman) to put to sleepcensus Latin (censere) to appraise, value, judgecenter Greek (kentein) to prickcentury Latin (centum) hundred ceremony Latin (cærimonia) awe, reverent ritecertain Latin (certus) determined, decidechain Latin (catena) chainchallenge Latin (calumnia) trickery chamber Latin (camera) a chamber, room champion Latin (campus) field (of combat)chance Latin (cadentem) to fall change Latin (cambire) exchangechannel Latin (canalis) groove, channel, waterpipechant Latin (canere) singchaos Greek (khaos) abyss, that which gapes wide open, is vast and

empty chapter Latin (caput) headcharacter Greek (kharax) pointed stakechariot Latin (carrum) chariot charisma Greek (charis) grace, beauty, kindnesscharm Latin (canere) to singchaste Latin (castus) pure, chastecheap Latin (caupo) petty tradesman, hucksterchief Latin (caput) headchisel Latin (caesellum) to cutchivalry Latin (caballus) a horsechoir Latin (chorus) choirchoral Latin (chorus) choirchronicle Greek (chronika, biblia) (books of) annalschronology Greek (chronlogy) chronologychurch Greek (kyrios) ruler, lordcircle Latin (circulus) small ring circuit Latin (circuitus) a going aroundcirculate Latin (circulare) to form a circlecircumstance Latin (circumstare) stand aroundcircus Greek (kirkos) a circlecitadel Latin (civis) townsman city Latin (civis) townsman civivilian Latin (civis) townsman claim Latin (clamare) to cry out, shoutclan Latin (planta) offshootclass Latin (classis) political classclause Latin (clausula) a closing, terminationclergy Greek (kleros) lot, inheritance client Latin (cliens) follower, retainerclimate Greek (klinein) to slope, slope of the Earth from equator to pole

climax Greek (klinein) to slopeclinic Greek (klinikos) of the bedclose Latin (claudere) to close, block up, put an end to, enclose, confinecoalition Latin (coalitus) fellowshipcoast Latin (costa) a ribcode Latin (caudex) trunk of a tree, block of wood, book, set of statutescoerce Latin (coercere) to control, restraincoherent Latin (cohærentem) coherecoin Latin (cuneus) a wedgecoincide Latin (coincidere) to fall uponcoliseum Latin (colosseum) amphitheater of Vespasian at Romecollaborate Latin (collaborare) work withcollapse Latin (collapsus) fall togethercollateral Latin (collateralis) accompanying, side by sidecollect Latin (collectus) gather togethercollision Latin (collidere) strike togethercolonnade Latin (columna) pillarcolony Latin (colere) to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice, tend, guard,

respectcolor Latin (colos) a covering, concealcolossal Greek (kolossos) giantcolumn Latin (columna) pillar, top, summitcombat Latin (combattere) to beat, fightcombine Latin (combinatio) joiningcomedy Greek (komodios) singer in the revelscomfort Latin (confortare) to strengthen muchcommand Latin (commendare) to recommendcommemorate Latin (commemorare) to call to mindcomment Latin (comminisci) to contrive, devisecommerce Latin (commercium) trade, traffickingcommission Latin (commissionem) delegation of businesscommit Latin (committere) person to whom something is committedcommodity Latin (commoditatems) fitness, adaptationcommon Latin (communis) in common, public, general, shared by all or

manycommunicate Latin (communis) in common, public, general, shared by all or

manycompany Latin (companio) bread fellow, messmatecomparative Latin (comparare) make equal with, likencomparison Latin (comparare) make equal with, likencompass Latin (compassare) to pace outcompassion Latin (compati) to feel pitycompel Latin (compellere) to drive togethercompensate Latin (compensare) to weigh one thing (against another)compete Latin (competere) strive in common, to come together, agreecompilation Latin (compilare) to snatch together, plunder, heapcomplete Latin (completus) fillcomplex Latin (plectere) to plaitcomponent Latin (componere) to put togethercomposite Latin (compositus) to put together

compose Latin (pausare) to cease, lay downcomprise Latin (comprehendere) contain, involvecompromise Latin (compromissus) to make a mutual promisecompulsion Latin (compellere) compel compute Latin (computare) to count, sum upcomrade Greek (kamara) vaulted chamberconcentrate Latin (centrum) centreconcept Latin (concipere) to take inconcern Latin (concernere) to sift, mix, as in a sieve conclude Latin (concludere) to shut up, encloseconcrete Latin (concrescere) to grow togetherconcubine Latin (concubina) to lie withcondition Latin (condicionem) agreement, situationconduct Latin (conductus) to lead or bring togetherconfederate Latin (confoederatus) to unite by a leagueconfer Latin (conferre) to bring together, compareconfess Latin (confessus) to acknowledgeconfidence Latin (confidentem) to trustconfiscate Latin (confiscare) confiscateconflict Latin (conflictus) to strike togetherconfront Latin (confrontare) assign limits, adjoinconfuse Latin (confundere) to pour together, to confusecongenial Latin (comgenialis) agreeablecongregate Latin (congregare) to herd togetherconglomerate Latin (conglomeratus) to roll together, a ballconnect Latin (connectere) to fasten togetherconquer Latin (quaerere) seekconscience Latin (conscientia) knowledge within oneself, a moral senseconsequence Latin (consequentem) to follow afterconsider Latin (considerare) to observe, think aboutconsist Latin (consistere) to stand firmconsolidate Latin (consolidare) to make solidconstant Latin (stare) to standconstitution Latin (constitutus) to fix, establishconstruct Latin (construere) pile up together, buildconsult Latin (consulere) to deliberate, take counselconsume Latin (consumptionem) a using up, wastingcontact Latin (contactus) a touchingcontemporary Latin (contemporarius) with timecontempt Latin (contemptus) scorncontend Latin (contendere) to stretch out, strive aftercontest Latin (contestari) to call to witness, bring actioncontext Latin (contextus) a joining togethercontinent Latin (continentem) hold together continue Latin (continuus) uninterruptedcontradict Latin (contradicere) speak againstcontrast Latin (contrastare) to withstandcontribute Latin (contribuere) bring in together, to grantcontrol Latin(contrarotulare) check against a duplicate registercontroversy Latin (controversus) disputed, turned against

convene Latin (convenire) unite, be suitable, agreeconvention Latin (convenire) come togetherconversate Latin (conversationem) act of living withconvert Latin (convertere) turn around, transformconvey Latin (conviare) to accompany on the wayconvict Latin (convictus) life togehtercopper Greek (Kupros) Cypruscopy Latin (copia) plenty, meanscore Latin (cor) heartcorporate Latin (corpus) bodycorpus Latin (corpus) bodycorrect Latin (corrigere) make straight, put rightcorrespond Latin (correspondere) correspondcorrupt Latin (corruptus) to destroy, spoil, bribecosmopolitan Greek (kosmopolites) citizen of the world cosmos Greek (kosmos) orderly arrangementcouncil Latin (concilium) group of people, meetingcounsel Latin (consilium) plan, opinioncountry Latin (contra) oppositecourage Latin (cor) heart, which remains a common metaphor for inner

strengthcourse Latin (cursus) a running race or coursecourt Latin (cortem) enclosed spacecourtesan Latin (cortem) enclosed spacecovenant Latin (convenire) come togethercreate Latin (creare) bring forth, make, producecreature Latin (creatura) thing createdcredible Latin (credibilis) that can be believedcredit Latin (credere) entrust, believecreed Latin (credo) to believe, heart to putcrime Latin (cernere) to decide, to siftcrisis Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judgecriterion Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judgecritic Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judgecross Latin (crux) crosscrown Latin (corona) crown, wreath, garlandcrucial Latin (crux) crosscrucify Latin (crucifigere) to fasten to a crosscrude Latin (crudus) raw, roughcruel Latin (crudelis) cruelcubicle Latin (cubare) to lie down, bend oneselfcult Latin (cultus) care, cultivation, worshipcultivate Latin (cultus) care, cultivation, worship, tended, cultivatedculture Latin (colere) inhabit, cultivatecuneiform Latin (cuneus) wedgecure Latin (cura) care, concern, troublecurrency Latin (currentum) to runcursive Latin (cursus) a running custom Latin (suescere) become accustomedcycle Greek (kyklos) circle, wheel

cylinder Greek (kylindein) to rollcynic Greek (kynikos) dog-likedagger Latin (daca) Dacian knifedanger Latin (dominus) lord, masterdate Greek (daktylos) date, finger, toedeacon Greek (diakonos) servant of the church, religious officialdebt Latin (debere) owedecade Greek (dekas) group of tendecapitate Latin (decapitatus) cut off a head decease Latin (decessus) death, departureDecember Latin (decem) tendecision Latin (decisionem) decision, agreementdeclare Latin (declarare) make cleardecline Latin (declinare) to bend from, inflectdecorate Latin (decus) an ornamentdecree Latin (decretum) to decree, decide, pronounce a decisiondeduce Latin (ducere) to leaddefeat Latin (diffacere) undo, destroydefect Latin (deficere) to fail, desertdefine Latin (definire) to limit, determine, explaindegree Latin (degredare) to stepdeliberate Latin (deliberare) to consider carefullydelicate Latin (delicatus) alluring, delightful, dainty, addicted to pleasuredelta Greek (daleth) tent doordemagogue Greek (demagogos) leader of the peopledemand Latin (demandare) entrust, charge with a commissiondeme Greek (demos) people, landdemocracy Greek (demokratia) rule for common peopledemon Greek. (daimon) lesser god, guiding spirit, tutelary deitydemonstrate Latin (demonstrare) to point out, showdepart Latin (departire) dividedepend Latin (dependere) hang downdepict Latin (depictus) to paint downdeposit Latin (deponere) lay aside, put down, depositdepress Latin (deprimere) press downdescend Latin (descendere) to climb downdescription Latin (describere) write down, transcribe, copy, sketchdesert Latin (deserere) forsake, to abandondesignate Latin (designare) mark out, devisedespot Greek (despotes) master of a household, lord, absolute rulerdestiny Latin (destinare) make firm, establishdestroy Latin (destruere) undo results of buildingdestruction Latin (destruere) tear downdetect Latin (detectus) uncover, disclosedetermine Latin (determinare) set limits todevastate Latin (devastare) lay waste completelydevice Latin (divisus) to dividedevil Greek (diabolos) accuser, slandererdevote Latin (devotionem) dedicate by a vowdiadem Greek (diadein) to bind across

diagnosis Greek (diagignoskein) discern, distinguishdiagonal Greek (diagonios) from angle to angledialect Greek (dialegesthai) converse with each otherdialogue Greek (dialogos) speak acrossdiameter Greek (diametros) diagonal of a circlediaspora Greek (diaspeirein) to scatter about, dispersedictate Latin (dictare) say often, prescribedifferent Latin (differre) distinguish fromdifficult Latin (difficilis) not easydiffuse Latin (diffundere) scatter, pour outdigest Latin (digerere) to separate, divide, arrangedignity Latin (dignus) worthy, proper, fittingdilemma Greek (dilemma) double propositiondiligent Latin (diligere) value highly, love, choosedimension Latin (dimetri) to measure outdiploma Latin (diploma) official document conferring a privilegedirect Latin (directus) straightdisaster Greek (dis- + astron) away, without starsdiscipline Latin (disciplina) instruction given to a disciplediscover Latin (discooperire) uncoverdiscrete Latin (discernere) to separate, distinguishdiscuss Latin (discutere) dash to piecesdisk Greek (dikein) throwdismember Latin (membrum) limb, member of the body, partdisparity Latin (disparitatem) inequalitydisperse Latin (dispergere) to dispersedisplay Latin (displicare) to scatterdispute Latin (disputare) to discussdisrupt Latin (disrumpere) break apart, splitdistant Latin (distantem) standing apart, separate, distantdistinct Latin (distinguere) define, orientatedistort Latin (distorquere) to twist different ways, distortdistribute Latin (distribuere) deal out in portionsdisturb Latin (disturbare) throw into disorderdiverse Latin (diversus) different in character or qualitydivine Latin (divus) goddivision Latin (dividere) to dividedivorce Latin (divertere) to separate, leave one's husband, turn asidedocile Latin (docere) teachdoctrine Latin (doctor) teacherdocument Latin (docere) to show, teachdogma Greek (dokein) to seem good, thinkdomain Latin (domus) housedome Greek (doma) house, housetopdominant Latin (dominari) to dominatedominate Latin (dominari) to dominatedonate Latin (donum) giftdoubt Latin (dubitare) hesitate, waver in opinion, to have to choose

between two thingsdoury Latin (durus) hard

dozen Latin (duodecim) twelvedrachma Greek (drakhme) an Attic coin and weight, a handfuldrama Greek (dran) to do, act, performdrastic Greek (dran) to do, act, performdual Latin (duo) twoduke Latin (ducere) to leadduplicate Latin (duplicatus) to doubleduty Latin (debitus) to owedynamic Greek (dynasthai) be able to have powerdynasty Greek (dynasthai) be able to have powerecho Greek (ekho) soundeclipse Greek (ekleipein) to orsake a usual place, fail to appear, be

eclipsedeclogue Greek (ekloge) selectioneconomy Greek (oikonomos) manager, stewardecumenical Greek (oikos) house, habitationedict Latin (edicere) publish, proclaimeducate Latin (educatus) bring up, rear, educateefface Latin (facies) faceeffect Latin (efficere) work out, accomplishefficient Latin (efficere) to do, makeelaborate Latin (elaborare) work out, produce by laborelect Latin (electionem) pick out, selectelegant Latin (elegantem) choice, fine, tastefulelement Latin (elementum) elementelevate Latin (elevatus) lift up, raiseeliminate Latin (ex limine) off the thresholdelite Latin (eligere) chooseeloquent Latin (eloqui) speak outemancipate Latin (emancipare) declare (someone) free, give up one's

authority overembryo Greek (embryon) young animal, fruit of the womb, that which

growsemergence Latin (mergere) dive, plungeeminent Latin (eminentem) stand out, projectemotion Latin (emovere) move out, remove, agitateemperor Latin (imperare) to commandemphasis Greek (emphainein) to show, indicateempire Latin (imperare) to commandencounter Latin (incontra) in front ofendow Latin (dotare) bestowendure Latin (indurare) make hardenemy Latin (inimicus) enemy, unfriendlyenergy Greek (energos) active enforce Latin (fortis) strongengineer Latin (ingenium) abilityenjoy Latin (gaudere) rejoiceenlarge Latin (largus) abundant, copious, plentiful, liberalenormous Latin (enormis) irregular, extraordinary, very largeenter Latin (intra) within

enthusiasm Greek (entheos) inspired, possessed by a godentitle Latin (intitulare) inscription titleenvoy Latin (inviare) send on one's wayenvy Latin (invidere) envy, cast an evil eye uponephor Greek (ephoros) overseerepic Greek (epos) word, story, poemepicure Greek (Epicouros) Athenian philosopher epigram Greek (epigraphein) to write on, inscribeepisode Greek (epeisodion) additionepistle Latin (epistellein) send toepitome Greek (epitemnein) cut short, abridgeepoch Greek (epekhein) to pause, take up a positionequal Latin (æquus) level, even, justequator Latin (æquare) make equal, equateequestrian Latin (equus) horseequivalent Latin (aequivalere) to have equal powerera Latin (aes) copper, money, bronze coinerect Latin (erigere) raise or set up erosion Latin (erodere) gnaw awayerupt Latin (erumpere) break out, burst forthescape Latin (excappare) get out of one's capeeschatology Greek (eskhatos) last, furthest, remoteestablish Latin (stabilis) stableestimate Latin (aestimare) to value, estimate, assessethics Greek (ethos) moral characterethnic Greek (ethnos) band of people living together, nation, peopleevacuate Latin (tradere) deliver, surrenderevaluate Latin (valere) be strong, be well, be of valueevent Latin (evenire) to come out, happen, resultevident Latin (videre) seeevolve Latin (evolvere) unrollexact Latin (exigere) to drive out, demand, measureexaggerate Latin (exaggeratus) heighten, amplify, magnifyexamine Latin (exigere) weigh accuratelyexample Latin (emere) takeexcavate Latin (excavatus) to hollow outexceed Latin (excedere) depart, go beyondexcellent Latin (excellentem) elevatedexcept Latin (exceptus) take outexcercise Latin (arcere) to restrainexcess Latin (excedere) to depart, go beyondexclusive Latin (excludere) isolate, excludeexecute Latin (executivus) throw, cut, shotexegesis Greek (exegeisthai) explain, interpretexempt Latin (eximere) release, removeexile Latin (exul) banished personexist Latin (existere) stand forth, appearexodus Greek (exodus) a going outexotic Greek (exotikos) foreign, from the outsideexpand Latin (expansum) to extend

expedient Latin (expedire) make fit or ready, prepareexpedite Latin (expeditus) make fit or ready, prepare, free the feet from

fettersexpend Latin (expendere) pay outexpense Latin (expensa) disbursementexperience Latin (experientia) tryexperiment Latin (experiri) try outexpert Latin (experiri) try outexpiate Latin (expiare) atone completelyexplain Latin (explanationem) to make plain or clear, explainexplicit Latin (explicitus) unfold, unravel, explainexploit Latin (explicitum) a thing settled, ended, displayedexplore Latin (explorare) investigate, search outexplode Latin (explodere) drive out by clappingexponent Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explainexport Latin (exportare) carry awayexpose Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explainexpound Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explainexpress Latin (expressare) represent, describe, to press outexpulsion Latin (expellere) drive outexquisite Latin (exquisitus) carefully sought outextend Latin (extendere) stretch outexternal Latin (externus) outside, outwardextinct Latin (extinguere) quench, wipe out, obliterateextirpate Latin (extirpare) root outextort Latin (torquere) to twistextract Latin (extractus) draw outextraordinary Latin (extraordinarius) out of orderextravagant Latin (extravagans) wander, specialextreme Latin (extremus) outermost, utmostexuberant Latin (exuberare) be abundant, grow luxuriouslyfable Latin (fabula) story, play, fable, that which is toldface Latin (facies) appearance, form, figurefacile Latin (facilis) easy fact Latin (facere) do, makefaculty Latin (facultatem) power, ability, wealthfail Latin (fallere) deceive, be lacking or defectivefaith Latin (fidere) to trustfalcon Latin (falx) sicklefamily Latin (famulus) servantfame Latin (fama) story, rumourfanatic Latin (fanum) templefantasy Greek (phainesthai) appear, to imagine, have visionsfarm Latin (firmus) firmfascinate Latin (fascinare) bewitch, enchantfatal Latin (fatalis) ordained by fatefate Latin (fatum) thing spoken (by the gods), one's destinyfavor Latin (favorem) good will or supportfeature Latin (facere) make, do, performfederate Latin (foedus) a league

ferment Latin (fervere) to boil, seethefertile Latin (fertilis) rich, productivefest Latin (festum) feastfiction Latin (fingere) to shape, form, devise, feign, to knead, form out

of clayfidelity Latin (fidelitatem) faithfulness, adherencefigure Latin (fingere) make, shapefinal Latin (finis) endfinance Latin (finis) endfine Latin (finis) endfiscal Latin (fiscus) treasury, purse, basket made of twigs fix Latin (fixus) to fix, fastenflorin Latin (florem) flowerflower Latin (florem) flowerfluid Latin (fluere) to flowfocus Latin (focus) hearth, fireplacefoil Latin (fullo) one who cleans cloth, fullerforce Latin (fortia) strongforeign Latin (foris) outside, out of doorsform Latin (forma) mold, shape, beautyformidable Latin (formido) terror, dreadfortify Latin (fortis) strongfortune Latin (fortuna) chance, luckforum Latin (forum) marketplacefounding Latin (fundatus) a foundingfragment Latin (frangere) breakfrenzy Latin (phrenesia) deliriousfrequent Latin (frequentare) visit regularlyfriction Latin (fricare) to rubfrieze Latin (frisium) embroidered borderfront Latin (frontem) forehead, that which projectsfruit Latin (fructus) fruit, produce, profitfrustrate Latin (frustratus) to deceive, disappoint, frustratefuel Latin (focalia) right to demand material for making firefunction Latin (fungi) to performfund Latin (fundus) bottom, piece of landfundamental Latin (fundamentum) foundationfury Latin (furia) violent passion, rage, madnessfuture Latin (futurus) going to be, about to begenealogy Greek (genealogia) genealogygeneral Latin (genus) race, kindgenius Latin (gignere) beget, producegentile Latin (gens) race, clangenuine Latin (gignere) begetgeocentric Greek (geocentric) in the centre of earthgeography Greek (geographia) description of the earth's surfacegeometry Greek (geometria) measurement of earth or land, geometrygerm Latin (germen) sprout, budgesture Latin (gestus) gesture, carriage, posturegladiator Latin (gladius) sword

glory Latin (gloria) great praise or honorglutton Latin (gula) throatgorgon Greek (gorgos) terriblegovern Greek (kubernan) steer or pilot, ship, direct grace Latin (gratus) pleasing, agreeablegrade Latin (gradus) to walk, step, gograin Latin (granum) seed grammar Greek (graphein) to draw or writegrand Latin (grandis) big, great, full-growngrandiose Latin (grandis) biggranite Latin (granum) grain grant Latin (credentem) to believe, to trust gravity Latin (gravis) heavy grief Latin (gravis) weightygriffin, gryphon Greek (gryps) curved, hook-nosedgrocer Latin (grossus) coarse (of food), great, grossgulf Greek (kolpos) bay, gulf, bosomgymnasion Greek (gymnazein) to exercise or train, to train nakedgymnasium Greek (gymnazein) to exercise or train, to train nakedhabit Latin (habitus) condition, demeanor, appearance, dressharmony Greek (harmos) joint, harmonyhegemony Greek (hegeisthai) to leadheir Latin (heres) heir, heiresshelot Greek (Heilotes) helotshero Greek (heros) demi-god, defender, protectorhexameter Greek (hexametros) six meters hierarchy Greek (hierarches) high priest, leader of sacred riteshieroglyph Greek (hieroglyphe) sacred carvinghistory Greek (histor) learned manhomicide Latin (homicidium) act of killing of a manhomosexual Greek (homos+sexus) same sexhonor Latin (honorem) honor, dignity, office, reputationhorizon Greek (horizein) bound, limit, divide, separatehorror Latin (horrere) to bristle with fear, shudderhost Latin (hostis) enemy, strangerhostage Latin (obses) hostagehostile Latin (hostis) enemyhuman Latin (humanus) human beinghumiliate Latin (humilis) humblehygiene Greek (hygies) healthy, living wellhymn Greek (hymnos) song or ode in praise of gods or heroes hypocrisy Greek (hypokrinesthai) play a part, pretend, answerhypothesis Greek (hypothesis) base, basis of an argument, supposition, a

placing underhysteria Greek (hystera) wombidea Greek. (idein) to seeidentical Latin (identitas) identity, the sameidentity Latin (identitas) identity, the sameidiot Greek (idiotes) layman, person lacking professional skillidol Greek (eidos) form

illusion Latin (illudere) mock at, to play withillustrate Latin (illustrare) light up, embellish, distinguishimagine Latin (imaginari) imagineimitate Latin (imitatari) to copy, portray, imitateimmense Latin (immensus) immeasurable, boundless immutable Latin (immutabilis) unchangeableimpact Latin (impactus) to push against, to push into, dash againstimperative Latin (imperare) to commandimperial Latin (imperialis) of the empire or emperorimpetus Latin (impetus) attack, assault, onset, impulse, violence, vigor,

force, passionimplicit Latin (implicitus) prove, make outimport Latin (importare) bring in, conveyimpress Latin (imprimere) press inimpulse Latin (impulsus) a push against, pressure, shock, incitement,

instigationincest Latin (incestus) unchaste, impureinches Latin (uncia) a twelfth partinclude Latin (includere) to closeincorporate Latin (incorporare) unite into one bodyincrease Latin (increscere) to growincredible Latin (incredibilis) that cannot be believedindicate Latin (indicare) point out, showindispensable Latin (indispensabilis) indivisibleindividual Latin (individuus) indivisibleindustry Latin (industria) diligence, to buildinfantry Latin (infantem) infantinflate Latin (inflare) blow into, puff upinfluence Latin (influentem) to flow intoinform Latin (informationem) outline, concept, ideainfuriate Latin (in furia) in a furyinfusion Latin (infundere) to pour intoingenious Latin (ingenium) inborn talentinhabitant Latin (inhabitare) to live ininherit Latin (inhereditare) to appoint as heirinitiate Latin (inire) to go into, enter upon, begininnovate Latin (innovatus) to renew or changeinquire Latin (inquirere) inquireinscription Latin (inscriptus) to write on or in anythinginsect Latin (insectum) animal with a notched or divided body, cut intoinsist Latin (insistere) persist, dwell upon, stand uponinspirate Latin (inspirare) inspire, inflame, blow intoinstance Latin (instantia) presence, earnestness, urgency, a standing nearinstitute Latin (institutionem) institutioninstruct Latin (instructus) arrange, inform, teachinstrument Latin (instruere) arrange, furnishinsult Latin (insultare) to assail, to leap uponintact Latin (intactus) untouched, uninjuredinteger Latin (integer) wholeintellect Latin (intellectus) intellect, concept, sense

intelligent Latin (intelligentem) discerningintensity Latin (intendere) to stretch out, strainintercession Latin (intercessionem) a going betweeninterest Latin (interresse) to concern, make a difference, be of importanceinterior Latin (interior) innerinternal Latin (intern) within, betweeninterpret Latin (interpres) agent, translatorinterrupt Latin (interruptus) break apart, break offinterval Latin (intervallum) space between palisades or rampartsintervene Latin (intervenire) to come between, interruptintimate Latin (intimare) make known, announceintricate Latin (intricatus) entangledintrigue Latin (intricare) entangleintrinsic Latin (intrinsecus) interior, internalintroduce Latin (introductus) to lead in, bring in, to introduceintrospection Latin (introspicere) to look into, look atintrude Latin (intrusus) to thrust, pushinvade Latin (invadere) to invadeinvent Latin (inventus) devise, discover, findinvest Latin (investire) to clothe in, cover, surroundinvestigate Latin (vestigium) footprint, trackinvincible Latin (invincibilis) unconquerableinvoke Latin (invocare) call upon, imploreiris Greek (iris) a lily, iris of the eye, messenger of the godsirony Greek (eiron) dissembleirrigate Latin (irrigare) to waterisolate Latin (insula) islandissue Latin (exire) go outisthmus Greek (isthmos) narrow neck of landitem Latin (item) likewise, just soJanuary Latin (Januarius (mensis)) (the month) of Janusjealous Greek (zelos) jealousy, enthusiasmjewel Latin (jocus) pastime, sportjournal Latin (diurnalis) dailyjudge Latin (judicem) to judgeJuly Latin (Julius) name of a Roman gensjury Latin (jurata) an oath, an inquestjustice Latin (justus) upright, justlabor Latin (laborare) toil, painlabyrinth Greek (labyrinthos) maze, large building with intricate passageslake Latin (lacus) pond, lake, basin, tanklamp Greek (lampein) to shinelanguage Latin (lingua) tongue, speech, languagelapse Latin (lapsus) a slipping and falling, flight (of time), falling into

errorlarge Latin (largus) abundant, copious, plentifullaurel Latin (laurus) laurel tree league Latin (ligare) to bindlegal Latin (lex) lawlegend Latin (legenda) legend, story, (things) to be read

legible Latin (legere) to choose, gather, to readlegion Latin (legere) to choose, gather, to read legislate Latin (legis lator) proposer of a lawleisure Latin (licere) be permittedlethargy Greek (lethargos) forgetful, inactive through forgetfulnesslatrine Latin (lavatrina) washbasin, washroomletter Latin (littera) letter of the alphabetlevel Latin (libra) balance, scaleslever Latin (levare) to raise lexicography Greek (lexikographos) to write wordbookliberate Latin (liber) freelibrary Latin (liber) book, paper, parchment, the inner bark of treeslimit Latin (limitem) a boundary, embankment between fields, borderline Latin (linum) flax, linenlinear Latin (linea) string, linelinen Latin (linum) flax, linenlinguist Latin (lingua) language, tongueliquid Latin (liquere) be fluidliteral Latin (lit(t)era) letterliterate Latin (lit(t)eratus) educated, learned, one who knows the lettersliterature Latin (lit(t)era) letterliturgy Greek (leitourgos) one who performs a public ceremony or

service, public servantlocate Latin (locus) placelogic Greek (logos) reason, idea, wordloyal Latin (lex) lawlubricate Latin (lubricus) slipperylunar Latin (luna) moonluxury Latin (luxus) excess, extravagance, magnificencelyceum Greek (lykeion) grove or garden with covered walks near Athens

where Aristotle taughtlyric Greek (lyra) lyremachine Greek (makhana) device, meansmagistrate Latin (magister) chief, directormagnificent Latin (magnificus) magnificentmajesty Latin (major) large, greatmajor Latin (major) large, greatmanage Latin (manus) handmanifest Latin (manifestus) caught in the act, plainly apprehensible, clear,

evidentmanipulate Latin (manipulus) handful, sheafmanner Latin (manus) handmonogram Greek (monogrammon) a character formed of several letters in

one designmonotony Greek (monotonos) monotonous, of one tonemanual Latin (manus) handmanufacture Latin (manufactura) hand workmanuscript Latin (manu scriptus) written by handmarriage Latin (maritatus) to wed, marry, give in marriagemarry Latin (maritus) married man, husband

martial Latin (martialis) of Mars or warmartyr Greek (martys) martyr, witness mass Greek (maza) barley cake, lump, mass, ballmassacre Latin (macellum) provisions store, butcher shopmaster Latin (magister) chief, head, director, teachermaterial Latin (materia) matter, stuff, wood, timbermathematics Greek (manthanein) to learnmatron Latin (mater) mothermature Latin (maturus) ripe, timely, earlymaximum Latin (maximus) greatestmayor Latin (major) large, greatmeasure Latin (mensura) a measuring, a thing to measure bymechanic Greek (mekhanikos) an engineer, resourceful, inventive,

pertaining to machinesmedal Latin (medialia) little halvesmediate Latin (medius) middlemedicine Latin (medicina) the medical art medium Latin (medium) middlemedieval Latin (medi(um)) middle agemeditate Latin (meditatus) to meditate, to think over, consider melancholy Greek (melankholia) sadness, black bilemember Latin (membrum) limb, member of the body, partmemory Latin (memor) mindfulmental Latin (mens) mind mention Latin (mention) calling to mindmercenary Latin (merces) pay, reward, wagesmerit Latin (meritum) desert, reward, meritmetal Greek (metallon) mine, ore, metalmetamorphosis Greek (metamorphoun) to transformmetaphor Greek (metapherein) transfer, carry overmeter Greek (metron) measuremethaphysics Greek (ta meta ta physika) the (works) after the Physicsmethod Greek (methodus) scientific inquiry, method of inquirymetropolis Greek (metropolis) mother citymigrate Latin (migrare) to move from one place to anothermile Latin (mille) thousandmilitary Latin (miles) soldiermillenium Latin (mlle annus) thousand yearsmillion Latin (mille) thousandmineral Latin (minerale) something minedminiature Latin (minium) red leadminimum Latin (minimum) smallest (thing)minister Latin (ministeri) servant, priest's assistantminor Latin (minor) lesser, smaller, juniorminute Latin (minuere) make small miracle Latin (mirus) wonderfulmirror Latin (mirus) wonderfulmissile Latin (missile) weapon that can be thrownmission Latin (mittere) to sendmix Latin (mixtus) to mix

mobile Latin (movere) to movemodel Latin (modus) measure, standardmodern Latin (modus) measuremodify Latin (modus) measure, mannermoment Latin (momentum) movement, moving power, instantmonarch Greek (monarkhia) absolute rule, ruling of one money Latin (Moneta) a title of the Roman goddess Juno, in or near

whose temple money was coinedmonk Greek (monakhos) monkmonogamy Greek (monogamos) monogamousmonopoly Greek (monopolion) right of exclusive salemonotheist Greek (monos+theos) believe in only one godmonster Latin (monstrum) monster, monstrosity, omen, portent, signmonument Latin (monumentum) memorialmoral Latin (moralis) proper behavior of a person in societymortal Latin (mortalis) subject to deathmortar Latin (mortarium) mortar, crushed drugsmosaic Greek (Mousa) muse, music, songmotif, motive Latin (movere) to movemotion Latin (movere) to movemotto Latin (muttire) to muttermountain Latin (montanus) mountainousmove Latin (movere) move, set in motionmultiple Latin (multiplus) manifoldmundane Latin (mundus) worldmuscle Latin (musculus) a muscle, little mousemuse Greek (Mousa) muse, music, songmuseum Greek (Mousa) muse, music, songmusic Greek (Mousa) muse, music, songmutilate Latin (mutilatus) to cut or lop offmyrrh Greek (myrrha) was bittermystery Greek (myein) to close, shutmythhology Greek (muthologia) science of mythsnarration Latin (narrare) to tell, relate, recount, explain, to make

acquainted withnation Latin (nasci) be bornnature Latin (nasci) be bornnavy Latin (navis) shipneglect Latin (neglegere) choose to gather pick upNeolithic Greek (neo+lithos) New Stone Agenerve Latin (nervus) sinew, tendonneutral Latin (neutralis) of neuter gendernoble Latin ((g)nobilis) well-known, famous, renowned, of superior

birthnomad Greek (nomos) pasturenormal Latin (normalis) made according to a carpenter's squarenote Latin (nota) letter, note, a mark, signnotion Latin (notus) knownnotorious Latin (notus) knownNovember Latin (novem) nine

nucleus Latin (nucula) little nutnumber Latin (numerus) a number, quantitynurse Latin (nutrix) wet nursenurture Latin (nutrire) to nourish, suckleobedience Latin (oboediens) obeyobelisk Greek (obeliskos) a spit, pointed pillar, needleobey Latin (oboedire) obey, pay attention to, give ear, listen toobject Latin (obicere) to throw in the way, present, hinderobligate Latin (obligationem) an engaging or pledging, a bindingobol Greek (obolos) a spit, needleobscene Latin (obscenus) offensive, boding ill, inauspiciousobscure Latin (obscurus) covered over, dark, obscure, indistinctobserve Latin (observare) watch over, guard, look to, attend toobtain Latin (obtinere) hold, take hold of, acquireobverse Latin (obvertere) to turn toward or againstoccasion Latin (occasum) fall down, go downoccupy Latin (occupationem) a taking possession, business, employmentocean Greek (okeanos) the great river or sea surrounding the disk of the

EarthOctober Latin (octo) eightoctopus Greek (oktopous) eight-footedode Greek (aeidein) singoffend Latin (offendere) strike against, stumble, commit a fault,

displeaseoffer Latin (offerre) to present, bestow, bring beforeoffice Latin (officium) doing workoil Greek (elaia) oliveoligarchy Greek (oligarkhia) government by the fewolive Greek (elaia) oliveomen Latin (omen) omenopera Latin (opus) a workoperate Latin (operari) to work, labouropinion Latin (opinari) think, judge, suppose, opineopponent Latin (opponere) oppose, object to, set againstopportunity Latin (opportunitatem) fitness, suitableness, favorable timeopprobrium Latin (opprobare) to reproach, tauntopress Latin (oppressus) to press againstoptimism Latin (optimus) the bestoptimum Latin (optimus) the bestoracle Latin (oraculum) divine announcement, oracleoral Latin (os) mouth, opening, face, entranceoration Latin (orare) speak before a court or assembly, pleadorbit Latin (orbita) wheel track, course, orbitordain Latin (ordo) orderorder Latin (ordo) order, sequenceordinary Latin (ordo) orderorganize Latin (organum) instrument, organorgy Greek (orgia) secret rites origin Latin (oriri) ariseornament Latin (ornare) equip, adorn

orthodox Greek (orthodoxos) having the right opinionostracism Greek (ostrakizein) to ostracizeoval Latin (ovum) eggpacify Latin (pacificus) peaceful, peace-makingpagan Latin (pagus) rural district, district limited by markerspain Greek (poine) punishmentpalace Latin (palatium) palacePaleolithic Greek (paleos+lithos) Old Stone Agepalette Latin (pala) spade, shoulder bladepanache Latin (pinnaculum) small wing, gable, peakpanel Latin (pannus) piece of clothpanic Greek (Panikos) the god of woods and fields who was the source

of mysterious sounds that caused contagious, groundless fear in herds and crowds, or in people in lonely spots

panorama Greek (horan) to look, seepantheon Greek (pantheion) all godspapa Latin (papa) a child's wordpaper Latin (papyrus) paper, paper made of papyrus stalkspapyrus Greek (papyros) any plant of the paper plant genusparade Latin (parer) arrange, prepare, adornparadox Greek (paradoxos) contrary to opinionparagraph Greek (paragraphein) write by the sideparallel Greek (parallelos) parallelparalyze Greek (paralyein) disable, enfeebleparanoia Greek (paranoos) mentally ill, insaneparasite Greek (parasitos) person who eats at the table of anotherparent Latin (parere) give birthpart Latin (partem) part, piece, side, shareparticipate Latin (participare) participateparticle Latin (particula) little bit or partpartisan Latin (partem) part, piece, side, sharepartner Latin (partitionem) portionpassion Latin (passio) passionpasture Latin (pastus) to feed, grazepatient Latin (patientem) patientpatriarch Greek (patriarches) the leader of a familypatrician Latin (patres conscripti) Roman senators, fatherspatricide Latin (patricidium) to kill a fatherpatriot Greek (patris) fatherlandpatron Latin (patronus) a lord-master, protectorpattern Latin (patronus) a lord-master, protectorpay Latin (pax) peacepeace Latin (pax) treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of warpeasant Latin (pagus) country or rural districtpediment Latin (pedamentum) vine-stalk, proppenalty Greek (poine) blood-money, fine, penalty, punishmentpenetrate Latin (penetratus) to put or get into, enter intopeninsula Latin (pæninsula) almost an islandpeople Latin (populus) peoplepercent Latin (per centum) by the hundred

perfect Latin (perfectus) completedperimeter Greek (perimetros) circumferenceperiod Greek (periodos) way around rounded sentence, cycle, circuit,

period of time permament Latin (permanere) remain throughperpendicular Latin (perpendere) balance carefullypersecute Latin (persecutionem) pursue, start a legal actionpersist Latin (persistere) continue steadfastlyperson Latin (persona) human being, character in a drama, maskperspective Latin (perspicere) inspect, look throughpersuade Latin (persuadere) persuadepessimism Latin (pessimus) worst, bottom-mostphase Greek (phasis) appearance (of a star), phase (of the moon)philippic Latin (orationes Philippicæ) speeches made by Cicero against

Marc Antonyphilosophy Greek (philosophia) love of knowledge, wisdomphonetic Greek (phonein) to sound with the voicephrase Greek (phrazein) to express, tellphysics Greek (physike) natural sciencepi Greek (pi) Greek letter pictogram Latin (pictus+gram) pictogrampictograph Latin (pictus +graph) pictographpictorial Latin (pingere) to paintpicture Latin (pingere) to paintpinnacle Latin (pinnaculum) gablepious Latin (pius) dutiful, kind, devoutpirate Greek (peiran) to attack, make a hostile attempt on, tryplacate Latin (placare) to calm, appeaseplace Greek (plateia) broadplague Latin (plaga) stroke, woundplain Latin (planus) flat, even, level plan Latin (planus) flat, even, levelplane Latin (plantum) flat surfaceplanet Greek (planasthai) to wanderplant Latin (planta) sole of the footplantation Latin (plantare) to plant pleasant Latin (placere) to be acceptable, be liked, be approvedplebeian Latin (plebs) Roman plebsplunge Latin (plumbum) leadpoem Greek (poein) to make or composepoint Latin (pungere) prick, piercepoison Latin (potare) to drinkpolicy Greek (apodexis) proof, declarationpolis Greek (polis) citypolitics Greek (politika) politicspollute Latin (polluere) to soil, defile, contaminatepolytheism Greek (polytheos) polytheistic, of many godspomp Greek (pempein) to sendpontifex Latin (pontifex) pontifex pontoon Latin (pontonem) flat-bottomed boat

pope Greek (papas) patriarch, bishop, fatherpopular Latin (populus) peoplepopulace Latin (populus) peopleport Latin (portus) port, harbor, entrance, passageportion Latin (portionem) share, partportray Latin (trahere) to draw forth, reveal, expose to dragpose Latin (pausare) to halt, rest, pauseposition Latin (ponere) to lay down, put, placepositive Latin (positus) put, placepossess Latin (possidere) to possesspost Latin (postis) postpotent Latin (potis) powerful, able, capablepower Latin (potis) able, powerfulpractice Greek (prattein) to dopraetor Latin (prætor) one who goes before, a consul as leader of an

armypraise Latin (pretium) pricepray Latin (prex) prayer, request, entreatypreach Latin (predicare) to proclaim publicly, announceprerogative Latin (prærogere) ask before othersprecedent Latin (cedere) to yield, to go, leaveprecious Latin (pretium) pricepredecessor Latin (praedecessor) somebody who has departed beforepredict Latin (prædicere) foretell, advise, give noticeprejudice Latin (præjudicium) prior judgmentprelude Latin (præludere) to play beforehand for practice, prefaceprepare Latin (præparare) preparepresence Latin (praesentare) make presentpreserve Latin (praeservare) guard beforehandpress Latin (pressare) keep on pressingpressure Latin (pressura) action of pressingprestige Latin (præstigiæ) juggler's trickspretense Latin (prætendere) stretch in front, put forward, allegeprevalent Latin (prævalentem) to be more ableprevent Latin (prævenire) come before, anticipate, hinderprey Latin (praeda) bootyprice Latin (pretium) reward, prize, value, worthpriest Latin (presbyter) presbyter, elderprime Latin (primus) firstprimeval Latin (prim ævus) first ageprimitive Latin (primus) firstprince Latin (princeps) first, chief, princeprincipal Latin (principalis) first in importanceprinciple Latin (princeps) first, chief, princeprior Latin (prior) former, superiorprison Latin (prehendere) to takeprivate Latin (privatus) isolated, not in public life, privare to depriveprivilege Latin (privilegium) law applying to one person, privilegeprobable Latin (probare) to try, to testproblem Greek (proballein) propose

proceed Latin (procedere) go forward, advanceprocess Latin (processus) procedereproclaim Latin (proclamare) cry or call outproduct Latin (productus) something producedprofess Latin (professionem) public declarationproficient Latin (proficere) accomplish, make progress, be usefulprofile Latin (filum) threadprofound Latin (profundus) deep, bottomless, vast, obscure, profoundprognosis Greek (progignoskein) come to know beforehandprogram Greek (prographein) to write publiclyprogress Latin (progressus) progressproject Latin (projectum) something thrown forthproletariat Latin (proles) offspring, progenyprologue Greek (prologos) prologue of a play, speaker of a prologueprolong Latin (prolongare) to prolong, extendprominent Latin (prominere) jut or stand outpromiscuity Latin(promiscuus) mixed, indiscriminatepromise Latin (promissum) a promiseprompt Latin (promptus) brought forth, at hand, ready, quickproof Latin (proba) a proof propaganda Latin (propaganda) committee of cardinals property Latin (proprius) your own, particular, specialprophecy Greek (prophetia) gift of interpreting the will of the godsproportion Latin (proportionem) comparative relation, analogyprospect Latin (prospectus) view, outlookprosperity Latin (prosperitatem) good fortuneprostitute Latin (prostituere) to expose to prostitution, expose publiclyprotect Latin (protectus) protect, cover in frontprotest Latin (protestari) declare publicly, testify, protestprototype Greek (prototypon) a first or primitive formprovide Latin (providere) look ahead, prepare, supplyprovince Latin (provincia) territory under Roman dominationprovision Latin (providere) look aheadpsychology Greek (psykhe+logia) study of soulpublic Latin (populus) peoplepublish Latin (publicus) publicpulley Greek (polos) pivot, axispungent Latin (pungere) to prick, pierce, stingpunish Latin (poena) penaltypupil Latin (pupilla) little girl-doll, orphan, ward, minorpure Latin (purus) pure, innocentpurport Latin (portare) to carrypursuit Latin (prosequi) follow uppyramid Greek (pyramis) pyramidquaestor Latin (quaerere) to inquirequalify Latin (qualificare) attribute a quality toquality Latin (qualis) of what sortquantity Latin (quam) how, how muchquarrel Latin (queri) to complain, lamentquarry Latin (quadrare) to square

quarter Latin (quartus) fourthquotate Latin (quotare) to numberradical Latin (radix) rootradius Latin (radius) staff, spoke of a wheel, beam of lightrage Latin (rabies) madness, rage, furyrapacious Latin (rapere) seizerapid Latin (rapidus) hasty, snatchingratify Latin (ratus) fixed, validratio Latin (ratio) reckoning, calculation, business affair, procedure,

reasonray Latin (radius) ray, spoke, staff, rodreal Latin (res) matter, thingreality Latin (realis) real existencerealm Latin (regimen) system of government, rulereason Lation (ratus) to reckon, thinkrebel Latin (rebellare) to rebel, wage war againstreceipt Latin (recipere) to receivereceive Latin (recipere) to receivereceptacle Latin (recipere) to hold, containrecite Latin (recitare) read aloud, repeat from memoryrecognize Latin (cognoscere) knowrecord Latin (recordare) bring back to the heartrecover Latin (recuperare) to recoverrecruit Latin (crescere) to growrectangle Latin (rectangulum) a triangle having a right angleredeem Latin (redimere) to redeem, buy backredemption Latin (redimere) to redeem, buy backreflect Latin (reflexionem) a reflection, a bending backreform Latin (reformare) to form again, change, alterrefuge Latin (refugium) place to flee back torefute Latin (refutare) drive back, repress, repel, rebutregent Latin (regens) ruler, governorregime Latin (regimen) rule, guidance, governmentregion Latin (regere) to ruleregular Latin (regula) ruleregulate Latin (regula) rulereign Latin (regnum) kingship, dominion, rule, realmreject Latin (reicere) to throw backrelapse Latin (relabi) slip backrelation Latin (relationem) a bringing back, restoringrelevant Latin (relevare) to raise, alleviatereliance Latin (religare) fasten, bind fastrelief Latin (relevare) to raise, lightenreligion Latin (religio(n)) obligation, reverencereminiscence Latin (reminisci) remember, recall to mindremorse Latin (remordere) to vex, disturb, to bite backremote Latin (remotus) afair off, remotereparate Latin (reparare) restorerepeat Latin (repetitus) do or say againreport Latin (reportare) carry back

represent Latin (praeesse) be in front ofrepublic Latin (respublica) public interest, the staterepudiate Latin (repudium) divorce, rejectionreputate Latin (reputatus) reflect upon, reckonrequire Latin (requirere) ask,seek to know, seek in returnrequisite Latin (requirere) ask,seek to know, seek in returnresemble Latin (simulare) to copyresent Latin (sentire) perceive, feelreside Latin (residere) to remain behind, restresist Latin (resistere) to resist, to stand back, withstandresolve Latin (solvere) to loosen, dissolve, untieresource Latin (surgere) to riserespect Latin (respectus) regard, act of looking back at oneresponse Latin (responsum) answerresponsible Latin (respondere) to respondrestore Latin (restaurare) repair, rebuild, renewrestitution Latin (restitutus) restore, rebuild, replacerestrict Latin (restringere) restrict, bind fast, restrainresult Latin (resultare) spring back, reverberateresurrect Latin (resurgere) rise againretribution Latin (tributum) tribute, a thing contributed or paidreveal Latin (revelare) reveal, uncover, discloserevenue Latin (revenire) return, come backreverence Latin (revereri) to revererevise Latin (revisere) look at again, visit againrevive Latin (revivere) to live againrevolt Latin (revolvitare) to overturn, overthrowrevolution Latin (revolution) to revolve turn, roll backrhetoric Greek (rhetor) oratorrhytm Greek (rhythmos) measured flow or movement, rhythmridicule Latin (ridere) to laughrigor Latin (rigidus) hard, stiff, rough, severerite Latin (ritus) religious observance or ceremony, custom, usagerival Latin (rivalis) a rivalriver Latin (ripa) river bank, shoreroll Latin (rotula) small wheelromance Latin (Roma) Romerostrum Latin (rostrum) name of the platform stand for public speakers in

the Forum in ancient Romerotate Latin (rotare) revolve, rollroyal Latin (rex) kingruin Latin (ruere) to fall, headlong, collapserule Latin (regula) straight stick, standardrural Latin (rus) open land, countryrustic Latin (rus) open land, countrysacred Latin (sacrre) sacredsacrifice Latin (sacra) sacred ritessaint Latin (sanctus) holy, consecrated salary Latin (salarium) salary, stipend, oldier's allowance for the

purchase of salt

salvation Latin (salvare) savesample Latin (exemplum) a samplesandal Greek (sandalion) sandalsanitation Latin (sanus) healthy, sanesarcophagus Greek (sarkophagos) limestone used for coffins, flesh-eatingsatire Latin (satira) satire, poetic medleysatisfy Latin (satisfacere) satisfysave Latin (salvus) safescandal Greek (skandalon) stumbling block, trap with a springing devicescarce Latin (excerpere) pluck outscene Greek (skene) scene, stage, tent or boothsceptic Greek (skeptesthai) to reflect, look, viewscheme Greek (skhema) figure, appearance, the nature of a thingschism Greek (skhizein) to split scholar Greek (skhole) school, lecture, discussion, leisure, spare timeschool Greek (skhole) school, lecture, discussion, leisure, spare timescience Latin (scire) to know, to separate one thing from another, to

distinguishscope Greek (skopein) to lookscribe Latin (scribere) writescript Latin (scribere) writesculpture Latin (scalpere) to carve, cutseason Latin (serere) to sowseclude Latin (secludere) shut off, confinesecond Latin (sequi) followsecret Latin (secretus) set apart, withdrawn, hiddensect Latin (secta) manner, mode, following, school of thoughtsection Latin (secare) to cutsecure Latin (securus) without care, safeseduce Latin (seducere) lead away, lead astraysegment Latin (secare) to cutselect Latin (selectus)hoose out, selectsenate Latin (senex) old man, oldsenior Latin (senior) oldersense Latin (sensus) perception, feeling, undertaking, meaningsentiment Latin (sentire) to feelsepulcher Latin (sepulcrum) grave, tombserene Latin (serenitatem) clearness, serenityserf Latin (servum) slaveseries Latin (serere) to join, link, bind together, putserious Latin (serius) weighty, important, gravesermon Latin (sermonem) discourse, speech, talk, a stringing together of

wordsservice Latin (servus) slaveset Latin (secta) a followingseveral Latin (separe) to separatesevere Latin (severus) stern, strict, serioussexagesimal Latin (sexaginta) sixtysex Latin (sexus) state of being either male or female, gendersiege Latin (sedere) sit

sign Latin (signum) mark, sign, token image, sealsignificant Latin (significans) meaning, force, energysilent Latin (silere) silentsimplify Latin (simplex) singlesincere Latin (sincerus) honestsingle Latin (singulus) one, individual, separatesite Latin (sinere) to leave, allow putsituation Latin (situatus) to locateslave Latin (Slavic) slavesociety Latin (socius) companionsoldier Latin (solidus) a Roman gold coinsolemn Latin (sollemnis) formal, ceremonial, traditionalsolid Latin (solidus) firm, whole, entiresolon Greek (Solon) name of early lawgiver of Athenssolve Latin (solvere) to loosen, untie, solve, dissolvesophist Greek (sophos) wise, cleversorcery Latin (sors) lot, fate, fortunesound Latin (sonus) soundsource Latin (surgere) to risespace Latin (spatium) room, area, distance, stretch of timespecial Latin (species) kindspectacle Latin (spectare) to view, watchspeculate Latin (specere) to look at, viewspend Latin (expendere) to weigh out money, pay downsphere Greek (sphaira) globe, ballsphinx Greek (Sphinx) the stranglerspiral Greek (speira) coil, twist, wreathspirit Latin (spiritus) of breathing, of the spiritsplendid Latin (splendere) be bright, shinesponsor Latin (sponsus) give assurance, promise solemnlysporadic Greek (spora) a sowingsquare Latin (quattuor) fourstable Latin (stabilis) steadfast, firmstadium Latin (stadium) stadiumstage Latin (stare) to standstate Latin (stare) to standstagnate Latin (stagnatum) standing waterstation Latin (stationem) a standing, post, job, position statistics Latin (stare) to stand statue Latin (stare) to standstele Greek (stele) standing block, slabstimulate Latin (stimulus) goad, stakestoa Greek (stoa) colonnade, corridorstoicism Greek (stoikos) pertaining to a member of or the teachings of the

school founded by Zenostop Latin (stuppare) to stop or stuff with tow or oakumstory Latin (historia) picture, storystrait Latin (stringere) bind or draw tightstrategem Greek (strategein) to be a general, commandstrategy Greek (stratos) multitude, army, expedition, that which is spread

outstreet Latin (sternere) pave, throw downstress Latin (stringere) draw tightstructure Latin (struere) to constructstudio Latin (studere) be diligentstudy Latin (studere) be diligentstupendous Latin (stupendus) be stunnedstyle Latin (stilus) stake, instrument for writing subdue Latin (subducere) draw, lead away, withdrawsubordinate Latin (subordinatus) placed in a lower order, made subjectsubsist Latin (subsistere) stand still or firmsubstance Latin (substans) stand firm, be under or presentsubtle Latin (subtilis) fine, thin, delicate, finely wovensuburb Latin (suburbium) an outlying part of a citysuccess Latin (succedere) come aftersuccumb Latin (succumbere) submit, sink down, lie undersudden Latin (subire) come up, go secretlysuffer Latin (sufferire) to bear, undergo, endure, carry or put undersuffix Latin (suffixus) fastenedsuit Latin (secutus) to attend, followsum Latin (summa) whole, gistsummit Latin (summus) highestsuperb Latin (superbus) grand, proud, sumptuoussuperstition Latin (superstitionem) prophecy, soothsaying, excessive fear of

the godssupply Latin (supplere) fill up, completesupport Latin (supportare) bear upsuppose Latin (supponere) put or place undersuppress Latin (supprimere) press down, stop, check, stiflesupreme Latin (supremus) highestsure Latin (securus) free from care, untroubled, heedless, safe securesurgery Greek (kheirourgos) working or done by handsurplus Latin (superplus) excess, surplussurvey Latin (supervidere) overseesurvive Latin (supervivere) live beyond syllable Greek (syllabe) a syllable, several sounds or letters taken togethersymbol Greek (sumbolon) marksympathy Greek (sympathes) having a fellow feeling, affected by like

feelingssymptom Greek (sympiptein) to befallsynagogue Greek (synagein) to gather, assemblesynchronism Greek (synchronos) quality of being synchronoussynonym Greek (synonymon) word having the same sense as anothersystem Greek (histanai) set up to, cause to stand tactics Greek (taktike techne) art of arrangementtalent Greek (talanton) balance, weight, sumtangible Latin (tangere) to touchtarsus Greek (tarsos) ankle, sole of the foot, rim of the eyelidtask Latin (tasca) a dutytavern Latin (taberna) shop, inn, tavern, hut, shed

tax Latin (taxare) evaluate, estimate, assess, handle, censure, chargetechnique Greek (tekhne) art, skill, craft, method, systemtechnology Greek (tekhnologia) systematic treatmentteleology Greek (teleologia) teleologytemenos Greek (temenos) to cuttemperature Latin (temperare) to moderatetemple Latin (templum) sacred place, place for worshiptempo Latin (tempus) timetemporary Latin (tempus) time, seasontempt Latin (temptare) to feel, try out, attempt to influence, testtenacious Latin (tenax) tough, holding fasttenant Latin (tenere) hold, keeptendency Latin (tendere) tend, be inclined totense Latin (tendere) to stretchterm Latin (terminus) end, boundary lineterrace Latin (terra) earth, landterrain Latin (terra) earth, landterritory Latin (terra) earth, landterror Latin (terrere) fill with fear, frightenterse Latin (tersus) wiped off, clean, neattest Latin (testum) earthen potTestament Latin (testis) witnesstestimony Latin (testimonium) evidence, proof, testimonytetrarch Greek (tetrarkhes) leader of four companies, tetrarchtext Latin (textus) texture, contexttheater Greek (theatron) theater, place for viewingtheme Greek (tithenai) put down, placetheogony Greek (theogonia) generation or birth of the godstheorem Greek (theorein) to considertheory Greek (theoria) contemplation, theorytholos Greek (tholos) round building with a conical roofthrone Greek (thronos) elevated seat, chair, thronetitle Latin (intitulare) inscription titletoga Latin (toga) cloak or mantle tolerate Latin (tolerans) to bear, endure, toleratetomb Greek (tymbos) burial mound, grave, tombtone Greek (tonos) vocal pitch, raising of voice, accent, key in musictopography Greek (topographos) describing a placetorch Latin (torquere) to twisttotal Latin (totus) all, whole, entiretoxic Greek (toxicon) poison (for use on arrows)tower Greek (tyrsis) castle, buildingtrace Latin (tractus) track, course, a drawing outtradition Latin (traditus) deliver, hand overtraffic Latin (transfricare) to rub acrosstragedy Greek (tragodia) a dramatic poem or play in formal language and

having an unhappy resolutiontraitor Latin (tradere) deliver, surrendertranquil Latin (tranquillus) tranquiltransact Latin (transactus) accomplish, drive or carry through

transcend Latin (transcendere) climb over or beyond, surmounttransit Latin (transition) a going across or overtranslate Latin (translatus) translatetransmit Latin (transmittere) send acrosstransport Latin (transportare) carry acrosstreasure Greek (thesauros) store, treasure, treasure housetreat Latin (tractare) manage, handle, deal with, drag abouttriangle Latin (triangulum) triangletribe Latin (tribus) one of the three political/ethnic divisions of the

original Roman statetribune Latin (tribus) one of the three political/ethnic divisions of the

original Roman statetribute Latin (tributum) tribute, a thing contributed or paidtrilogy Greek (trilogia) series of three related tragedies performed at

Athens at the festival of Dionysustrinity Latin (trinus) threefold, triple trireme Latin (triremis) ancient ship with three rows of oarstriumph Greek (thriambos) hymn to Dionysustriumvir Latin (tres viri) three mentrouble Latin (turbidare) to trouble, make turbidtumult Latin (tumultus) commotion, disturbanceturbulent Latin (turba) turmoil, crowdturmoil Latin (trimodia) vessel containing three modiiturn Latin (tornus) turning lathetutor Latin (tutorem) guardian, watchertype Greek (typtein) to strike, beattypical Greek (typos) impressiontyranny Greek (turannos) tyrantultimate Latin (ultimus) last, final unify Latin (unificare) make oneunique Latin (unus) oneunit Latin (unitatem) oneness, sameness, agreementuniverse Latin (universum) the universeuniversal Latin (universus) all together, whole, entireurban Latin (urbs) cityusual Latin (usus) customuterus Latin (uterus) womb, bellyutility Latin (utilis) usableutopia Greek (outopos) nowherevacant Latin (vacare) to be emptyvacillation Latin (vacillare) sway to and frovague Latin (vagus) wandering, rambling, vacillating, vaguevalerian Latin (Valerius) the personal namevalid Latin (valere) be strongvalley Latin (vallis) valleyvalue Latin (valere) be strong, be well, be of valuevapor Latin (vaporem) exhalation, steam, heatvariety Latin (varius) variousvegetarianism Latin (vegere) to be alive, active, to quickenvegetation Latin (vegetare) to grow, to enliven

vehicle Latin (vehere) to carryvenerate Latin (venus) beauty, love, desirevengeance Latin (vindicare) to set free, claim, avengevenial Latin (venia) forgiveness, indulgence, pardonventure Latin (aventura) a thing about to happenvernal Latin (ver) spring verse Latin (versus) verse, line of writingversion Latin (versionem) a turningvertical Latin (vertex) highest pointvessel Latin (vascellum) small vase or urn, a shipveteran Latin (vetus) old veto Latin (veto) I forbidvicar Latin (vicis) turn, change, exchange, substitutionvicious Latin (vitiosus) faulty, defective, corruptvictim Latin (victima) person or animal killed as a sacrificevictory Latin (victoria) victoryview Latin (videre) seevigor Latin (vigere) be lively, flourish, thrivevilla Latin (villa) country housevillein Latin (villa) country housevindicate Latin (vindicare) to set free, lay claim to, assert, avengevindictive Latin (vindicta) revengeviolent Latin (violentus) vehement, forciblevirgin Latin (virginem) maiden, unwedded girl or womanvirile Latin (virilis) of a man, manlyvirtue Latin (vir) manvirulent Latin (virus) poisonvision Latin (videre) to seevisit Latin (visitare) to go to see, come to inspectvital Latin (vita) lifevivid Latin (vivus) alivevocabulary Latin (vocabulum) word, name, nounvocal Latin (vox) voice voice Latin (vocem) voice, sound, utterance, cry, call, speech, sentence,

language, wordvoluntary Latin (voluntas) willvote Latin (votum) a vow, wish, promise, dedicationvoyage Latin (via) road, journey, travelvulgar Latin (vulgus) the common people, multitude, crowd, throngvulgate Latin (vulgus) the common peoplevulnerable Latin (vulnus) woundwall Latin (vallus) stake, palisadezeal Greek (zelos) zeal, ardour, jealousy, eager rivalry

Poďakovanie

Moja vďaka patrí mojej konzultantke PaedDr. Marte Kadorovej, ktorej cenné

rady a inštrukcie mi boli veľkou pomocou.

Acknowledgement

My gratitude belongs to my consultant PaedDr. Marta Kadorová, whose

valuable pieces of advice and instructions were very helpful for me.

Čestné vyhlásenie

Čestne prehlasujem, že problematiku diplomovej práce som riešila a napísala

samostatne na základe preštudovaného materiálu a použité zdroje som na príslušných

miestach uviedla.

Declaration of originality

I, the undersigned, solemnly declare that this diploma work is the result of my

own independent research and was written solely by me using the literature and sources

listed in the Bibliography.

Žilina, 12. apríl 2006 …………………………………

Lucia Struhárová