www.cengage.com/cj/white

Jonathan R. White

Rosemary ArwayHodges University

Chapter 4:Public Perceptions: Terrorism and Media

The Media and Social Construction of Images

Ross:o Reporting is a part of the social construction of terrorism.o Terrorists are aware of the power of media.o The media enhances the power of terrorism, but does

not cause it.o Terrorist will increasingly use the internet.

Terrorism is a message generator. Communication develops in three primary manners:

o Reporting of terrorist eventso Creating social definition of terrorismo Propaganda and communication through the World Wide

Web

Popular Media Misconceptions

The myths circulated by television news shape the world view of consumers.

If social constructs are created by collective definitions, the power of the media helps to define the boundaries of those constructs.

Thussu: The media’s view of terrorism is dominated by several simplified stories presented on 24-hour news cable news networks.o Leads to misconceptions and falsehoods

concerning terrorism

Tension between Security Forces and the Media

Scholars believe media favors governments. Police and security forces at odd ends with the

media power.o Media social constructions often run counter to

government objectives and policies.▪ Compete for favorable media coverage▪ Exhibit distain for the press

o Government seeks to harness power of the media for social control.▪ Hostage situations

Police and military frequently try to take advantage of the media’s ability to define social reality.

Media as a Weapon

Clutterbuck:o Media were similar to a loaded weapon lying

in the middle of a street. The first person to pick it up got to use it.

Ayman al Zawahiri: Views media as one of al Qaeda’s arsenal.o Struggle dramatizationo Sub-organizations devoted to public relationso Personal writings on the victimization of

Muslims throughout the worldo Internet use

Media as a Weapon

Literature from violent extremists reveals important information concerning organizations and strategies.

Jihadists are aware of media’s ability to influence social construction of reality.o Jihadists media strategies:

▪ Legitimacy for their movement▪ Proliferation of their message▪ Increased sympathy▪ Opponents are targeted for intimidation

News Frames and Presentations

Levin: Reporting patterns packaged in segments called news frames.

News frames create a pattern surrounding an event.o Symbolic representation of an evento ‘Meditization’ = shaping the way an event is

communicated

Reporting frameo The classic approacho Designed to provide the latest informationo Usually short

News Frames and Presentations

Type of frameso Dominant frame – presents a story from a

single viewpoint

o Conflict frame – presents a story with two views

o Contention frame – summarizes a variety of views

o Investigative frames – champion role of the press as protectors of democracy

o Mythic frame – depicts those people who have sacrificed their lives for a cause

Ambiguous Stories and News Frames

News frames give stories structured meaning; however, stories may defy structure.

Media reports terrorist events within well defined frame. Ambiguity destroys the ability to create a sustainable

news frame.o If terrorism is reported in well defined news frames, both

the media and the consumer will assume that there is a political beginning, a violent process, and a logical end.

o If there is ambiguity about the story, the method by which reporters gather the story and present it becomes the story because there is no logical conclusion.

News frame is centered on:o Getting viewer’s attention o Presenting information o Revealing the results

TWA Flight 800

Beating the War Drum

Kellner: After September 11 American television beat the war drum.o Called in a variety of exports reflecting a

single viewo Radio engaged in sensationalistic

propaganda Process went beyond news reporting

o Patriot war movies News frames simplified the cause

o Pointed war as the only logical solution

Terrorism and Television

Barber: coined the phrase the Infotainment Telesector o Twenty-four hour news networks o Designed to create revenueo “News” becomes banter between news anchor and

the guesto Debates ensueo Issues are rarely discussedo Negative effect of Infotainment Telesector

▪ Documents are leaked▪ Confidential plans unveiled▪ Vulnerabilities exposed

Terrorism and Television

The drama pattern is designed to keep the viewer tuned to the station.

The overriding message of the drama is “stay tuned.” Drama pattern of the media no longer a Western

monopoly. Al Jazeera and al Arabia challenged Western hold on

international news. Localized networks present other perspectives and

definitions of terrorism. The growth of media outlets and competing

perspectives has had a huge impact on the way the United States is viewed around the world.

The Internet and Terrorism The Internet often exceeds the ability of established

media to report an event. Internet used as:

o Communicationo Propagandao Reporting toolo Recruiting toolo Training toolo Target selectiono Reconnaissanceo Tactical weapon

▪ Either side has ability to data mine and gather intelligence

▪ Tool to support an attack

The Internet and Terrorism Hinnen: Internet used as communication device

o Non-secure e-mail most common form Terrorists understand power of the Internet.

o Run their own websiteso Hack into existing sites to broadcast propaganda

videoso Enhance power of terrorist groups

Purchasing equipment Fraud

Internet’s communication capabilities present terrorists with the opportunity to attack the global community.o Liff and Laegren: Cybercafes enhance Internet’s

striking power.

The Internet and Terrorism Steganography

o One of the Internet’s greatest vulnerabilities to criminal and terrorist communication.

o Process of embedding hidden information in a picture, message, or other piece of information.

o There are two positions on the steganographic threat to the United States:▪ used by terrorist groups to communicate and launch cyber-attacks▪ used in denial of service attacks or to deface websites

o In the areas of propaganda, reporting, and public relations, the Internet has been a boon. • It allows terrorist groups to present messages and portray images

that will not appear in mainstream media.

Issues in the Media

Media claim to be objective when presenting information about terrorism.

Critics claim that media has a liberal bias. o Tim Groseclose and Jeffrey Milyo:

The American media has a liberal bias The news media cited the think tanks

referenced by liberal members of Congress more than conservative ones.

Issues in the Media

Sutter: No incentive for liberal or conservative biaso As profit-making entities, news organizations have

incentive to attract largest possible audience.o If the entire media where to exhibit a bias, some owner

would need to have a monopoly on all media outlets.o Journalism is a profession.o As news organizations expand, there will be pressures

for bias to develop special audiences among liberals and conservatives.

o News organizations are increasingly led by boards and groups of owners driven by the desire to make money.

Issues in the Media

Barron: Bias appears on two levelso Individual discretion of the reportero Public’s desire to read or watch the most

captivating story▪ Reporters’ individual bias may slip into the story –

corporation presenting the news will ultimately limit the bias

Issues in the Media

Slisli: Use of pejorative labels introduces bias into the news.o American media is full of stereotypes and

over-simplifications.o Media plays to lowest level of understanding.o Targeting the most simplistic viewers.o Terms such as fanatic, fundamentalist, and

terrorists sensationalize reports. Levin:

o The news is aimed at particular audiences.o Different organizations approach audiences in

a variety of ways.

Issues in the Media

Miniter: o Media has shifted toward liberalismo Media are blamed for spreading incorrect

informationo Twenty-two misconceptions about terrorism

accepted as trutho Myths come from variety of sources to include:

Honest mistakes in reporting American and foreign government disinformation Contrived leaks

Disagreement of Miniter’s findings by other investigative journalists.

Issues in the Media

Fraley and Roushanzamir:o Sub-national and supra-national violence is

shifting and distorting all media presentations of violence, including terrorism.

o The mass media is spreading more propaganda than news in a world dominated by media corporations.

o The flow and amount of information, however, could serve to raise the awareness of news consumers, creating a new critical media consciousness.

The Contagion Effect Effects of media are complex

o Media images produce some types of behavioro Many researchers believe fear generated by media is

contagious

Effects are not totally clearo Bomb threats in nuclear industry

Bassiouni found media coverage had several contagious effects:o Promoted fear and magnified threatso Spread fearo Influenced how terrorists select targetso Spread violenceo Selected targets for maximum publicity

The Contagion Effect

Other findings demonstrate that:o Media reports might inspire a person to engage in

terrorism, but so do stories from friends and families.

o There may be a contagious relationship between a terrorist event and the level of violence in later events.

Some researchers believe that:o if a contagion effect exists, it might be used to counter

terrorism While a model linking media violence to social

aggression and violent behavior may be acceptable to policy makers, Barrie Gunter argues that it is not demonstrated to the level of certainty that social scientists seek.

Censorship Debate Debates surrounding censorship are always

present during time of national crisis. Arguments concerning censorship are heated and

central to democracy.o Does free speech automatically allow media access to

information?▪ Media: Public has a right to know▪ Critics: Free speech does not equal unlimited access to

information ▪ Right to know v. Right to speak

Wilkinson reports that the government faces three choices in regard to the media and terrorism:o Laissez faire attitudeo Government agency veto power over news reportso Self regulation

Censorship Debate Graber reports several arguments to support

censorship:o National securityo Public wants information withheldo Americans should behave patriotically

Terrorism is essentially a war of informationo Supporters:

▪ National security demands censorship

o Opponents: ▪ Censorship hides government mistakes and public must have

information to make informed decisions▪ Terrorism is a war of information▪ Every government camp downcast officials in a bad light