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Formulasi Sediaan Solid
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WHITENING AGENTWHITENING AGENT
By Mohammad ZakyBy Mohammad Zaky
PEMBAGIAN KOSMETIKAPEMBAGIAN KOSMETIKA
Berdasarkan Surat Keputusan Menteri Berdasarkan Surat Keputusan Menteri Kesehatan Nomor 045/C/ SK/1977 Kesehatan Nomor 045/C/ SK/1977 tanggal 22 januari 1977, menurut tanggal 22 januari 1977, menurut kegunaannya kosmetik dikelompokkan kegunaannya kosmetik dikelompokkan dalam beberapa golongan yaitu : dalam beberapa golongan yaitu :
PEMBAGIAN KOSMETIKAPEMBAGIAN KOSMETIKA
1.1. Sediaan untuk bayi; shampoo bayi, losion, baby oil, bedak, krim, dan Sediaan untuk bayi; shampoo bayi, losion, baby oil, bedak, krim, dan sediaan untuk bayi lainnya.sediaan untuk bayi lainnya.
2.2. Sediaan untuk mandi; bath oil, tablet, salt, buble bath, bath capsule, Sediaan untuk mandi; bath oil, tablet, salt, buble bath, bath capsule, dan sediaan untuk mandi lainnya.dan sediaan untuk mandi lainnya.
3.3. Sediaan untuk makeSediaan untuk make--up mata; eye brow pencil, eye liner, eye shadow, up mata; eye brow pencil, eye liner, eye shadow, eye makeeye make--up remover, mascara, dan sediaan makeup remover, mascara, dan sediaan make--up mata lainnya.up mata lainnya.
4.4. Sediaan wangiSediaan wangi--wangian; cologne dan toilet water, parfum, wangian; cologne dan toilet water, parfum, 4.4. Sediaan wangiSediaan wangi--wangian; cologne dan toilet water, parfum, wangian; cologne dan toilet water, parfum, powder(dusting dan talcum, tidak termasuk aftershave talc), dan powder(dusting dan talcum, tidak termasuk aftershave talc), dan sediaan wangisediaan wangi--wangian lainnya.wangian lainnya.
5.5. Sediaan rambut (bukan cat rambut); hair conditioner, hair spray Sediaan rambut (bukan cat rambut); hair conditioner, hair spray (aerosol fixative), hair straightener, hair rinse (bukan cat), tonik rambut, (aerosol fixative), hair straightener, hair rinse (bukan cat), tonik rambut, hair dressing dan hair grooming aid lainnya, wave set, serta sediaan hair dressing dan hair grooming aid lainnya, wave set, serta sediaan rambut lainnya.rambut lainnya.
6.6. Sediaan pewarna rambut(cat rambut); hair dye dan colour, hair Sediaan pewarna rambut(cat rambut); hair dye dan colour, hair rinse(cat), shampoo rambut (cat), hair tint, hair colour spray, hair rinse(cat), shampoo rambut (cat), hair tint, hair colour spray, hair lightener with colour, hair bleach, dan sediaan pewarna rambut lainnya.lightener with colour, hair bleach, dan sediaan pewarna rambut lainnya.
PEMBAGIAN KOSMETIKAPEMBAGIAN KOSMETIKA
7.7. Sediaan makeSediaan make--up ( bukan untuk mata); blusher, face powder, foundation, up ( bukan untuk mata); blusher, face powder, foundation, pewarna kaki dan badan, lipstick, makepewarna kaki dan badan, lipstick, make--up base, rouge, makeup base, rouge, make--up fixative, dan up fixative, dan sediaan makesediaan make--up lainnya.up lainnya.
8.8. Sediaan untuk kebersihan mulut; mouth wash, pasta gigi, breath freshener, dan Sediaan untuk kebersihan mulut; mouth wash, pasta gigi, breath freshener, dan sediaan untuk kebersihan mulut lainnya.sediaan untuk kebersihan mulut lainnya.
9.9. Sediaan kuku; basecoat dan undercoat, cuticle softener, nail cream dan lotion, Sediaan kuku; basecoat dan undercoat, cuticle softener, nail cream dan lotion, nail extender, nail polish dan enamel remover, dan sediaan kuku lainnya.nail extender, nail polish dan enamel remover, dan sediaan kuku lainnya.
10.10. Sediaan untuk kebersihan badan; sabun dan deterjen mandi, deodorant (under Sediaan untuk kebersihan badan; sabun dan deterjen mandi, deodorant (under arm), douche, feminine hygiene, deodorant, dan sediaan untuk kebersihan arm), douche, feminine hygiene, deodorant, dan sediaan untuk kebersihan badan lainnya.badan lainnya.
11.11. Sediaan cukur; afterSediaan cukur; after--shave lotion, beard softener, talcum untuk pria, preshave lotion, beard softener, talcum untuk pria, pre--shave shave lotion, krim cukur (aerosol brushless dan lather ), sabun cukur, dan sediaan lotion, krim cukur (aerosol brushless dan lather ), sabun cukur, dan sediaan cukur lainnya.cukur lainnya.
12.12. Sediaan perawat kulit; pembersih (cold cream, cleansing liquid dan pad), Sediaan perawat kulit; pembersih (cold cream, cleansing liquid dan pad), depilatory, perawat kulit untuk muka, badan dan tangan ( tidak termasuk depilatory, perawat kulit untuk muka, badan dan tangan ( tidak termasuk sediaan cukur), bedak dan spray untuk kaki, pelembab, perawat kulit yang sediaan cukur), bedak dan spray untuk kaki, pelembab, perawat kulit yang dipakai pada malam hari, masker, skion freshener, wrinkle smoothing remover, dipakai pada malam hari, masker, skion freshener, wrinkle smoothing remover, dan sediaan kulit lainnya.dan sediaan kulit lainnya.
PENGGUNAAN PENGGUNAAN
WHITENING AGENTWHITENING AGENT
1.1. SKIN WHITENINGSKIN WHITENING2.2. TOOTH WHITENINGTOOTH WHITENING
SKIN WHITENINGSKIN WHITENING
Skin whitening bertujuan:Skin whitening bertujuan: untuk mendapatkan penampilan kulit untuk mendapatkan penampilan kulit
lebih cerah (tujuan kosmetik secara lebih cerah (tujuan kosmetik secara lebih cerah (tujuan kosmetik secara lebih cerah (tujuan kosmetik secara komersial)komersial)
untuk pengobatan klinis dari gangguan untuk pengobatan klinis dari gangguan pigmen (pigmentary disorders) seperti pigmen (pigmentary disorders) seperti melasma or postinflammatory melasma or postinflammatory hyperpigmentation . hyperpigmentation .
SKIN WHITENINGSKIN WHITENING
Many of them are known as competitive Many of them are known as competitive inhibitors of tyrosinase, the key enzyme inhibitors of tyrosinase, the key enzyme in melanogenesis. Others inhibit the in melanogenesis. Others inhibit the maturation of this enzyme or the maturation of this enzyme or the transport of pigment granules transport of pigment granules (melanosomes) from melanocytes to (melanosomes) from melanocytes to surrounding keratinocytes surrounding keratinocytes
PENDAHULUANPENDAHULUAN
Pada kulit, melanosit berada di lapisan basal Pada kulit, melanosit berada di lapisan basal yang memisahkan dermis dan epidermis. yang memisahkan dermis dan epidermis. Satu melanosit dikelilingi oleh sekitar 36 Satu melanosit dikelilingi oleh sekitar 36 keratinosit. Bersama, mereka membentuk keratinosit. Bersama, mereka membentuk unit melanin yang disebut epidermis. Melanin unit melanin yang disebut epidermis. Melanin unit melanin yang disebut epidermis. Melanin unit melanin yang disebut epidermis. Melanin yang diproduksi dan disimpan di dalam yang diproduksi dan disimpan di dalam melanosit di kompartemen melanosomal melanosit di kompartemen melanosomal diangkut melalui dendrit ke keratinosit diangkut melalui dendrit ke keratinosit overlay. Pigmen melanin merupakan polimer overlay. Pigmen melanin merupakan polimer yang diproduksi di dalam melanosomes dan yang diproduksi di dalam melanosomes dan disintesis dari tirosin Ldisintesis dari tirosin L--asam amino yang asam amino yang dikonversi oleh enzim tyrosinase.dikonversi oleh enzim tyrosinase.
PENDAHULUANPENDAHULUAN
Pembentukan melanin merupakan faktor Pembentukan melanin merupakan faktor penting pada warna kulit manusia. penting pada warna kulit manusia. Penghambatan pembentukan melanin dapat Penghambatan pembentukan melanin dapat mengakibatkan pengurangan kegelapan kulit. mengakibatkan pengurangan kegelapan kulit. mengakibatkan pengurangan kegelapan kulit. mengakibatkan pengurangan kegelapan kulit. Pembentukan melanin dalam tubuh manusia Pembentukan melanin dalam tubuh manusia berkurang dengan beberapa mekanisme, berkurang dengan beberapa mekanisme, termasuk antitermasuk anti--oksidasi, penghambatan oksidasi, penghambatan tirosinase langsung, penghambatan migrasi tirosinase langsung, penghambatan migrasi melanin dari sel ke sel dan aktivitas hormon, melanin dari sel ke sel dan aktivitas hormon, dll (Slominski et al., 2004).dll (Slominski et al., 2004).
PENDAHULUANPENDAHULUAN
Tirosinase merupakan enzim yang terkait Tirosinase merupakan enzim yang terkait dengan sintesis melanin dalam melanosit dan dengan sintesis melanin dalam melanosit dan mengkatalisis dua reaksi utama : mengkatalisis dua reaksi utama : monophenolase : hidroksilasi Lmonophenolase : hidroksilasi L--tirosin dan tirosin dan monophenolase : hidroksilasi Lmonophenolase : hidroksilasi L--tirosin dan tirosin dan diphenolase : oksidasi Ldiphenolase : oksidasi L--dopa (3,4dopa (3,4--dihydroxyphenylalanine). dihydroxyphenylalanine). Penghambatan tirosinase (monophenolase Penghambatan tirosinase (monophenolase dan diphenolase) akan menurunkan sintesis dan diphenolase) akan menurunkan sintesis melanin (Dubey dkk, 2006.). melanin (Dubey dkk, 2006.).
Targeting Tyrosinase as the Targeting Tyrosinase as the
Key Enzyme of Key Enzyme of
MelanogenesisMelanogenesisOne of the most obvious cellular targets One of the most obvious cellular targets for for depigmenting agents is the enzyme depigmenting agents is the enzyme tyrosinasetyrosinase. The scientific literature on . The scientific literature on tyrosinase inhibition shows that a large tyrosinase inhibition shows that a large tyrosinase inhibition shows that a large tyrosinase inhibition shows that a large majority of the work has been majority of the work has been conducted since 2000 and has mostly conducted since 2000 and has mostly been devoted to the search for new been devoted to the search for new depigmenting agents. Notably, many of depigmenting agents. Notably, many of these studies deal with these studies deal with tyrosinase tyrosinase inhibitorsinhibitors from natural sources and are from natural sources and are mostly of Asian origin mostly of Asian origin
Targeting Tyrosinase as the Targeting Tyrosinase as the
Key Enzyme of Key Enzyme of
MelanogenesisMelanogenesis
However, early pioneering work in the field However, early pioneering work in the field has been performed much earlier usinghas been performed much earlier using 44--hydroxyanisolehydroxyanisole. This compound could serve . This compound could serve as an as an alternative substrate for tyrosinase alternative substrate for tyrosinase as an as an alternative substrate for tyrosinase alternative substrate for tyrosinase causing depigmentation both causing depigmentation both in vivo in vivo and and in in vitrovitro ..Since this and various other substituted Since this and various other substituted phenolic compoundphenolic compound can generate potentially can generate potentially toxic quinone products they were used in toxic quinone products they were used in various studies aimed at the induction of various studies aimed at the induction of toxicity mediated by tyrosinase in melanoma toxicity mediated by tyrosinase in melanoma cells cells
Targeting Tyrosinase as the Targeting Tyrosinase as the
Key Enzyme of Key Enzyme of
MelanogenesisMelanogenesis Work on synthetic and natural tyrosinase inhibitors Work on synthetic and natural tyrosinase inhibitors
has been recently reviewed in several papers . The has been recently reviewed in several papers . The tyrosinase inhibitorstyrosinase inhibitors can be classified as can be classified as competitive, competitive, uncompetitive, mixed type and nonuncompetitive, mixed type and non--competitive competitive inhibitors.inhibitors.inhibitors.inhibitors.
Sifat penghambatan tirosinase dapat diungkapkan Sifat penghambatan tirosinase dapat diungkapkan dengan mengukur kinetika inhibisi enzim dengan mengukur kinetika inhibisi enzim menggunakan Lineweavermenggunakan Lineweaver--Burk plot dengan Burk plot dengan berbagai konsentrasi Lberbagai konsentrasi L--dopa sebagai substrat. Hal ini dopa sebagai substrat. Hal ini dapat dilihat pada contoh ekstrak polifenol dari dapat dilihat pada contoh ekstrak polifenol dari Acerola (Barat India cherry) atau turunan chalcone Acerola (Barat India cherry) atau turunan chalcone terisolasi dari Morus nigra (hitam murbei) (penelitian terisolasi dari Morus nigra (hitam murbei) (penelitian terkini Hanamura terkini Hanamura et al. et al. and Zhang and Zhang et alet al ) [11,12]. ) [11,12].
Targeting Tyrosinase as the Targeting Tyrosinase as the
Key Enzyme of Key Enzyme of
MelanogenesisMelanogenesis
Knowledge of the type of inhibition may Knowledge of the type of inhibition may be important in order to achieve better be important in order to achieve better skin lightening effects since skin lightening effects since combined combined treatments may result in synergistic treatments may result in synergistic effectseffects. This has been shown in case of . This has been shown in case of the the competitive tyrosinase inhibitor, competitive tyrosinase inhibitor, arbutinarbutin and the and the noncompetitive inhibitor, noncompetitive inhibitor, aloesinaloesin [9,13] [9,13]
Targeting Tyrosinase as the Targeting Tyrosinase as the
Key Enzyme of Key Enzyme of
MelanogenesisMelanogenesisA 2009 paper by Chang states that a A 2009 paper by Chang states that a large majority of large majority of
tyrosinase inhibitors show reversible inhibitiontyrosinase inhibitors show reversible inhibition [10]. [10]. In In irreversible inhibition, covalent binding with the irreversible inhibition, covalent binding with the enzyme may cause its inactivation by altering the enzyme may cause its inactivation by altering the active site of the enzyme and/or by conformational active site of the enzyme and/or by conformational active site of the enzyme and/or by conformational active site of the enzyme and/or by conformational changes to the protein moleculechanges to the protein molecule. Irreversible . Irreversible inhibition may also occur via the soinhibition may also occur via the so--called called suicide suicide inhibitioninhibition mechanism as described in the model by mechanism as described in the model by Land Land et al. [14].et al. [14]. Also, two Also, two 88--hydroxy isoflavoneshydroxy isoflavonesisolated from soygerm koji showed suicide inhibition isolated from soygerm koji showed suicide inhibition of tyrosinase and have been tested with promising of tyrosinase and have been tested with promising results in an results in an in vivo in vivo assay with 60 volunteers [10]. assay with 60 volunteers [10].
Targeting Tyrosinase as the Targeting Tyrosinase as the
Key Enzyme of Key Enzyme of
MelanogenesisMelanogenesis
Thus, exact knowledge on enzyme inhibition Thus, exact knowledge on enzyme inhibition mechanisms is helpful for designing new mechanisms is helpful for designing new whitening products based on targeting the whitening products based on targeting the key enzyme of melanogenesis, tyrosinasekey enzyme of melanogenesis, tyrosinase. . key enzyme of melanogenesis, tyrosinasekey enzyme of melanogenesis, tyrosinase. . Although tyrosinase plays a major role in Although tyrosinase plays a major role in melanin synthesis, one should realize that the melanin synthesis, one should realize that the regulation of skin pigmentation exists at regulation of skin pigmentation exists at various levels and therefore, different modes various levels and therefore, different modes of interference are possible. There are of interference are possible. There are indications that combined approaches could indications that combined approaches could be more successful than targeting tyrosinase be more successful than targeting tyrosinase only.only.
Targeting Tyrosinase as the Targeting Tyrosinase as the
Key Enzyme of Key Enzyme of
MelanogenesisMelanogenesisIn Table 1 we summarize the In Table 1 we summarize the large number of studies using large number of studies using tyrosinase inhibitors from tyrosinase inhibitors from natural sources that have natural sources that have natural sources that have natural sources that have appeared, mostly in the last appeared, mostly in the last decade. In many of the decade. In many of the investigations, the active investigations, the active ingredients from extracts of ingredients from extracts of various species have been various species have been isolated and identified. isolated and identified.
Table 1. Compounds selected as tyrosinase inhibitors by extraction from natural sources and the (possible) isolation and characterization of the active ingredients.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested*Mode of action tested*
Refs.Refs.TITI commentscomments
Chouji and YakuchiChouji and Yakuchiextracts, crude drugsextracts, crude drugs
eugenol, yakuchinone A, ferulic eugenol, yakuchinone A, ferulic acid,acid,curcumin and yakuchinone Bcurcumin and yakuchinone B
TI (c)TI (c) [18][18]
Anacardium occidentale,Anacardium occidentale,cashew fruitcashew fruit
66--[8(Z), [8(Z), 11(11(ZZ), 14), 14--pentadecatrienyl]pentadecatrienyl]--
TI (c)TI (c) [19][19]cashew fruitcashew fruit pentadecatrienyl]pentadecatrienyl]--
salicylic acid and salicylic acid and 55--[8(Z), [8(Z), 11(11(ZZ), ), 1414--pentadecatrienyl]resorcinolpentadecatrienyl]resorcinol
Bolivian medicinalBolivian medicinalplants, plants, BuddleiaBuddleiacoriacea, Gnaphaliumcoriacea, Gnaphaliumcheiranthifolium, cheiranthifolium, andandScheelea princeps.Scheelea princeps.
phenolicphenolic TITI [20][20]
Artocarpus gomezianus.Artocarpus gomezianus. among eight other compoundsamong eight other compoundsnorartocarpetin (5) and resveratrolnorartocarpetin (5) and resveratrol(8) were isolated(8) were isolated
5,8 were5,8 weremostmostpotent TIpotent TI
[21][21]
Table 1. Compounds selected as tyrosinase inhibitors by extraction from natural sources and the (possible) isolation and characterization of the active ingredients.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested*Mode of action tested*
Refs.Refs.TITI commentscomments
Artocarpus incisusArtocarpus incisus flavonoids, stilbenes and related 4flavonoids, stilbenes and related 4--substituted resorcinolssubstituted resorcinols
TITI 44--substitutedsubstitutedrecorcinolrecorcinolincreases TIincreases TI(c)(c)
[15][15]
StryphnodendronStryphnodendron unknownunknown strong TIstrong TI TI TI [22][22]StryphnodendronStryphnodendronbarbatimao, Portulacabarbatimao, Portulacapilosa, Carinianapilosa, Carinianabrasiliensis, Entadabrasiliensis, Entadaafricana africana and and Pros opisPros opisafricana. africana. Five plants out Five plants out ofof67 tropical plants67 tropical plants
unknownunknown strong TIstrong TI TI TI comparablecomparableto to Morus albaMorus albaas positiveas positivecontrolcontrol
[22][22]
Pulsatilla cernuaPulsatilla cernua 3,43,4--dihydroxycinnamic acid (1) 4dihydroxycinnamic acid (1) 4--hydroxyhydroxy--33--methoxycinnamic acid methoxycinnamic acid (2)(2)
2 > other TI2 > other TI> 1> 11,2 (nc)1,2 (nc)
[23][23]
galls of galls of Rhus javanicaRhus javanica Tannic acidTannic acid TITI -- [24][24]
Table 1. Compounds selected as tyrosinase inhibitors by extraction from natural sources and the (possible) isolation and characterization of the active ingredients.
Sophora flavescensSophora flavescens prenylated flavonoids; kuraridin,prenylated flavonoids; kuraridin,kurarinone and norkurarinolkurarinone and norkurarinol
strong strong TI >TI >KAKA
C8 and C5C8 and C5substitutionissubstitutionisessential foressential forTITI
[16][16]
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested*Mode of action tested* Refs.Refs.
TITI commentscomments
Sophora flavescensSophora flavescens sophoraflavanone G, kuraridin, sophoraflavanone G, kuraridin, andandkurarinonekurarinone
TI > KATI > KA [25][25]
Veratrum patulumVeratrum patulum hydroxystilbene compounds;hydroxystilbene compounds;resveratrol, oxyresveratrol, and resveratrol, oxyresveratrol, and theirtheiranalogsanalogs
potent potent TITI cellulasecellulase
treatmenttreatmentimproved TIimproved TI
[17][17]
Phellinus linteusPhellinus linteus cerebroside B (1), protocatecerebroside B (1), protocate--chualdehyde (2), 5chualdehyde (2), 5--hydroxymethylhydroxymethyl--22--furaldehyde (HMF) (3), succinic furaldehyde (HMF) (3), succinic acidacid(4), fumaric acid (5)(4), fumaric acid (5)
2,3 TI2,3 TI2 > 32 > 32 (c)2 (c)3 (nc)3 (nc)
[26][26]
Table 1. Compounds selected as tyrosinase inhibitors by extraction from natural sources and the (possible) isolation and characterization of the active ingredients.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested*Mode of action tested* Refs.Refs.
TITI commentscomments
Ecklonia stolonifera.Ecklonia stolonifera.edible brown alga out of edible brown alga out of 1717seaweed extractsseaweed extracts
phloroglucinol derivativesphloroglucinol derivatives[phloroglucinol (1), eckstolonol [phloroglucinol (1), eckstolonol (2),(2),eckol (3), phlorofucofuroeckol A eckol (3), phlorofucofuroeckol A (4),(4),
1,2 TI (c)1,2 TI (c)33--5 (nc)5 (nc)
TI similar toTI similar toarbutinarbutin
[27][27]
(4),(4),and dieckol (5)].and dieckol (5)].
39 seashore plant species,39 seashore plant species,Japan: Japan: Hibiscus tiliaceus,Hibiscus tiliaceus,Carex pumila, Carex pumila, andandGarcinia subellipticaGarcinia subelliptica
GS contained 2 biflavonoids; GS contained 2 biflavonoids; 22RR,3,3SS--5,7,4',5'',7'',3''',4'''5,7,4',5'',7'',3''',4'''--heptahydroxyheptahydroxy--flavanone[3flavanone[3--8''] flavone (1) and8''] flavone (1) and5,7,4',5'',7'',3''',4'''5,7,4',5'',7'',3''',4'''--heptahydroxy[3heptahydroxy[3--8'']8'']biflavanone (2)biflavanone (2)
both strongboth strongTITI1 > KA1 > KA
[28][28]
Glycyrrhiza uralensisGlycyrrhiza uralensisGlycyrrhiza inflateGlycyrrhiza inflateLicoriceLicorice
liquiritin(1), licuraside (2),liquiritin(1), licuraside (2),isoliquiritin(3), liquiritigenin(4) isoliquiritin(3), liquiritigenin(4) andandlicochalcone A (5)licochalcone A (5)
2,3 and 52,3 and 5potent TI potent TI (c)(c)
[29][29]
Table 1. Compounds selected as tyrosinase inhibitors by extraction from natural sources and the (possible) isolation and characterization of the active ingredients.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested*Mode of action tested*
Refs.Refs.TITI commentscomments
Trifolium balansaeTrifolium balansae three steroids, stigmastthree steroids, stigmast--55--eneene--33beta,26beta,26--diol (2), stigmastdiol (2), stigmast--55--eneene--33--olol(3) and campesterol (4)(3) and campesterol (4)
2,3 and 42,3 and 4potent TIpotent TI2 > 3,42 > 3,4
[30][30]
Amberboa ramosa Amberboa ramosa JafriJafri cycloartane type triterpenoids; eightcycloartane type triterpenoids; eightcompounds identified. 3,21,22,23compounds identified. 3,21,22,23--
7 most7 mostpotent TIpotent TI
SAR studiesSAR studies [31][31]compounds identified. 3,21,22,23compounds identified. 3,21,22,23--tetrahydroxycycloarttetrahydroxycycloart--24 (3 24 (3 1),25(26)1),25(26)--diene (cmpd. 7)diene (cmpd. 7)
potent TIpotent TI> KA> KA
Sake leesSake lees triacylglycerols; triolein (1) andtriacylglycerols; triolein (1) andtrilinolein (2)trilinolein (2)
TI 1,2 (nc)TI 1,2 (nc)TI 2 > 1TI 2 > 1
PI in PI in E coli E coli (2)(2)
[32][32]
Garcinia kolaGarcinia kola screening 21 families of medicinalscreening 21 families of medicinalplants from West and Central Africa.plants from West and Central Africa.5 extracts selected with G. kola5 extracts selected with G. kolashowing good TI; five biflavanonesshowing good TI; five biflavanonesidentifiedidentified
TI > 60%TI > 60%IC50 > KAIC50 > KA
[33][33]
Table 1. Compounds selected as tyrosinase inhibitors by extraction from natural sources and the (possible) isolation and characterization of the active ingredients.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested*Mode of action tested* Refs.Refs.
TITI commentscomments
Marrubium velutinum Marrubium velutinum andandMarrubium cylleneumMarrubium cylleneum
Screening of 45 metabolites.Screening of 45 metabolites.Flavonoids (1), phenylethanoidFlavonoids (1), phenylethanoidglycosides (2), phenolic acids (3)glycosides (2), phenolic acids (3)
1,21,2moderatemoderateTI, 3 < 2TI, 3 < 2
[34][34]
Lichen species;Lichen species; unknownunknown TI (1)TI (1)antioxidant,antioxidant, [35,3[35,3Lichen species;Lichen species;Graphidaceae family(1)Graphidaceae family(1)
Usnea ghattensis (2),Usnea ghattensis (2),Heterodermia podocarpa,Heterodermia podocarpa,Arthothelium awasthii Arthothelium awasthii (3)(3)and and Parmotrema Parmotrema tinctorumtinctorum
unknownunknown TI (1)TI (1)3030--78%78% antioxidant,antioxidant,
antimicrobial,antimicrobial,antityrosinaseantityrosinaseIC50 (2,3)IC50 (2,3)similar or lesssimilar or lessthan other TIsthan other TIs
[35,3[35,36]6]
Sophora flavescensSophora flavescens sophoraflavanone G (1), sophoraflavanone G (1), kurarinonekurarinone(2) and kurarinol (3)(2) and kurarinol (3)
strong TIstrong TI1,2 (nc)1,2 (nc)3 (c)3 (c)
1,21,2antibacterialantibacterial3 PI in SB3 PI in SBMMS on 3MMS on 3
[37][37]
Table 1. Compounds selected as tyrosinase inhibitors by extraction from natural sources and the (possible) isolation and characterization of the active ingredients.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested*Mode of action tested* Refs.Refs.
TITI commentscomments
50 crude drugs50 crude drugsGlycyrrhiza glabra, Glycyrrhiza glabra, MorusMorusalba, Syzygiumalba, Syzygiumaromaticum, Citrus auaromaticum, Citrus au--
yesyesAll < KAAll < KA
[38][38]
aromaticum, Citrus auaromaticum, Citrus au--rantifolia, Cypreae morantifolia, Cypreae mo--neta, Punica granatum neta, Punica granatum andandCitrus aurantiumCitrus aurantiumGanoderma lucidumGanoderma lucidum yesyes [39][39]Arbutus andrachneArbutus andrachne Arbutin, hydroquinone, Arbutin, hydroquinone, --
sitosterolsitosteroland ursolic acid present in extractsand ursolic acid present in extracts
yesyes [40][40]
Morus alba Morus alba L. and L. and MorusMorusrotundiloba rotundiloba KoidzKoidzMulberryMulberry
betulinic acid (present)betulinic acid (present) yesyes antiantiinflammatoryinflammatory
[41][41]
Table 1. Compounds selected as tyrosinase inhibitors by extraction from natural sources and the (possible) isolation and characterization of the active ingredients.
SourceSource Compounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested*Mode of action tested* Refs.Refs.TITI commentscomments
Guioa villosaGuioa villosa sesquiterpene diglycosides;sesquiterpene diglycosides;crenulatosides E, F and G ( 1 crenulatosides E, F and G ( 1 -- 3)3)betulin ( 14), lupeol ( 15) andbetulin ( 14), lupeol ( 15) andsoyacerebroside I ( 16)soyacerebroside I ( 16)
nono
strong TIstrong TI
[42][42]
Broussonetia kazinoki.Broussonetia kazinoki. 1 ,31 ,3--diphenylpropanes: kazinol C (1),diphenylpropanes: kazinol C (1),D (2), F (3), broussonin C (4), kazinolD (2), F (3), broussonin C (4), kazinolS (5) and kazinol T (6)S (5) and kazinol T (6)
1,31,3--5 (c)5 (c)4; max TI4; max TI
--
--
[43][43]
S (5) and kazinol T (6)S (5) and kazinol T (6)Artocarpus heterophyllusArtocarpus heterophyllus 15 compounds.15 compounds.
norartocarpetin (4) and artocarpesinnorartocarpetin (4) and artocarpesin(6)(6)
yesyes5 cmpds >5 cmpds >KAKA
--
--
[44,45][44,45]
Paeonia sufruticosaPaeonia sufruticosa kaempferol (I), quercetin (II),kaempferol (I), quercetin (II),mudanpioside B (III), benzoylmudanpioside B (III), benzoyl--oxypaeoniflorin (IV), mudanpiosideoxypaeoniflorin (IV), mudanpiosideH (V), and pentagalloylH (V), and pentagalloyl----DD--glucoseglucose(VI)(VI)
yesyesI to V (c)I to V (c)VI (nc)VI (nc)
--
--
[46][46]
TI; tyrosinase inhibition, (c) competitive mode (nc) non competitive mode of inhibition. SB; Streptomyces bikiniensis [47]. MMS; molecular modeling studies on TI. SAR; structure activity relationship. PI; pigment inhibition.
Different Modes of Reducing Melanin Different Modes of Reducing Melanin
Production in Melanocytes and SkinProduction in Melanocytes and Skin
In Table 2, we sum up a large number In Table 2, we sum up a large number of studies that describe new whitening of studies that describe new whitening agents from natural sources with some agents from natural sources with some extra information on their mode of extra information on their mode of action besides the inhibition of action besides the inhibition of tyrosinase. Next to tyrosinase inhibition tyrosinase. Next to tyrosinase inhibition (TI) the extracts or their isolated active (TI) the extracts or their isolated active components were demonstrated to components were demonstrated to exhibit pigment inhibition (PI). exhibit pigment inhibition (PI).
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
PityrosporumPityrosporumovaleovale
Azelaic acid; C9Azelaic acid; C9--dicarboxylic aciddicarboxylic acid
yesyes yesyes -- [75][75]
Aspergillus nigerAspergillus niger Kojic acid; 5Kojic acid; 5--hydroxyhydroxy--22--Yes Yes (c,m)(c,m)
-- -- [76,77[76,77]]Aspergillus nigerAspergillus niger
and and AspergillusAspergilluspenicilliumpenicillium
hydroxyhydroxy--22--(hydroxymethyl)(hydroxymethyl)----pyronepyrone
(c,m)(c,m) ]]
ArctostaphylosArctostaphylosuvauva--ursiursibearberrybearberry
Arbutin; Arbutin; hydroquinonehydroquinoneglucoside glucoside --dd--gluconopyranosidegluconopyranoside
yesyes(c,m,nc)(c,m,nc)
-- -- [13,78[13,78]][79][79]
Aloe veraAloe vera Aloesin; CAloesin; C--glycosylatedglycosylatedchromonechromone
yes (nc)yes (nc) -- -- [9,13,[9,13,80]80]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
Artocarpus incisusArtocarpus incisus(best of)(best of)23 heart wood23 heart woodspecies from Papuaspecies from PapuaNew Guinea.New Guinea.
(+)(+)--dihydromorin,dihydromorin,chlorophorin, (+)chlorophorin, (+)--norartocarpanone, 4norartocarpanone, 4--prenylprenyl--oxyresveratrol, artocarbene,oxyresveratrol, artocarbene,artocarpesin and isoartoartocarpesin and isoarto--
yesyes KAKA yesyes(B 16 and(B 16 andGP)GP)
-- [81][81]
New Guinea.New Guinea. artocarpesin and isoartoartocarpesin and isoarto--carpesincarpesin
Morus albaMorus albaRheum undulatumRheum undulatum 1. Oxyresveratrol1. Oxyresveratrol2. Hydroxystilbene2. Hydroxystilbene
yes > KAyes > KA(nc)(nc)yesyes
-- 1. no effect on1. no effect onexpression orexpression orsynthesissynthesis
[82][82]
Morus albaMorus alba Mulberroside F (moracin MMulberroside F (moracin M--6, 3'6, 3'--didi--OO--betabeta--DD--glucopyranosideglucopyranoside
yesyes yesyes(melan(melan--a)a)
mild antimild anti--oxidant SOoxidant SOscavenger KA antimutagenicantimutagenic [84][84]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
Ramulus moriRamulus mori(young twigs of(young twigs ofMorus alba)Morus alba)
2,3',4,5'2,3',4,5'--tetrahydroxytetrahydroxy--stilbene (2stilbene (2--oxyresveratrol)oxyresveratrol)
yes (c)yes (c) yesyes(GP + (GP + UV)UV)
no effect no effect onon
expression expression oror
[85][85]
oxyresveratrol)oxyresveratrol) ororsynthesissynthesisnonnon--toxictoxic
Glycyrrhiza Glycyrrhiza glabraglabraLicorice extractLicorice extract
glabrene and 2',4',4glabrene and 2',4',4--tritri--hydroxychalconehydroxychalcone
yesyes yesyes [86][86]
Grape seedGrape seed proanthocyanidinproanthocyanidin yesyes yesyes(B 16,(B 16,GP + GP + UV)UV)
antioxidantantioxidantactivity,activity,8OHdG8OHdG
[56][56]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
AspergillusAspergillusfumigatus fumigatus andandSaccharomycesSaccharomycescerevisiaecerevisiae
melanin degrading melanin degrading enzymesenzymes
-- -- [70][70]
cerevisiaecerevisiaeCarthamusCarthamustinctoriustinctoriussafflower seedssafflower seeds
1) 1) NN--feruloylserotonin,2) feruloylserotonin,2) NN--((pp--coumaroyl)serotonin, coumaroyl)serotonin, andand3) acacetin3) acacetin
yes, 1,2 yes, 1,2 >>arbutinarbutin
yesyes(SB, B (SB, B 16).16).1,2 >1,2 >arbutinarbutin
[49][49]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
GlycyrrhizaGlycyrrhizauralensisuralensis
Glycyrrhisoflavone (1) andGlycyrrhisoflavone (1) andglyasperin C(2)glyasperin C(2)
yesyes yesyes(B 16) 1 > 2(B 16) 1 > 2
[87][87]
Punica granatumPunica granatumPomegranatePomegranate
ellagic acidellagic acid yes yes ArbArb yes (GP +yes (GP +UV) UV) AAAA
[57][57]
Fish, PoultryFish, Poultry vitamin B3 derivative,vitamin B3 derivative,niacinamideniacinamide
nono nono MT inh.MT inh.Mc/Kc cocult.Mc/Kc cocult.
[53][53]niacinamideniacinamide Mc/Kc cocult.Mc/Kc cocult.
CTCT
Piper longumPiper longum piperlongumininepiperlonguminine nono yesyes(B16 +(B16 +msh)msh)
Tyr mRNA red.Tyr mRNA red.cAMP pathwaycAMP pathwayvia MITF inh.via MITF inh.
[88,89][88,89]
Angelica dahuricaAngelica dahurica isoimperatorinisoimperatorinimperatorinimperatorin
nono yesyes(B 16)(B 16)
Tyr protein +Tyr protein +mRNA red.mRNA red.
[90][90]
ArtocarpusArtocarpuslakoochalakoochaheartwoodheartwood
oxyresveratroloxyresveratrol yesyes NdNd CT (femaleCT (femalevolunteers) >volunteers) >KA > licoriceKA > licorice
[60][60]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
AstragalusAstragalustaschkendicustaschkendicus
askendoside Baskendoside B yesyes NdNd [91][91]
SpatholobusSpatholobussuberectus suberectus DunnDunn(Leguminosae)(Leguminosae)
Butin (most effectiveButin (most effectivecompound)compound)
yesyes yesyes(nHEM)(nHEM)
Tyr,TrpTyr,Trp-- 1 1 andandTrpTrp--2 2 reducedreduced
[64][64]
(Leguminosae)(Leguminosae)Chinese herbChinese herb
reducedreduced(WB,qPCR)(WB,qPCR)
Sophora Sophora japonicajaponicaand and SpatholobusSpatholobussuberectus suberectus out out ofof25 Chinese 25 Chinese HerbsHerbs
high phenolic content, high phenolic content, e.g.,e.g.,gallic acidgallic acid
yesyes yesyes(nHEM)(nHEM)
AO activityAO activity(DPPH)(DPPH)
[92][92]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
Galla ChinensisGalla ChinensisRadix Radix ClematidisClematidisout of 90 out of 90 ChineseChineseHerbsHerbs
unknownunknown yesyes yesyes(Mel(Mel--ab,ab,melanmelan--a,a,melanmelan--a/a/SP 1SP 1cocult.)cocult.)
Effects on Effects on Tyr,Tyr,TrpTrp--1 and 1 and TrpTrp--22expressionexpression
[52][52]
HerbsHerbs cocult.)cocult.)KaempferiaKaempferiapanduratapandurata chalcone compounds,chalcone compounds,isopanduratin A and 4isopanduratin A and 4--
hydroxypanduratin Ahydroxypanduratin A
yes > yes > PTUPTU
yesyes(melan(melan--a) a) >>PTUPTU
Tyr proteinTyr proteinreducedreduced
[93][93]
Corn branCorn bran Polyamine conjugates, Polyamine conjugates, N,N'N,N'--dicoumaroylputrescinedicoumaroylputrescine(DCP), (DCP), NN--pp--coumaroylcoumaroyl--N'N'--feruloylputrescine feruloylputrescine (CFP),(CFP),and and N,N'N,N'--diferuloyldiferuloyl--putrescine (DFP)putrescine (DFP)
yesyesDCP > DCP > AAAA
yesyes(B 16)(B 16)DFP > DFP > ArbArb
AO activityAO activity(DPPH)(DPPH)
[94][94]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI TITI
PodocarpusPodocarpusmacrophyllusmacrophyllus
2,32,3--dihydrodihydro--4',4'''4',4'''--didi--OO--methylamentoflavonemethylamentoflavone
yesyes yesyes(nHEM)(nHEM)
TrpTrp--2 mRNA2 mRNAreducedreduced
[95][95]
Longan seedLongan seed corilagin, gallic acid andcorilagin, gallic acid andellagic acid or otherellagic acid or otherphenolic/flavonoidphenolic/flavonoidglycosides and ellagitanninsglycosides and ellagitannins
yesyes n.d.n.d. AO activityAO activity(DPPH and(DPPH andORAC assays)ORAC assays)
[71][71]
Gastrodia elataGastrodia elataBlumeBlumeOrchidaceaeOrchidaceae
(synthetic) (synthetic) pp--hydroxybenzylhydroxybenzylalcoholalcohol
yes (Irrev)yes (Irrev) yesyes(B 16,(B 16,mouse MCmouse MC--KC cocult.)KC cocult.)
AO; radicalAO; radicalscavengerscavenger
[51,96][51,96]
Sophora flavescensSophora flavescens 1) kurarinol, 2) kuraridinol,1) kurarinol, 2) kuraridinol,and 3) trifolirhizinand 3) trifolirhizin
yesyes1,2 > KA1,2 > KA1,2 (nc)1,2 (nc)
yes (B 16)yes (B 16) [97][97]
Cucumis sativusCucumis sativus LuteinLutein nono yes (B 16)yes (B 16) Tyr proteinTyr proteinreducedreduced
[98][98]
LespedezaLespedezacyrtobotryacyrtobotrya
Haginin AHaginin A yes (nc)yes (nc) yesyes(melan(melan--a)a)GP (+UV)GP (+UV)zebra fishzebra fish
MITF, Tyr,MITF, Tyr,TrpTrp-- 1 reduced.1 reduced.Erk inducedErk induced
[59][59]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI TITI
MalpighiaMalpighiaemarginataemarginataAcerola fruitAcerola fruit
cyanidincyanidin--33--alphaalpha--OO--rhamnoside. pelargonidinrhamnoside. pelargonidin--33----OO--rhamnosiderhamnoside
yesyes yes (B 16)yes (B 16)GP (+UV)GP (+UV)
[11][11]
Coccoloba uviferaCoccoloba uviferaSea grapeSea grape
unknownunknown yesyes(nHEM)(nHEM)
AO; reducesAO; reducesILIL--1alpha,1alpha,TNFTNF--alpha andalpha andalphaalpha--MSH inMSH in
[74][74]
alphaalpha--MSH inMSH innHEM + UVnHEM + UV
SalicorniaSalicorniaherbacea,herbacea,halophytehalophyte
yesyes yes (B 16)yes (B 16) AO activityAO activity [99][99]
A llium A llium speciesspeciessuch as garlic andsuch as garlic andonions.onions.
11--propylmercaptanpropylmercaptan yesyes KAKA yes yes KAKA [100][100]
WillughbeiaWillughbeiacoriaceacoriaceaPhyllanthusPhyllanthusurinaria urinaria out of 14out of 14medicinal plantsmedicinal plantsCentralCentralKalimantanKalimantan
unknownunknown yesyesyesyes
yes (B 16)yes (B 16)yes (B16)yes (B16)
AO assayAO assayDPPHDPPH
[101][101]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
Rhus Ghinensis;Rhus Ghinensis;Chinese gallsChinese galls
3 Gallotannins; 2,3,4,63 Gallotannins; 2,3,4,6--tetratetra--OO--galloylgalloyl--DD--glucopyranose,glucopyranose,1 ,2,3,61 ,2,3,6--tetratetra--OO--galloylgalloyl----DD--glucopyranose, and 1,2,3,4,6glucopyranose, and 1,2,3,4,6--pentapenta--OO--galloylgalloyl----DD--glucopyranoseglucopyranose
yes (nc)yes (nc) YesYes(B 16 + UVA;(B 16 + UVA;MSH)MSH)
[102][102]
Rhus succedaneaRhus succedanea 10'(Z)10'(Z)--heptadecenylheptadecenyl-- yes > HQyes > HQ yes > HQyes > HQ [103][103]Rhus succedaneaRhus succedanea 10'(Z)10'(Z)--heptadecenylheptadecenyl--hydroquinonehydroquinone
yes > HQyes > HQ yes > HQyes > HQ(B 16)(B 16)
[103][103]
PolygonumPolygonumcuspidatum.cuspidatum.Paris polyp hyllaParis polyp hyllaVitex negundoVitex negundo
Physcion (anthraquinone +Physcion (anthraquinone +anthraquinone analog)anthraquinone analog)(+)(+)--LyoniresinolLyoniresinol
yes yes KAKAyes > KAyes > KAyes > KAyes > KA
n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d,n.d,
Good skinGood skinpermeationpermeation
[10,104][10,104][105][105]
RaspberryRaspberry TilirosideTiliroside yesyes Yes (B 16)Yes (B 16) >Arb>Arb [106][106]ErigeronErigeronbreviscapusbreviscapusChinese herbChinese herb
(2Z,8Z)(2Z,8Z)--matricaria acidmatricaria acidmethyl estermethyl ester
nono yes (B 16, elanyes (B 16, elan--a > Arba > Arb
Tyr proteinTyr proteinreduced?reduced?
[107][107]
Alpinia galangaAlpinia galangaand and CurcumaCurcumaaromaticaaromaticamedicinal plantsmedicinal plants
eugenol and curcuminoidseugenol and curcuminoidspossible active ingredientspossible active ingredients
yesyes yes (G361 mayes (G361 macells + UVA)cells + UVA)
AO defenceAO defence [108][108]
Table 2. New whitening agents from natural sources and their mode of action as tyrosinase inhibitor (TI), inhibitor of pigment synthesis (PI) or by other mechanisms. Azelaic acid, Kojic acid, Arbutin and Aloesin are often used as positive skin whitening agents.
SourceSourceCompounds (type)Compounds (type) Mode of action tested(*)(**)Mode of action tested(*)(**)
Refs.Refs.TITI PIPI otherother
Grape seedGrape seed oligomericoligomericproanthocyanidinsproanthocyanidins
-- yes, nHEM +yes, nHEM +UVUV
effects oneffects onTE, TrpTE, Trp--11and Trpand Trp--22expressionexpressionAO activityAO activity
[65][65]
* Modes of action tested; TI; tyrosinase inhibition, (c)competitive (u) uncompetitive (nc)non-competitive and (m) mixed mode; PI; pigment inhibition, SB; Streptomyces bikiniensis,B 16 or other melanoma cultures, melan-a mouse melanocytes, nHEM; normal humanepidermal melanocytes, SEM; skin equivalent model, ()-msh; ()-melanocyte stimulatinghormone, UV; ultraviolet, GP; guinea pig + msh or uv induced pigmentation; CT; tested inclinical trial. * * Comparison of effects on tyrosinase inhibition (TI) and pigmentationinhibition (PI) are mostly done in comparison to Arbutin (Arb), Kojic acid (KA) Ascorbic Acid(AA) and phenylthiourea (PTU). Other modes of action; AO; antioxidant; TE; tyrosinaseexpression (mRNA), MT; melanosome transport; 8OHdg = 8 hydroxy deoxy guanosine.
Cosmetic Use of (natural) Cosmetic Use of (natural)
Agents for Skin WhiteningAgents for Skin Whitening
In cosmetic formulations In cosmetic formulations hydroquinone (HQ)hydroquinone (HQ) has been has been widely used as an effective whitening agent but it has widely used as an effective whitening agent but it has been been banned recently because of serious safety banned recently because of serious safety concerns: its use has been connected with concerns: its use has been connected with mutagenicity and the increased incidence of mutagenicity and the increased incidence of mutagenicity and the increased incidence of mutagenicity and the increased incidence of ochronosis in Africanochronosis in African countries. Other compounds countries. Other compounds often used are often used are kojic acid, arbutin and azelaic acidkojic acid, arbutin and azelaic acid (see (see top of Table 2). top of Table 2). Arbutin Arbutin is a is a glycosylated form of HQglycosylated form of HQthat is present in bearberry extracts but it can also be that is present in bearberry extracts but it can also be synthesized from HQ by glucosidation. A new synthesized from HQ by glucosidation. A new derivative, derivative, deoxyarbutindeoxyarbutin was prepared by removal of all was prepared by removal of all hydroxyl groups from the glucose side chain of arbutin hydroxyl groups from the glucose side chain of arbutin and showed much lower cytotoxicity than arbutin and showed much lower cytotoxicity than arbutin [126,127]. [126,127].
Table 3. Limited selection of whitening products available on the market with some information on active ingredients.
CompanyCompany ProductProduct IngredientsIngredients Documentation; Documentation; in Vitro/in Vivo in Vitro/in Vivo EffectEffectRevitolRevitol Skin Skin
BrightenerBrightenerArbutin, Lumiskin (diacetyl Arbutin, Lumiskin (diacetyl boldine),boldine),Z Whitener (new natural Z Whitener (new natural ingredient,ingredient,unknown) + vitamins A,C and unknown) + vitamins A,C and E andE and
Lumiskin TM: action on tyrosinaseLumiskin TM: action on tyrosinaseexpression based on principle described expression based on principle described bybyFuller 2000 [128]Fuller 2000 [128]E andE and
other natural extracts other natural extracts (antioxidants)(antioxidants)
Fuller 2000 [128]Fuller 2000 [128]http://naturalskincareformula.com/http://naturalskincareformula.com/
PremiumPremiumNaturalsNaturals
SkinbrightSkinbright Arbutin, Kojic Acid, Lemon Arbutin, Kojic Acid, Lemon ExtractExtract
www.whiterskin.com/www.whiterskin.com/
Table 3. Limited selection of whitening products available on the market with some information on active ingredients.
CompanyCompany ProductProduct IngredientsIngredients Documentation; Documentation; in Vitro/in Vivo in Vitro/in Vivo EffectEffectSisquocSisquoc LucedermLucederm Niacinamide, Niacinamide, --Arbutin, Kojic Arbutin, Kojic
Acid,Acid,Mulberry, Bearberry, Licorice, Mulberry, Bearberry, Licorice,
LemonLemon
www.whiterskin.com/www.whiterskin.com/[29,53,82,83][29,53,82,83]
LIBiolLIBiol SynerlightSynerlight Actinidia Chinensis Actinidia Chinensis (Kiwi) (Kiwi) http://www.gattefossecanada.ca/http://www.gattefossecanada.ca/LIBiolLIBiol SynerlightSynerlight Actinidia Chinensis Actinidia Chinensis (Kiwi) (Kiwi) Fruit,Fruit,Sop hora Angustifolia Sop hora Angustifolia RootRoot
http://www.gattefossecanada.ca/http://www.gattefossecanada.ca/
BayerBayerHealthCareHealthCare
MandresyMandresyextractextract
Buddleja axillaris Buddleja axillaris leaves; leaves; extract richextract richin orthocinnamic compounds in orthocinnamic compounds andandflavonoids, verbascoside & flavonoids, verbascoside & luteolinluteolin
TI (mushroom); PI (nHEM + UV); TI (mushroom); PI (nHEM + UV); reducesreducesdendricity; dendricity; in vivo in vivo brightening 8 brightening 8 volunteersvolunteers(Chromameter)(Chromameter)www. serdexwww. serdex--plantextracts.com: plantextracts.com: United StatesUnited StatesPatent Application 20090028969Patent Application 20090028969
Table 3. Limited selection of whitening products available on the market with some information on active ingredients.
CompanyCompany ProductProduct IngredientsIngredients Documentation; Documentation; in Vitro/in Vivo in Vitro/in Vivo EffectEffectCivant SkinCivant Skincarecare
MeladermMeladerm Kojic Acid, Kojic Acid, --Arbutin, Niacinamide,Arbutin, Niacinamide,Mulberry, Bearberry, Licorice, Mulberry, Bearberry, Licorice, TegoTegoCosmo C250, Gigawhite, LemonCosmo C250, Gigawhite, LemonJuice, EmblicaJuice, EmblicaTegoCosmo; a natural amino acidTegoCosmo; a natural amino acid
niacinamide, mulberry and licorice (refs.niacinamide, mulberry and licorice (refs.[29,53,82,83])[29,53,82,83])www.whiterskin.com/;www.whiterskin.com/;http://www.whiterskin.com/studies/cosmo.phttp://www.whiterskin.com/studies/cosmo.pdfdfhttp://www.whiterskin.com/studies/giga.pdfhttp://www.whiterskin.com/studies/giga.pdfTegoCosmo; a natural amino acidTegoCosmo; a natural amino acid
derivative that belongs to the class derivative that belongs to the class ofofguanidine compoundsguanidine compoundsGiga white :plant extracts from theGiga white :plant extracts from theSwiss alps; Swiss alps; Malva Sylvestris, Malva Sylvestris, MenthaMenthaPiperita, Primula Veris, AlchemillaPiperita, Primula Veris, AlchemillaVulgaris, Veronica Oficinalis,Vulgaris, Veronica Oficinalis,Melissa Oficinalis, AchilleaMelissa Oficinalis, AchilleaMillefoliumMillefolium
http://www.whiterskin.com/studies/giga.pdfhttp://www.whiterskin.com/studies/giga.pdf
Table 3. Limited selection of whitening products available on the market with some information on active ingredients.
CompanyCompany ProductProduct IngredientsIngredients Documentation; Documentation; in Vitro/in Vivo in Vitro/in Vivo EffectEffectJujuJujuCosmeticsCosmetics
TosekkiTosekkiwhiteningwhiteningcreamcream
Glycyrrhetinic acid, Ginseng,Glycyrrhetinic acid, Ginseng,Houttuynia, Houttuynia, Yeast, Coix, HorseYeast, Coix, HorseChestnut, Arica, Grape Leaf,Chestnut, Arica, Grape Leaf,Ypericum, Ypericum, Ivy, Witch Hazel, Ivy, Witch Hazel, SophoraSophoraRoot, Mulberry Bark, Peony Root, Mulberry Bark, Peony
Glycyrrhetinc acid; Sophora Root; Glycyrrhetinc acid; Sophora Root; PeonyPeonyRoot; Mulberry Bark ( refs.Root; Mulberry Bark ( refs.[25,29,38,46,82,83,86])[25,29,38,46,82,83,86])http://beautyknot.wordpress.com/200http://beautyknot.wordpress.com/2009/02/27/j9/02/27/jRoot, Mulberry Bark, Peony Root, Mulberry Bark, Peony
Root,Root,Japanese Angelica Root, Rose Japanese Angelica Root, Rose FruitFruitand other ingredients.and other ingredients.
9/02/27/j9/02/27/jujuuju--cosmeticscosmetics--tosekkitosekki--whiteningwhitening--cream/cream/
LipotecLipotec ChromabrigChromabrightht
dimetylmethoxy chromanyl dimetylmethoxy chromanyl palmitatepalmitate
TI (mushroom + human); PI (nHEM)TI (mushroom + human); PI (nHEM)photoprotective; photoprotective; in vivo in vivo brightening brightening 20 Asian20 Asianfemales (Chromameter) females (Chromameter) www.lipotec.comwww.lipotec.com ;;Patent; Patent; http://www.maxworth.co.th/max/pdfhttp://www.maxworth.co.th/max/pdf/ES291 %20Chromabriht.pdf/ES291 %20Chromabriht.pdf
AbbreviationsAA; Ascorbic Acid, ACTH; adrenocorticotropic hormone, AO; antioxidant, Arb;
Arbutin, bFGF; basic fibroblast growth factor, BMP; bone morphogenetic proteins, cAMP; cyclic AMP, CT; clinical trials, DNJ; 1-deoxynojirimycin, DPPH; 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, ET-1; endothelin-1, ERK; extracellular signal-regulated kinases, GP; guinea pig, HGF; hepatocyte growth factor, HQ; hydroquinone, IC50; half maximal
inhibitory concentration, Il1; interleukin 1, KA; kojic acid, L-DOPA; L-dihydroxyphenylalanine, MC 1 R; melanocortin- 1 receptor, MITF; microphtalmia
transcription factor, ()-msh; ()-melanocyte stimulating hormone, MT; melanosome transport;
nHEM; normal human epidermal melanocytes, 8OHdg = 8 hydroxy deoxy nHEM; normal human epidermal melanocytes, 8OHdg = 8 hydroxy deoxy guanosine, ORAC; oxygen radical absorbance capacity, PKA; protein kinase A, PKC;
protein kinase C, PPAR; peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor, PTU; phenylthiourea, SAR; structure activity relationship, sAPP; soluble N-terminal
ectodomain of the beta-amyloid precursor protein, SCF; stem cell factor, SEM; skin equivalent model, Sox; Sry-related HMG box, TE; tyrosinase expression, TI; tyrosinase
inhibition, (c); competitive mode, (nc); non competitive mode, (m); mixed mode of inhibition, TNF-; tumor necrosis factor-, TRP; tyrosinase related protein, UV;
ultraviolet, UVA; ultraviolet A, UVB; ultraviolet B, UVR; ultraviolet radiation.
Natural Skin Whitening Natural Skin Whitening
AgentAgent
1.1. ArbutinArbutin2.2. Kojic AcidKojic Acid3.3. AloesinAloesin4.4. Azelaic AcidAzelaic Acid4.4. Azelaic AcidAzelaic Acid5.5. Flavone,3',4',5,6,7,8Flavone,3',4',5,6,7,8--hexamethoxyhexamethoxy--
(7CI,8CI);Nobiletin (6CI)(7CI,8CI);Nobiletin (6CI)6.6. 4 4 -- Hydroxystilbene Hydroxystilbene 7.7. OxyresveratrolOxyresveratrol8.8. ArtocarpinArtocarpin
ARBUTINARBUTIN
IUPAC nameIUPAC name ((2R,3S,4S,5R,6S2R,3S,4S,5R,6S))--22--HydroxymethylHydroxymethyl--66-- (4(4--hydroxyphenoxy)oxanehydroxyphenoxy)oxane--3,4,53,4,5--trioltriol Other namesOther names ArbutosideArbutoside
Hydroquinone Hydroquinone --DD--glucopyranosideglucopyranoside Identifiers Identifiers CAS numberCAS number 497497--7676--77 Properties Properties Molecular formulaMolecular formula C12H16O7 C12H16O7 Molar massMolar mass 272.25 g mol1 272.25 g mol1 Melting pointMelting point 199.5199.5 C, 473C, 473 K, 391K, 391 FF
ARBUTINARBUTIN
ArbutinArbutin is both an is both an etherether and a and a glycosideglycoside; a glycosylated ; a glycosylated hydroquinonehydroquinoneextracted from extracted from bearberrybearberry plant in the genus plant in the genus ArctostaphylosArctostaphylos. It . It inhibitsinhibitstyrosinasetyrosinase and thus prevents the formation of and thus prevents the formation of melaninmelanin. Arbutin is . Arbutin is therefore used as a skintherefore used as a skin--lightening agent. Arbutin is found in lightening agent. Arbutin is found in wheatwheat, and , and is concentrated in is concentrated in pearpear skins. It is also found in skins. It is also found in Bergenia crassifoliaBergenia crassifolia..[1][1]
Skin lightening agentSkin lightening agent Skin lightening agentSkin lightening agent Bearberry extract is used in skin lightening treatments designed for long Bearberry extract is used in skin lightening treatments designed for long
term and regular use. An active agent in brands of skin lightening term and regular use. An active agent in brands of skin lightening preparations, it is more expensive than traditional skin lightening preparations, it is more expensive than traditional skin lightening ingredients like ingredients like hydroquinonehydroquinone, which is now banned in many countries., which is now banned in many countries.
In vitro studies of human In vitro studies of human melanocytesmelanocytes exposed to arbutin at exposed to arbutin at concentrations below 300 g/mL reported decreased tyrosinase activity concentrations below 300 g/mL reported decreased tyrosinase activity and melanin content with little evidence of cytotoxicity.and melanin content with little evidence of cytotoxicity.[2][2]
KOJIC ACID KOJIC ACID
IUPAC name5-Hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-4H-pyran-4-one5-Hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-4H-pyran-4-oneOther namesKojic acid, 5-Hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-4-pyrone, 2-Hydroxymethyl-5-hydroxy--pyroneIdentifiers CAS number 501-30-4
Properties Molecular formula C6H6O4Molar mass 142.11 g/mol Appearance Tan powder Melting point 152 - 155 CSolubility in water SlightAcidity (pKa) 9.40[1]
KOJIC ACIDKOJIC ACID
Kojic acid (C6H6O4; 5Kojic acid (C6H6O4; 5--hydroxyhydroxy--22--(hydroxymethyl)(hydroxymethyl)--44--pyrone) pyrone) is a is a chelationchelation agent produced by several species of fungi, agent produced by several species of fungi, especially especially Aspergillus oryzaeAspergillus oryzae, which has the Japanese , which has the Japanese common name common name kojikoji..[2][2] Kojic acid is a byKojic acid is a by--product in the product in the fermentation process of malting rice, for use in the fermentation process of malting rice, for use in the manufacturing of sake, the Japanese rice wine.[manufacturing of sake, the Japanese rice wine.[citation citation fermentation process of malting rice, for use in the fermentation process of malting rice, for use in the manufacturing of sake, the Japanese rice wine.[manufacturing of sake, the Japanese rice wine.[citation citation neededneeded] It is a mild inhibitor of the formation of pigment in ] It is a mild inhibitor of the formation of pigment in plant and animal tissues, and is used in food and cosmetics plant and animal tissues, and is used in food and cosmetics to preserve or change colors of substances.to preserve or change colors of substances.[3][3] It is used on It is used on cut fruits to prevent cut fruits to prevent oxidative browningoxidative browning, in , in seafoodseafood to to preserve pink and red colors, and in cosmetics to lighten preserve pink and red colors, and in cosmetics to lighten skin. Kojic acid also has antibacterial and antifungal skin. Kojic acid also has antibacterial and antifungal properties.properties.
It is also used in skin diseases like It is also used in skin diseases like melasmamelasma..[4][4]
ALOESINALOESIN
ALOESINALOESIN
CAS No.30861CAS No.30861--2727--9Chemical Name:ALOESIN9Chemical Name:ALOESIN Synonyms:ALOESIN;Aloeresin B;Aloe resin B;8Synonyms:ALOESIN;Aloeresin B;Aloe resin B;8----
DD--GlucopyranosylGlucopyranosyl--77--hydroxyhydroxy--55--methylmethyl--22--(2(2--oxopropyl)oxopropyl)--4H4H--11--benzopyranbenzopyran--44--one;2one;2--(2(2--oxopropyl)oxopropyl)--4H4H--11--benzopyranbenzopyran--44--one;2one;2--(2(2--Oxopropyl)Oxopropyl)--55--methylmethyl--77--hydroxyhydroxy--88--((--DD--glucopyranosyl)glucopyranosyl)--4H4H--11--benzopyranbenzopyran--44--one;4Hone;4H--11--BenzopyranBenzopyran--44--one, 8one, 8--.beta..beta.--DD--glucopyranosylglucopyranosyl--77--hydroxyhydroxy--55--methylmethyl--22--(2(2--oxopropyl)oxopropyl)--CBNumber:CB1959107CBNumber:CB1959107
Molecular Formula:C19H22O9Molecular Formula:C19H22O9 Formula Weight:394.374MOLFormula Weight:394.374MOL
AZELAIC ACIDAZELAIC ACID
IUPAC name[hide]IUPAC name[hide]nonanedioic acidIdentifiers CAS number 123-99-9
Properties Molecular formula C9H16O4 Molar mass 188.22 g mol1 Melting point109-111 C[1]Boiling point286 C at 100 mmHg[1]Solubility in water 2.14 g/L[2] Acidity (pKa) 4.550, 5.498[2] Pharmacology Bioavailability Very low Routes ofadministration Topical Eliminationhalf-life 12 hours
AZELAIC ACIDAZELAIC ACID
Azelaic acid is an Azelaic acid is an organic compoundorganic compound with the with the formula (CH2)7(CO2H)2. This saturated formula (CH2)7(CO2H)2. This saturated dicarboxylic aciddicarboxylic acid exists as a white powder. It is exists as a white powder. It is found in found in wheatwheat, , ryerye, and , and barleybarley. It is a component . It is a component found in found in wheatwheat, , ryerye, and , and barleybarley. It is a component . It is a component of a number of hair and skin conditioners.of a number of hair and skin conditioners.
Azelaic acid is industrially produced by the Azelaic acid is industrially produced by the ozonolysisozonolysis of of oleic acidoleic acid. The side product is . The side product is nonanoic acid. It is produced naturally by nonanoic acid. It is produced naturally by Malassezia furfurMalassezia furfur (also known as (also known as Pityrosporum Pityrosporum ovaleovale), a ), a yeastyeast that lives on normal that lives on normal skinskin. The . The bacterial degradation of nonanoic acid gives bacterial degradation of nonanoic acid gives azelaic acid.azelaic acid.
AZELAIC ACIDAZELAIC ACID
Azelaic acid is industrially produced by the Azelaic acid is industrially produced by the ozonolysisozonolysis of of oleic acidoleic acid. . The side product is nonanoic acid. It is produced naturally by The side product is nonanoic acid. It is produced naturally by Malassezia furfurMalassezia furfur (also known as (also known as Pityrosporum ovalePityrosporum ovale), a ), a yeastyeast that that lives on normal lives on normal skinskin. The bacterial degradation of nonanoic acid . The bacterial degradation of nonanoic acid gives azelaic acid.gives azelaic acid.
Azelaic acid is used to treat mild to moderate acne, both comedonal Azelaic acid is used to treat mild to moderate acne, both comedonal Azelaic acid is used to treat mild to moderate acne, both comedonal Azelaic acid is used to treat mild to moderate acne, both comedonal acne and inflammatory acne.acne and inflammatory acne.[6][6][7][7] It works in part by stopping the It works in part by stopping the growth of skin bacteria that cause acne, and by keeping skin pores growth of skin bacteria that cause acne, and by keeping skin pores clear.clear.[8][8] Azelaic acid is also used as a topical gel treatment for Azelaic acid is also used as a topical gel treatment for rosacearosacea, due to its ability to reduce inflammation., due to its ability to reduce inflammation.[7][7] Azelaic acid has Azelaic acid has been used for treatment of skin pigmentation including melasma been used for treatment of skin pigmentation including melasma and post inflammatory hyperpigmentation, particularly in those with and post inflammatory hyperpigmentation, particularly in those with darker skin types. It has been recommended as an alternative to darker skin types. It has been recommended as an alternative to hydroquinonehydroquinone (HQ).(HQ).[9][9] As a As a tyrosinasetyrosinase inhibitor, azelaic acid inhibitor, azelaic acid reduces synthesis of reduces synthesis of melaninmelanin..[10][10]
AZELAIC ACIDAZELAIC ACID
Brand namesBrand names AzClear Action (20% lotion, AzClear Action (20% lotion, Ego PharmaceuticalsEgo Pharmaceuticals), ),
Azelex (20% cream, Azelex (20% cream, AllerganAllergan), White Action cream ), White Action cream (20% cream,2% glycolic acid), (20% cream,2% glycolic acid), SynCareSynCare), Finacea ), Finacea (20% cream,2% glycolic acid), (20% cream,2% glycolic acid), SynCareSynCare), Finacea ), Finacea (15% gel, Intendis/Berlex Laboratories, subsidiaries (15% gel, Intendis/Berlex Laboratories, subsidiaries of of BayerBayer AG), Finevin (20% cream, Intendis/Berlex AG), Finevin (20% cream, Intendis/Berlex Laboratories), Skinoren (20% cream or 15% gel, Laboratories), Skinoren (20% cream or 15% gel, Intendis), and Azaclear (azelaic acid and Intendis), and Azaclear (azelaic acid and niacinamide, Epikinetics LLC).niacinamide, Epikinetics LLC).
Flavone,3',4',5,6,7,8Flavone,3',4',5,6,7,8--hexamethoxyhexamethoxy--
(7CI,8CI);Nobiletin (6CI)(7CI,8CI);Nobiletin (6CI)
Name:Name: 4H4H--11--BenzopyranBenzopyran--44--one,2one,2--(3,4(3,4--dimethoxyphenyl)dimethoxyphenyl)--5,6,7,85,6,7,8--tetramethoxytetramethoxy--
Molecular Formula:Molecular Formula: C21H22O8C21H22O8 Molecular Structure:Molecular Structure: CAS:CAS: 478478--0101--3 3 CAS:CAS: 478478--0101--3 3 Refractive index:Refractive index: 1.558 1.558 Molecular Weight: Molecular Weight: 402.39 402.39 Flash Point: Flash Point: 256.5256.5C C Flash Point: Flash Point: 256.5256.5C C Density:Density: 1.244g/cm3 1.244g/cm3 Boiling Point: Boiling Point: 587.9587.9Cat760mmHg Cat760mmHg
4 4 -- HydroxystilbeneHydroxystilbene
Molecular Formula:Molecular Formula:C14H12O C14H12O
Molecular Weight:Molecular Weight: Molecular Weight:Molecular Weight:196.249 g/mol 196.249 g/mol
Cas Number:Cas Number:65546554--9898--9 9
OxyresveratrolOxyresveratrol
IUPAC Name: IUPAC Name: 44--[(E)[(E)--22--(3,5(3,5--dihydroxyphenyl)ethenyl]benzenedihydroxyphenyl)ethenyl]benzene--1,31,3--dioldiol
Artocarpin Artocarpin
Inhibition of Melanin Biosynthesis for Skin Whitening AgentInhibition of Melanin Biosynthesis for Skin Whitening Agent
REFERENSIREFERENSI
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2.2. Riley, P.A. Hydroxyanisole depigmentation: Riley, P.A. Hydroxyanisole depigmentation: InIn--vitro vitro studies. studies. J. Pathol. J. Pathol. 1969, 1969, 97, 97, 193193206.206.3.3. Riley, P.A. Hydroxyanisole depigmentation: Riley, P.A. Hydroxyanisole depigmentation: InIn--vivo vivo studies. studies. J. Pathol. J. Pathol. 1969, 1969, 97, 97, 185185191.191.4.4. NaishNaish--Byfield, S.; Cooksey, C.J.; Latter, A.M.; Johnson, C.I.; Riley, P.A. Byfield, S.; Cooksey, C.J.; Latter, A.M.; Johnson, C.I.; Riley, P.A. In vitro In vitro assessment of the assessment of the
structurestructure--activity relationship of tyrosinaseactivity relationship of tyrosinase--dependent cytotoxicity of a series of substituted phenols. dependent cytotoxicity of a series of substituted phenols. Melanoma. Res. Melanoma. Res. 1991, 1991, 1, 1, 273273287.287.
5.5. Smit, N.P.; Peters, K.; Menko, W.; Westerhof, W.; Pavel, S.; Riley, P.A. Cytotoxicity of a selected series of Smit, N.P.; Peters, K.; Menko, W.; Westerhof, W.; Pavel, S.; Riley, P.A. Cytotoxicity of a selected series of substituted phenols towards cultured melanoma cells. substituted phenols towards cultured melanoma cells. Melanoma Res. Melanoma Res. 1992, 1992, 2, 2, 295295304.304.substituted phenols towards cultured melanoma cells. substituted phenols towards cultured melanoma cells. Melanoma Res. Melanoma Res. 1992, 1992, 2, 2, 295295304.304.
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chalcone on tyrosinase activity and melanin biosynthesis. chalcone on tyrosinase activity and melanin biosynthesis. Biol. Pharm. Bull. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2009, 2009, 32, 32, 868690.90.15.15. Jin, Y.H.; Lee, S.J.; Chung, M.H.; Park, J.H.; Park, Y.I.; Cho, T.H.; Lee, S.K. Aloesin and arbutin inhibit Jin, Y.H.; Lee, S.J.; Chung, M.H.; Park, J.H.; Park, Y.I.; Cho, T.H.; Lee, S.K. Aloesin and arbutin inhibit
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17.17. Shimizu, K.; Kondo, R.; Sakai, K. Inhibition of tyrosinase by flavonoids, stilbenes and related 4Shimizu, K.; Kondo, R.; Sakai, K. Inhibition of tyrosinase by flavonoids, stilbenes and related 4--substituted resorcinols: Strucsubstituted resorcinols: Structureture--activity investigations. activity investigations. Planta Med. Planta Med. 2000, 2000, 66, 66, 111115.15.
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