2. Sejarah Dan Perkembangan Teori Motivasi

kajian motivasi telah bermula sejak zaman purba Greeks lagi

Perkembangan kajian boleh dilihat dari 2 perspektif utama: FALSAFAH FISIOLOGI

Perspektif falsafah

Tokoh awalnya seperti:Socrates, Plato,Aristotle

Plato (TRIPARTITE)

1. Primitif (Appetitive) 2. Kedua (Competitive)3. Tinggi (Calculating)

Aristotle1.Makanan (nutritive)2.Sensitif3.Rasional

Perspektif Fisiologi Hippocrates (dlm Decatanzaro,

99) Peranan otak organ utama

intelektual manusia Antesedan fisiologi seperti saraf

motor, tenaga saraf spesifik, implus saraf elektrik semulajadi, fungsi spesifik yg terdapat di otak (Petri,1996)

100 tahun kemudian (DUALISME)

JIWA (jasad dan akal) Keduanya berada di tahap hirarki yang sama

Perbezaannya hanya elemen-eleman yang terkandung di dalamnya

Descartes (Decatanzaro, 99)

Sesuaikan aspek fisiologi dan kerohanian melalui konsep dualisme

Jasad dan akal yg menentukan segala t/laku yg akan di ambil oleh ind

Batang pinal dan kalenjer kecil di pusat otak turut b/t/jawab mengawal minda dan rohani

Perkembangan kajian motivasi tidak begitu pesat jika dibandingkan dgn perkembangan sub bidang psikologi yg lain

1952 diberi nafas baru U. Nebraska adakan simposium motivasi

Tokoh2 lihat m/s 18

Era mini teori (1960-70)

w/b/pun banyak dipengaruhi oleh teori

utama (kehendak,naluri dan dorongan)

MINI TEORI Achievement motivation (Atkinson,

1964) Attributional theory of achievement

motivation (Weiner,1972) Cognitive dissonance theory(Festinger,

1957) Effectance motivation (White, 1959;

Harter,1978a) Expectancy x value theory

(Vroom,1964) Intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1975)

Goal - setting theory (Locke, 1968) Learned helplessness theory

(Seligman, 1975) Reactance theory (Brehm, 1966) Self-efficacy theory (Bandura,

1977) Self-schemas (Markus, 1977)

Peralihan pandangan tentang konsep motivasi Cofer & Appley (1960) cuba

ubah perspektif motivasi daripada prinsip semulajadi, biologi dan fisiologi…

kepada prinsip pertumbuhan

Revolusi Kognitif 1970, Psikologi Zeitgeist Motivasi berasaskan KOGNITIF Perancangan, matlamat, ekspektasi, kepercayaan, atribusi, insentif dan ganjaran sebagai PENGGERAK motivasi

Reeve (2001) Empat tahap utama Teori besar pertama (the first

grand theory)=KEHENDAK (WILL) Teori besar kedua (the second

grand theory) =NALURI (INSTINCT) Teori besar ketiga (the third grand

theory) =DORONGAN (DRIVE) MINI-TEORI

Smith (1998) Naluri

Dorongan Insentif

Kebangkitan optimal Hirarki keperluan Maslow

Kognitif Psikologi evolusi

Baron (2001)Dorongan

KebangkitanEkspektasi

Matlamat-seting

Sternberg (1997) FISIOLOGI (penyelenggaraan –

hemeostasis, proses bertentangan-opponent-process theory), kebangkitan)

PERSONALITI (keperluan, keperluan pencapaian, keperluan hirarki)

KOGNITIF (intrinsik-ektrinsik, kepelikan(curiosity), penentuan-diri, kecekapan-diri, matlamat-perancangan)

Teori MotivasiTeori Motivasi

Teori KehendakTeori Naluri

Teori Dorongan Teori Insentif

Teori Kebangkitan

Teori Kehendak “WILL” = inisiatif dan tindakan

yang terus dan segera “to act” and “what to do when

acting” kehendak juga kuasa kepada

minda yg mengawal jasad grand teory krn semua t/laku

bergerak atas dasar kehendak n/begitu sifatnya terlalu falsafah

Teori Naluri

Charles Darwin (1859)> automatik, mekanistik, genetik baka

William James (1890) (naluri fizikal & mental)

McDougall(1908)> secara semulajadi, genetik (lari, jijik, ingin tahu, keaiban diri, keyakinan diri, pembiakan, kemesraan, pemerolehan dan pembinaan)

1920 = 6000 naluri

Teori Dorongan

Woodworth (1918) - pelopor prinsipnya asas biologi Ketidakseimbangan (keperluan psikologi

defisit) maka akan terhasil DORONGAN Pengurangan DORONGAN hasilkan

pembelajaran HOMEOSTASIS need+drive+homeotasis

Andaian teori dorongan Freud, 1915 & Hull, 1943

1. Dorongan muncul drp keperluan2 badan

2. Pengurangan dorongan menghasilkan pembelajaran

3. Dorongan memberikan tenaga kepada t/laku

Teori Insentif 1960 Fenomena motivasi yg tiada

kaitan dengan keperluan biologi dipengaruhi idea hedonism Motivasi akan wujud drp

rangsangan luaran (ganjaran) Persoalannya mengapa manusia

bermotivasi kerana ganjaran? stimulasi {positif, ganjaran &

objek}

Ada 3 pekara utama dlm motivasi insentif1. Insentif drp persekitaran

(external event)2. thp motivasi daripada

pengalaman3. gambaran tahap motivasi berubah mengikut masa sbb insentif persekitaran berubah

Teori Bangkitan Sistem bangkitan drp

“neurophysiological” di otak (Moruzzi & Mogoun, 1949)

“central stimulation” vs “physiological stimulation of biological need” or “environmental stimulation of insentives”

Hukum Yerkes -Dodson bangkitan optimum(keselesaan)

APAKAH TEORI MOTIVASI UTAMA (Reeve, 2001: 33 –35 & Petri, 1996:19-22)

Post-Drive Theory Years Physiological sources of

motivation > “DRIVE” Environmental sources of motivation >“INCENTIVES” Central/brain sources of motivation > “AROUSAL”

DISCREPANCY OR EQUILIBRIUM

Kewujudan Mini-teoriMotivasi

Kewujudan Mini-teoriMotivasi

Lebih spesifik dan telitiMengapa ia lebih popular ?Jurnal 1-1977>Motivation and emotion (emperikal sifatnya)

1987 - Cognition and emotion

Abbreviated list of the mini-theoriesAbbreviated list of the mini-theories

Abbreviated list of the mini-theoriesAbbreviated list of the mini-theories

Mengapa mini-teori lebih digemari berbanding grand-teori

Active Nature of the Person

Cognitive RevolutionApplied, Socially Relevent Research

I. Active Nature of the Person dulu ada keperluan - “move’ “inactive-inert” so motivasi “to-

arouse” “the process of arousing action,

sustaining the activity in progress and regulating the pattern of activity”

“motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex”

mid 1960 > Charles Cofer & Mortimer Appley> membahagikan teori motivasi kpd >Pasif;Aktif dan Pertumbuhan

2. Cognitive revolutiondorongan, keperluan, lapar,

bangkitan, hemeotasis {base bio & fisiologi} semulajadi

1970 > Zeitgeist Psikologi > Revolusi Kognitif > internal mental process(konstruk kognitif dan konstruk struktur)

konstruk kognitif {plan, matl, ekspektasi,kepercayaan,atribusi,k-diri}

konstruk struktur {ganjaran insentif}kog > kemanusiaan drp mekanikalbuku Theories of Motivation:From

Mechanism to Cognition (Carven & Scheiri,1981; Marcus&Wurf, 1987)

3. Applied, Socially Relevent Research

humanistic tentang idea “motivasi hasil dari desakan biologi dan kawalan persekitaran”

Maslow & Roger “motivasi pertumbuhan”

aplikasi motivasi di sekolah,kerja, dayatindak-stress, hunger kpd bulimia, dieting, obesity ect.

“Why behave”? Tdk ptg > “to be alive is to be active” Why does behaviour vary in

its intensity? Why does the person do one

thing rather than onother?

Tiga elemen utama motivasi

Tenaga Arah tuju Matlamat

3 elemen ini merupakan penyebab utama untuk manusia bertingkah laku

Mengapa keamatan berbeza? Motif dalaman

(kehendak, kognitif dan emosi)

peristiwa luaran(rangsangan drp persekitaran,

kontek sosial)

Hubungan diantara kajian motivasi dan emosi dengan bidang lain di dalam Psikologi

(lihat Reeve,2001:42 rajah 2.1)

Social

Industrial/ Organizati

onal

Developmental

Educational

Personality

Cognitive

ClinicalPhysiologi

cal

HealthCounseling

Motivation and Emotion

Domain-specific Answers to These Core Questions:

What causes behavior? Why does behavior vary in its intensity?

Relationship of Motivation Study to Psychology’s Areas of SpecializationFigure 2.2

Motivation study in the 21st century is populated by multiple perspectives and multiple voices, all of which contribute a different piece to the puzzle of motivation and emotion study.

Perspektif Motivasi (Reeve,2001:38-39)

Tingkahlaku Biologi/fisiologi

Kognitif Evolusi

Kemanusiaan Psikoanalitik

Motivation’s new paradigm is one in which behavior is energized and directed not by a single grand cause but, instead, by a multitude of multi-level and co-acting influences.

As expressed in Box 2, most motivational states can be (and indeed need to be) understood at multiple levels—from a neurological level, a cognitive level, a social level, and so on.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Perspective: Motives emerge from…__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Behavioral Environmental incentives

Neurological Brain activations

Physiological Hormonal activity

Cognitive Mental events and thoughts

Social-cognitive Ways of thinking guided by exposure to other people

Cultural Groups, organizations, and nations

Evolutionary Genes and genetic endowment

Humanistic Encouraging the human potential

Psychoanalytical Unconscious mental life__________________________________________________________________

Box 2

The Many Voices in Motivation Study

Applikasi perspektif Isu :motivasi sex (Reeve,2001:38:39) Tingkahlaku {fizikal, bau, humor ect} Biologi {hormon > bangkitan} Kognitif {fantasi, ekspektasi,

agama,moral} Evolusi {l/w berbeza strategi dan kualiti} Kemanusiaan {hubungan, kemesraan

ect} Psikoanalitik {zmn knk, ideal partner}

Themes in the Study of Motivation

Motivation Benefit Adaptation Motives Direct Attention

Motivation Varies Vary over Time and Influence the Stream of Behaviour

Motivation Includes Both Approach and Avoidance Tendencies

Motivation Study Reveals What People Want

To Flourish Motivation Needs Supportive Condition

Antecedent Conditions

MotiveStatus

Sense of “Wanting to”

Urge toApproach vs.

Avoid

Energizing & Directing

•Behavior

•Engagement

•Physiology

•Self-Report

Needs Cognitions

Emotions

Framework To Understand The Study Of Motivation

Framework To Understand The Study Of Motivation

Figure 1.5