9. Cleanroom Testing an9. Cleanroom Testing and Monitoringd Monitoring
Purposes for initial test:Purposes for initial test:
• Fulfill the design – working correctly and achieving the contamination sta
ndards • Bench-mark:
– establish the initial performance of the room to compare the results of routine check or contamination problem in the future.
• Training the staff: (most important) – initial testing is to familiarize and train the staff. – Only opportunity to understand how their cleanroom w
orks and learn the methods used to test.
initial test initial test
• Time– been built/ going to hand over/ reopen
• Tested standards– ISO 14644-1.
• Monitoring– to regularly check the room at the time
intervals set by ISO 14644-2
Principles of Cleanroom TestingPrinciples of Cleanroom Testing• Quantity:
– Turbulently: dilute--air volume (supply and extract)– Unidirectional: remove –air velocity
• Direction (flow direction): – from clean area less-clean areas to minimise the m
ovement of contaminated air. • Quality:
– the air will not add significantly to the contamination within the room
• Distribution inside cleanroom – the air movement has no areas with high concentrati
ons of contamination.
Cleanroom TestsCleanroom Tests
• Air supply and extract quantities– turbulently ventilated cleanrooms the air su
pply and extract volumes – unidirectional airflow air velocity.
• Air movement control between areas: direction– The pressure differences between areas are c
orrect.– The air direction through doorways, hatches,
etc. is from clean to less-clean.
• Filter installation leak test– a damaged filter – between the filter and its housing or– any other part of the filter installation.
• Containment leak testing– Contamination is not entering the cleanroom t
hrough its construction materials.
• Air movement control within the room– turbulently ventilated : check that there are no
areas within the room with insufficient air movement.
– unidirectional airflow : check that the air velocity and direction throughout the room is that specified in the design.
• Airborne particles and microbial concentrations– final measurements of the concentration of
particles and micro-organisms
• Additional tests– temperature– relative humidity– heating and cooling capabilities of the room– sound levels– lighting levels– vibration levels.
requirementsrequirements
• Guides provided by– the American Society Heating Refrigeration a
nd Airconditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) in the USA, and
– the Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) in the UK.
Testing in Relation to Room Type Testing in Relation to Room Type and Occupation Stateand Occupation State
• The type of tests to be carried out in a cleanroom depends on whether the room is unidirectional, turbulent or mixed airflow: – ‘as-built’ ---in the empty room, – ‘at rest’ --- the room fitted with machinery but
no personnel present or– ‘fully operational’---these occupancy states ar
e discussed more fully in Section 3.4 of this book.
Re-testing to Demonstrate Re-testing to Demonstrate ComplianceCompliance
• The cleanroom checked intervals, these intervals being more frequent in higher specified rooms: ISO 14644-2
Monitoring of Cleanrooms Monitoring of Cleanrooms
• Use risk assessment to decide what monitoring tests should be done and how often. The variables that are most likely to be monitored are:– air pressure difference
• This might be necessary in high quality cleanrooms such as ISO Class 4, and better.
– airborne particle count• This might be necessary in high quality cleanrooms such as I
SO Class 4, and better.
– where appropriate, microbiological counts.
10. Measurement of Air 10. Measurement of Air Quantities and Pressure Quantities and Pressure
DifferencesDifferences
PurposePurpose• A cleanroom must have sufficient clean air suppl
ied to dilute and remove the airborne contamination generated within the room.
• Air Cleanliness:– Turbulently ventilated cleanroom
• air supply; the more air supplied in a given time, the cleaner the room.
– unidirectional cleanroom• air supply velocity
• Test: – Initial testing of the design– Regular intervals check
Air Quantities Air Quantities
• Instruments:– Hoods: air supply volu
mes– Anemometers: air velo
cities• Turbulently ventilated
rooms– measured within the a
ir conditioning ducts Pitot-static tube
Measuring air quantities from witMeasuring air quantities from within a cleanroomhin a cleanroom
• Air air filter (no diffuser) anemometer at the filter face average velocity air volume – Difficulty: the non-uniformity of the air velocity
inaccurate measurement • Air air diffusers unevenness of air
velocities incorrect air volume• Hood: air supply volume average velocity
measured at the exit of the hood air volume
AnemometersAnemometers
• Anemometers: away from the filter of about 30cm (12 inches)
• Vane Anemometer– Principle: Air supply turning a vane frequ
ency velocity – Accuracy: velocity is less than about 0.2 m/s
(40 ft/min), the mechanical friction affects the turning of the vane
Vane Anemometer
Thermal AnemometersThermal Anemometers• Principle: Air passing t
hrough the head of the instrument cooling effect the air velocity: Fig.10.3 : a bead thermistor ( 有孔的電熱調節器 )
• Low velocities can be measured with this type of apparatus
Differential Pressure TestsDifferential Pressure Tests
• The units: – Pascals, inch water gauge are used (12Pa = 0.
05 inch water gauge). • Pressure difference: 10 or 15 Pa between
clean areas – 15 Pa is commonly used between a cleanroo
m and an unclassified room, – 10 Pa between two cleanrooms.
• Large openings:– problems can occur when trying to achieve a
pressure difference between areas connected by large openings, such as a supply tunnel. To achieve the suggested pressure drop :
• Very large air quantities through the tunnel • To accept a lower pressure difference
Apparatus for measuring Apparatus for measuring pressure differencespressure differences
• Manometer: – range of pressure diffe
rence of 0-60 Pa (0-0.25 inch water)
– inclined manometer; magnehelic gauge; electronic manometer
Inclined manometerInclined manometer
• works by pressure pushing a liquid up an inclined tube. – small pressure
changes in the inclined tube up to a pressure of about 60 Pa.
– After that pressure, the tube moves round to the vertical measuring pressure differences can be in the 100 to 500 Pa range.
Methods of checking pressure Methods of checking pressure differencesdifferences
• pressure differences between areas– adjusting the pressure differences :
• extract be reduced to increase the pressure, and increased to decrease it.
• If manometers are not permanently installed, a tube from a pressure gauge is passed under the door, or through an open by-pass grille or damper into the adjacent area.
• In some ventilation systems, the pressures within rooms are measured with respect to one reference point. When this type of system is being checked, the pressure difference across a doorway can be calculated by subtracting the two readings of the adjoining spaces.
11. Air Movement Control Be11. Air Movement Control Between and Within Cleanroomtween and Within Cleanroom
ss
PurposesPurposes
• To show that a cleanroom is working correctly, it is necessary to demonstrate that no contamination infiltrates into the cleanroom from dirtier adjacent areas.
• Cleanroom Containment Leak Testing– Airborne contamination: doors and hatches, h
oles and cracks in the walls, ceilings and other parts of the cleanroom fabric
Contamination can be pushed into tContamination can be pushed into the cleanroom athe cleanroom at
• ceiling-to-wall interface • filter and lighting housings-to-ceiling interfaces • ceiling-to-column interface • the cladding of the ceiling support pillars• Service plenums and the entry of services into th
e cleanroom: electrical sockets and switches, and other types of services providers. Particularly difficult to foresee and control in a negatively pressurized containment room.
Methods of checking infiltrationMethods of checking infiltration
• Smoke test (dust test)– flow direction: open door, or through the
cracks around a closed door, cracks at the walls, ceiling, floor and filter housings, service ducts or conduits.
• Difficulty– where the containment originates from may
be unknown, and it is often difficult to find the places to release test smoke.
Containment leak testingContainment leak testing
• Timing– handing it over to the user– major reconstruction work has been carried
out – ISO 14644-2 lists the ‘containment leak’ test
as an ‘optional’ test and suggest a re-testing interval of two years
Air Movement Control within a CleaAir Movement Control within a Cleanroomnroom
• sufficient air movement– dilute, or remove airborne contamination prevent a build-up of
contamination• turbulently ventilated cleanroom:
– good mixing, critical areas: where the product is exposed to the risk of contamination
• unidirectional flow cleanroom– critical areas should be supplied with air coming directly from th
e high efficiency filters. However, problems may be encountered because of:
• heat rising from the machinery and disrupting the airflow• obstructions preventing the supply air getting to the critical area• obstructions, or the machinery shape, turning the unidirectional flow
into turbulent flow• contamination being entrained into the clean air.
Air movement visualizationAir movement visualization
• Objective: sufficient clean air gets to the critical areas qualitative methods
• Visualization: – Streamers – smoke or particle streams
• Streamers (threads or tapes):– high surface-area-to-weight ratio, ex. recording tapes – A horizontal flow: 0.5 m/s (100 ft/min) streamer 45°
to the horizontal • about 1m/s (200 ft/min) almost horizontal.
Streamers
smoke or particle streamssmoke or particle streams
–oil smoke contamination
–Water vapour : from solid C02 (dry ice) or by nebulizing water
putter and smoke tube':putter and smoke tube':
• Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4)produces acid corrodes some surfaces harmful to sensitive machinery or harm the operator's lungs.
Air Movement in turbulently Air Movement in turbulently ventilated rooms ventilated rooms
• working well: quickly dispersed • not working well Areas: not disperse
quickly contamination build up improved by adjusting the air supply diffuser blades, removing an obstruction, moving a machine.
Air Movement in unidirectional flowAir Movement in unidirectional flow
• air moves in lines – Visualisation technique
s: smoke stream– Still picture
Air velocity and Direction Air velocity and Direction measurementmeasurement
• A permanent record: velocity and direction
Recovery Test MethodRecovery Test Method
• A quantitative approach • A burst of test particles introduced into t
he area to be tested mixed with their surroundingsthe airborne particle count should be measured,
• A useful endpoint is one-hundredth of the original concentration, and the time taken to reach there can be used as an index of efficiency.
Ch. 12 Ch. 12 Filter Installation Leak Testing Filter Installation Leak Testing
HEPA test HEPA test
• Manufacturer's factory and packed OK• Unpacked and fitted into the filter housings
maybe damage • Leakage problems
– casing– housing
• Testing : artificial test aerosol
Leakage areas in a HEPA filter
A - filter paper-to-case cement area C- gasketD - frame joints. B - filter paper (often at the paper fold)
Gasket leaks from filters inserted down from ceiling
Gasket and casing leaks from filter inserted up from cleanroom
Figure 12.4 Filter-housing gel seal method
Artificial Smoke and Particle Test Artificial Smoke and Particle Test
• Cold-generated oils– Di-octyl phthalate (DOP) 鄰苯二甲酸二辛酯
• oily liquid, potentially toxic effects, no longer used – Di-octylsebacate (DOS)葵二酸二辛酯
• 常用– poly alpha olefin (PAO) 聚烯茎油
• 常用
Cold-generated oil Test Cold-generated oil Test
Laskin nozzleair (high pressure)
oil
Air+oil particle
0.5 m
Air pump
Hot generated smokesHot generated smokes
Evaporation chamber
inert gas: CO2
oil
oil smoke
aerosol
condense
vaporize
0.3 m
Hot oil smoke generator
Semiconductor manufacturing Semiconductor manufacturing
• 'outgassing' • chemical products harmful to filter • 使用 Polystyrene Latex Spheres (PLSs)
聚苯乙烯乳膠球 (0.1 ~ 1m)
Apparatus for Measuring Smoke Apparatus for Measuring Smoke PenetrationPenetration
• Photometer光度計– 28 1/min (1 ft3/min) of airbor
ne particles – particles refract the light – electrical signal– concentration: between 0.00
01 μg/1 and 100 μg/1.
• Single particle counters– sample a volume of ai
r and this is collected in a set time
Methods of Testing Filters and Methods of Testing Filters and Filter HousingsFilter Housings
• Scanning methods– a probe with a photometer, or single particle
counter, – Scan speed : not more than 5cm/s– leaks : media, filter case, its housing – The most common leaks:
• around the periphery of the filter• the casing-to-housing seal, • the casing joints
Repair of leaksRepair of leaks• Filter media leak
– at the fold of the paper – repaired on site with
silicon • replaced
Ch. 13 Ch. 13 Airborne Particle CountsAirborne Particle Counts
Cleanroom testCleanroom test
• air supply volume,• pressure differences, • air movement within and between cleanro
oms,• filter integrity • airborne particle concentration
Particle counter Particle counter
• Particle counter : both counts and sizes
• Photometer : mass of particles
principle of Particle Counter
Particle Counter
Check:
p-counter.pdf
Opc-8240.pdf
Airborne particle counter: flow rate: 28 1/min (1 ft3/min) of air size range: regular 0.3 μm or 0.5 μm high-sensitivity: 0.1 μm but with a smaller air volume.
Continuous Monitoring Apparatus Continuous Monitoring Apparatus for Airborne Particlesfor Airborne Particles
• sequential• simultaneous
Sequential monitoring system Sequential monitoring system
Simultaneous monitoring system Simultaneous monitoring system best but most expensive
Particle Counting in Different Particle Counting in Different Occupancy StatesOccupancy States
• Occupancy state: as built, at rest, operational.
• cleanroom contractor: 'as built' • ‘rule of thumb: ‘as built’ room will be abo
ut one class of cleanliness cleaner than when ‘operational’.
Measurement of Particle Measurement of Particle Concentrations (ISO 14644-1)Concentrations (ISO 14644-1)
• Principles: The number of sampling locations must reflect the size of the room and its cleanliness.
• The methods: (a) number of sampling locations and (b) the minimum air volume
Sample locations and number Sample locations and number ((ISO standard 14644-1ISO standard 14644-1))
• Minimum number of locations:– Where NL rounded up to a whole
number – A is the area of the cleanroom, o
r clean air controlled space, in m2.• evenly distributed and height
ANL
Airborne sampling volumeAirborne sampling volume
• Minimum volume at each location: the air volume should be large enough to count 20 particles of the largest particle size specified
• V= 20/C x 1000– where V is the minimum single sample volum
e per location, expressed in litres. – C is the class limit (number of particles/m3)
• One or more samples : at each location • The volume sampled at each location: at
least two liters • The minimum sample time : at least one
minute
Acceptance criteria( ISO 14644-1)Acceptance criteria( ISO 14644-1)
• the average particle concentration at each of the particle measuring locations falls below the class limit
• when the total number of locations sampled is less than 10, the calculated 95% Upper Confidence Limit (UCL) of the particle concentrations is below the class limit.
Example Example • 4m x 5m size. ISO Class 3 in the 'as built' c
ondition at a particle size of >= 0.1 μm.• Number of locations
– A= 4m x 5m. N = √4x5 = 4.475– The minimum number of locations is 5
• Minimum air sampling volume– V= 20/C x 1000– C: ISO Class 3 room is 1000/m3.– ∴Minimum volume = 20/1000 x 1000= 20 litres
• particle counter flow rate of 28.3 liter/min, i.e. 20liter, time = 42 s • ISO 14644-1 requires a minimum sample time
of 1 minute 1 minute
• first part of the ISO requirement is therefore satisfied(<1000).OK
• As less than nine samples were taken 95% UCL does not exceeded the class limit. ???
Calculation of 95%UCL Calculation of 95%UCL
• the 'means of averages': MM = (580+612+706+530+553)/5 = 596
• Standard deviation (s.d). • Standard deviation s.d.=69
• 95 UCL = M+[UCL factor x (s.d/√n)]﹪• As number of locations is 5, the t-factor is 2.1. • ∴ 95 UCL for particles ﹪ > 0.1 μm = 596 + [ 2.1
x 69/√5 ]= 661<1000
1)(
. 12
NMX
dsN
i i
• The cleanroom is therefore within the required class limit.
• The way to avoid any 95% UCL problems is to always test more than nine points in the room
Ch.14 Microbial CountsCh.14 Microbial Counts
• People are normally the only source of micro-organisms in a cleanroom
• as built/ at rest little value• Operational: micro-organisms are continua
lly dispersed from people in the room.
Microbial Sampling of the AirMicrobial Sampling of the Air
• Volumetric air sampler • Settle plate sampling
Volumetric' air samplers Volumetric' air samplers
• a given volume of air is sampled; also known as 'active' sampling.
• impact micro-organisms onto agar media;
• remove micro-organisms by membrane filtration.
• Agar: jelly-type material with nutrients added to support microbial growth.
• Micro-organisms landing temperature, time colony (millimetres diameter)
Settle plate sampling Settle plate sampling
• where micro-organisms are deposited, mainly by gravity, onto an agar plate.
• Impaction onto agar:– inertial impaction– centrifugal forces.
• Time and Temperature to grow• Bacteria : 48 hours at 30° C to 35° C;• Fungi: 72 hours at 20° C to 25° C
Inertial impaction samplersInertial impaction samplers• Flow rate: 30 to 180 litres/min (1 ft3/min to 6 ft3/
min) of air• Air Inertial impactors slit or hole accelera
te (20~30m/s)
Centrifugal air samplersCentrifugal air samplers
• Air rotating vane centrifugal force agar surface
• The impaction surface is in the form of a plastic strip with rectangular recesses into which agar is dispensed
Membrane filtrationMembrane filtration
• A membrane filter is mounted in a holder vacuum draw air microbe-carrying will be filtered out by membrane The membrane placed an agar plate
• A membrane filter with a grid printed on the surface will assist in counting the micro-organisms.
Membrane holder with filter
Microbial Deposition onto SurfacesMicrobial Deposition onto Surfaces
• Indirect measurementvolumetric sampling
• direct method settle plate sampling
Settle plate samplingSettle plate sampling• micro-organisms skin particles 10 to
30μm by gravity onto surfaces at an average rate of about 1 cm/s
• Settle plate sampling: Petri dishes (diameter:90mm) containing agar medium opened and exposed time (4~5 hours) particles to deposit Petri dishes
Calculation of the likely airborne Calculation of the likely airborne contaminationcontamination
exposed plates settle timeexposedproduct time x
dish petri of area
product of area x
count plate Settlerateion Contaminat
Microbial Surface SamplingMicrobial Surface Sampling
• contact sampling• swabbing
Contact surface samplingContact surface sampling• surface (flat) RODAC
(Replicate Organisms Detection and Counting) dishes Fig 14.5 are usedThe agar is rolled over the cleanroom surface Micro-organisms stick to the agar incubated time and temperature micro-organisms grow & counted.
Contact SlidesContact Slides
SwabbingSwabbing• uneven surfaces: bud
swab rubbed surface and then rubbed over an agar plate.
Copan Swab Rinse KitsCopan Swab Rinse Kits
Personnel samplingPersonnel sampling
• Personnel are the primary source of micro-organisms in a cleanroom.
• The methods commonly used are:– Finger dabs.
– The person's fingers tips, or their gloved hand, is pressed or wiped on an agar plate and the number of micro-organisms ascertained.
– Contact plates or strips. – The person's garments are sampled by pressing the plate or strip on
to their clothing. This is best done as they come out of the cleanroom.
– Body box. – If a person wearing normal indoor clothing exercises within a body b
ox their dispersion rate of airborne micro-organisms can be ascertained.
Dip SlideDip Slide
15. 15. Operating a Cleanroom: Operating a Cleanroom: Contamination ControlContamination Control
Purpose Purpose
• considering the sources and routes of contamination within a cleanroom and how to control these.
Control contaminationControl contamination
• assessing risk during manufacturing: such as Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA). (Electrical and mechanical systems)
Hazard Analysis and Critical Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system.Control Point (HACCP) system.
• HACCP has a seven-step approach: – Identify the sources of contamination in the cleanro
om. – Assess the importance of these sources – Identify methods that can be used to control these
hazards.– Determine valid sampling methods to monitor eithe
r the hazards, or their control methods, or both.
– Establish a monitoring schedule with 'alert' and 'action' levels
– Establish a monitoring schedule with 'alert' and 'action' levels
– Verify that the contamination control system is working effectively by reviewing the product rejection rate, sampling results and control methods and, where appropriate, modifying them.
– Establish and maintain appropriate documentation.– Train the staff.
Identification of Sources and Identification of Sources and Routes of ContaminationRoutes of Contamination
• Sources of contamination– dirty areas adjacent to the cleanroom; – unfiltered air supply; – room air; – surfaces; – people; – machines, as they work; – raw materials; – containers; – packaging.
Airborne and contact routes of Airborne and contact routes of transfertransfer
– The two main routes of transfer are airborne and contact.
– Airbone: particles are small; fibres, chips or cuttings fall directly on to the product.
– Contact: machines, containers, packaging, raw materials, gloves, clothes, etc.
Construction of a risk diagramConstruction of a risk diagram
• Risk diagram: possible sources of contamination; their main routes of transfer; methods of controlling this transfer.
• Figure 15.1 is an example of a risk diagram; the manufacturing process has been shown
Sources and routes of particle and microbial contamination in a
cleanroom along with preventative measures
Sources and routes of control associated with process machinery.
Assessment of the Importance of Assessment of the Importance of HazardsHazards
• Possible sources of contamination routes of transmission risk assessment
• Risk factors:– risk factor A: the amount of contamination on, or in,
the source that is available for transfer– risk factor B: the ease by which the contamination is
dispersed or transferred– risk factor C: the proximity of the source to the critical
point where the product is exposed – risk factor D: how easily the contamination can pass
through the control method
Risk factors for assessing hazardsRisk factors for assessing hazards
• Risk rating = A x B x C x D
• Low: a risk rating of less than 4
• Medium: between 4 and 12
• High: higher than 12
Identification of Methods to Control Identification of Methods to Control HazardsHazards
• Identify the contamination hazards their degree of risk assessed methods available to control them.
• Figures 15.1 and 15.2 show methods that can be used to control the routes of spread of contamination. These are:– HEPA or ULPA air filters supply air– Airborne contamination from areas outside the cleanroom air
moves from the cleanroom outward– The contamination from the floors, walls and ceiling cleaning– People’s mouth, hair, clothing and skin Cleanroom garments a
nd gloves – Contamination from machines design of the machine, the use
of exhaust air systems to draw the contamination away. Cleaning dirt on the machine.
– Raw materials, containers and packaging made from materials that do not generate contamination; manufactured in an environment have minimal concentrations of contamination; correctly wrapped to ensure that they are not contaminated during delivery
Sampling Methods to Monitor Sampling Methods to Monitor Hazards and Control MethodsHazards and Control Methods
• Monitoring:– collection efficiency of sampling instruments;– calibration of the instruments;– determination that the hazard is of sufficient
importance to need to be monitored;– determination that the sampling method used
is the best available for directly measuring the hazard, or its control method.
Establishing a Monitoring Schedule Establishing a Monitoring Schedule with Alert and Action Levels with Alert and Action Levels
• 'alert' and 'action' conditions; 'warning' and 'alarm' levels.
• The 'alert' level should be set to indicate that the contamination concentrations are higher than might be expected, but are still under control.
• The 'action' level should be set such that when it is exceeded there should be an investigation.
• Analysing the monitoring results and setting 'alert' and 'action' levels is quite a complicated subject if a statistical approach is used. Knowledge of statistical techniques, especially the use of trend analysis.
Verification and Reappraisal of the Verification and Reappraisal of the System System
• The method is correctly implemented rejection rate of the product; measurement of the particle, or microbial, levels in samples of the final product. We can now reassess the following:– the relative importance of the hazards– the necessity and the methods for controlling the
hazards– the effectiveness of the control methods– the correctness of the monitoring schedule– whether the 'action' and 'alert' levels should be lowered
or raised.
DocumentationDocumentation
• An effective contamination control system will document
• (1) the methods described in the preceding steps of this chapter,
• (2) the monitoring procedures, and• (3) results from the monitoring. • Regular reports should be issued of an analysis
of the monitoring results and any deviations from the expected results.
•
Staff TrainingStaff Training
• They first arrive at the cleanroom • Train at regular intervals throughout their c
areers.
16. Cleanroom Disciplines16. Cleanroom Disciplines
PersonnelPersonnel
• source of contamination– micro-organisms – particles and fibres
People Allowed into CleanroomsPeople Allowed into Cleanrooms
• Walking:– produce 1,000,000 particles >= 0.5 mm – several thousand microbe-carrying particles
per minute
• Suggestions contain criteria that can discriminate against some personnel– Skin conditions: skin cells, dermatitis, sunburn or bad
dandruff.– Respiratory conditions: coughing, sneezing – Biocleanroom:
• allergic conditions, which cause sneezing, itching, scratching, or a running nose
• allergic to materials used in the cleanroom, (a) garments (polyester) (b) plastic or latex gloves, (c) chemicals: acids, solvents, cleaning agents and disinfectants, and (d) products manufactured in the room, e.g. antibiotics and hormones.
Personal Items Not Allowed into the Personal Items Not Allowed into the CleanroomCleanroom
• General rule: nothing should be allowed into the cleanroom that is not required for production within the room.
Prohibited items:Prohibited items:• food, drink, sweets and chewing gum• cans or bottles, smoking materials• radios, CD players, Walkmans, cell phones,
pagers, etc.• newspapers, magazines, books and paper
handkerchiefs• pencils and erasers• wallets, purses and other similar items.
Disciplines within the CleanroomDisciplines within the Cleanroom
• Within a cleanroom: rules-of-conduct: written procedures; 'does and don'ts' posted in the change or production area
• Air transfer:– come in and out through change areas: buffer
zone; not use emergency exit– Doors: not be left open; not be opened or clo
sed quickly: open inwards into the production room
Personnel behaviourPersonnel behaviour
• No Silly behaviour: The generation of contamination is proportional to activity.
– motionless: 100,000 particles >=0.5 μm/min – head, arms and body moving: 1,000,000 particles >= 0.5
mm/min – walking: 5,000,000 particles >= 0.5 μm/min
PersonnelPersonnel product product
• position themselves correctly • not lean over the product; • working in unidirectional air: not between
the product and the source of the clean air, i.e. the air filter.
• 'No-touch' techniques should be devised: from gloved hand onto the product.
• Oil and skin particles would contaminate the wafer with catastrophic results.
• not support material against their body• No personal handkerchiefs • Washing, or disinfection when required, of
gloves during use should be considered.
Handling materialsHandling materials
• The movement of materials between the inside and outside of a cleanroom should be minimized.
• Waste material: collected frequently into easily identified containers and removed frequently from the cleanroom.
Maintenance and Service Maintenance and Service Personnel Personnel
• Enter a cleanroom with permission.• Maintenance be trained cleanroom technique
s, or closely supervised when they are within the cleanroom.
• Wear the same cleanroom clothing as cleanroom personnel
• Technicians should ensure they remove dirty boiler suits, etc. and wash their hands before changing into cleanroom clothing.
• Tools cleaned and sterilized; stored for sole used within the cleanroom; Tool’s materials not corrode. Only the tools or instruments needed within the room should be selected, decontaminated, and put into a cleanroom compatible bag or container.
• instructions or drawings can be photocopied onto cleanroom paper, or laminated within plastic sheets, or placed in sealed plastic bags.
• Particle generating operations such as drilling holes, or repairing ceilings and floors should be isolated from the rest of the area. A localized extract or vacuum can also be used to remove any dust generated.
17. Entry and Exit of 17. Entry and Exit of PersonnelPersonnel
• Skin and clothing: millions of particles and thousands of microbe-carrying particles
• Features of cleanroom clothing: – not break up and lint: disperse the minimum of
fibres and particles – filter: against particles dispersed from the pers
on's skin and their clothing.
• The type of cleanroom clothing– contamination control is very important: a cov
erall, hood, facemask, knee-length boots and gloves
– contamination is not as important: less enveloping clothing such as a smock, cap and shoe covers
Prior to Arriving at the CleanroomPrior to Arriving at the Cleanroom
• Frequency of bathe or shower:• remove the natural skin oils;• dispersion of skin and skin bacteria;• dry skin may wish to use a skin lotion
• What clothing is best worn below cleanroom garments?• Artificial fibres: polyester are better than those made from wool and
cotton• Close-woven fabrics: more effective in filtering and controlling the pa
rticles and microbe-carrying particles
• Cosmetics, hair spray, nail varnish removed rings, watches and valuables removed and stored
Changing into Cleanroom GarmentChanging into Cleanroom Garmentss
• The best method of changing into cleanroom garments is one that minimises contamination getting onto the outside of the garments.
• The design of clothing change areas is divided into zones:– Pre-change zone– Changing zone– Cleanroom entrance zone.
Approaching the pre-change zoneApproaching the pre-change zone
• blow nose, go to the toilet
• shoe cleaner – Sticky cleanroom mats
or flooring: two general
types
Pre-change zonePre-change zone
• street or factory clothes removed• Watches and rings removed. Items such as cigarettes and lig
hters, wallets and other valuables should be securely stored.• Remove cosmetics and apply a suitable skin moisturizer (no ch
emicals used in the formulation cause contamination problems in the product being manufactured)
• Put on a pair of disposable footwear coverings, or change into dedicated cleanroom shoes.
• wash the hands, dry them and apply a suitable hand lotion. • Cross over from the pre-entry area into the change zone.
Changing zoneChanging zone• The garments to be worn are
selected. • A facemask and hood (or cap) is
put on • Temporary gloves known as
'donning gloves' are sometimes used
• The coverall (or gown) should be removed from its packaging and unfolded without touching the floor.
Cleanroom entrance zoneCleanroom entrance zone• rossover bench: allows cl
eanroom footwear (overshoes or overboots) to be correctly put on.
• Protective goggle can be put on. These are used not only for safety reasons but to prevent eyelashes and eyebrow hair falling onto the product.
gogglegoggle
• The garments should be checked in a full-length mirror to see that they are worn correctly.
• If donning gloves have been used they can be dispensed with now. They can, however, be kept on and a pair of clean working gloves put on top. Two pairs of gloves can be used as a precaution against punctures, although sensitivity of touch is lost.
• Low particle (and if required, sterile) working gloves should now be put on. In some cleanrooms this task is left until the personnel is within the production cleanroom.
Exit Changing ProceduresExit Changing Procedures• When leaving a cleanroom, personnel will either • discard all their garments and on reentry use a new se
t of garments (this is normally only employed in an aseptic pharmaceutical cleanroom)
• discard their disposable items, such as masks and gloves, but reuse their coverall, smock, etc. on re-entry.
– clothing rolled up; footwear pigeon holes; – The hood (or cap) can be attached to the outside of the cover
all (or gown) hung up, preferably in a cabinet. – Garment bags can be used.
18. Materials18. Materials 、、 Equipment aEquipment and Machinerynd Machinery
Materials used in a cleanroom Materials used in a cleanroom
• For manufacturing • Packaging for the product • Process machinery and equipment • Tools used for the maintenance,
calibration or repair of equipment and machinery;
• Clothing for personnel, such as suits, gloves and masks;
– Materials for cleaning, such as wipers and mops;
– Disposable items such as writing materials, labels and swabs.
Materials used in a cleanroom for Materials used in a cleanroom for manufacturing manufacturing
• pharmaceutical manufacturing: containers and ingredients
• microelectronics industry: silicon wafers and process chemicals;
Contamination on materials can be:Contamination on materials can be:
– particles– micro-organisms– chemicals– electrostatic charge– molecular outgassing.
Prohibited material:Prohibited material:
– abrasives or powders;– aerosol-producing cans or bottles;– items made from wood, rubber, paper, leather,
wool, cotton and other naturally occurring materials that break up easily;
– items made from mild steel, or other materials that rust, corrode or oxidise;
– items that cause problems when machined or processed, e.g. they may smoke or break up;
– paper not manufactured for use in cleanrooms.– pencils and erasers;– paper correcting fluid;– personal items listed in Section 16.2 should n
ot be brought in by cleanroom personnel;– disposable items such as swabs, tapes and la
bels that are not cleanroom compatible.
Transfer of Items and Small Pieces Transfer of Items and Small Pieces of Equipment through an Airlockof Equipment through an Airlock– Transfer area with a
bench• door (uncontrolled area)
opened and the person enters The package should be placed on the 'wrapped receiving' or 'dirtier' part of the pass-over bench
• The wrapping is then cleaned and removed
• The outer packaging is now removed and deposited into a suitable container. The item is then be placed on the 'wrapping removed' or 'clean' part of the bench
• The person leave. The airlock may be left for a few minutes to allow the airborne contamination to come down to a concentration. Cleanroom personnel now enter the cleanroom and pick up items that have been left (Figure 18.6).
Entry of MachineryEntry of Machinery
– Machines, and other heavy and large bulky items of equipment, are occasionally taken in or out of a cleanroom.
– The best solution to the movement of bulky items is to design the materials airlock to be large enough to allow the entry and exit of every piece of machine to be brought in or out of the room.
19. Cleanroom Clothing19. Cleanroom Clothing
• Contamination source: people clothing product
• Cleanroom clothing: originated from hospitals
• Function: reducing inert particles and microbe-carrying particles.
Sources and Routes of Inert Sources and Routes of Inert Particle DispersionParticle Dispersion
• More activity more particles disperse Dispersion is dependent on the clothing worn, but can be in the range of 106 to 107 per minute for particles >= 0.5 μm, i.e. up to 1010 per day.
• People may disperse particles from:• Skin; clothing they wear under cleanroom
garments; cleanroom clothing• mouth and nose.
Sources of particles and Sources of particles and mechanisms of releasemechanisms of release
• Skin: People shed approximately 109 skin cells per day. Skin cells are approximately 33μm x 44 μm
• Skin cells:– released onto clothing and laundered away;– others are washed away in the bathtub or shower. – a large number are dispersed into the air.
Sources and routes of particles and microbe containing particles from people
Skin surface showing skin cells and beads of sweat
Clothing under cleanroom clothiClothing under cleanroom clothingng
• natural fabrics: such as a cotton shirt, cotton jeans and woollen jerseylarge quantities of particles. natural materials have fibres that are both short and break up easily.
• synthetic fabric: the particle challenge can be reduced by 90% or more.
Cotton fabric photographed through a microscope. Magnification about 100 times
Cleanroom clothingCleanroom clothing
• synthetic plastic materials: such as polyester or nylon.
Routes of transfer of particlesRoutes of transfer of particles• Pores: between 80μm and 100μm The
particles generated from the skin and the inner clothing therefore pass through easily.
• Personnel move: particles be pumped out of closures at the neck, ankles, wrists and zips. Secure closures tight
• tears or holes, particles can easily pass through.
Microcolony of bacteria on surface of skin
Routes of microbial dispersionRoutes of microbial dispersion
• The routes of transfer the same as with inert particles:
• the pores in the fabric• poor closures at the neck, sleeves and ankles• damage to the fabric, i.e. tears and holes.• expelled from the mouth: speaking, coughing and sneezing.
• When males wear ordinary indoor clothing, the average rate being closer to 200 per minute. Females will generally disperse less.
Types of Cleanroom ClothingTypes of Cleanroom Clothing
• Clothing designs – The most effective type:
• completely envelopes a person; • be made from a fabric that has effective filtration properties • have secure closures at the wrist, neck and ankle.
– The choice of clothing will depend on what is being produced in the cleanroom. A poorer standard of cleanroom may use a cap, zip-up coat (smock) and shoe covers
• In a higher standard of cleanroom a one-piece zip-up coverall, knee-high overboots and a hood that tucks under the neck of the garment will be typical
Cleanroom fabricsCleanroom fabrics• The most popular type of clothing is m
ade from woven synthetic fabrics.• Non-woven fabrics, such as Tyvek, are
used as single, or limited reuse, garments. They are popular for visitors and are used by builders when constructing the room. They are also popular in pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities in the USA. Membrane barrier fabrics, such as GoreTex, which use a breathable membrane sandwiched onto, or between, synthetic woven fabrics, are very efficient; they are expensive, and hence are used in the higher standard rooms.
Garment constructionGarment construction
• To prevent the raw edges • To minimise shedding, the zippers, fasten
ers and shoe soles should not chip, break up or corrode.
• Choice of garments– IEST Recommended Practice RP-CC-003.2.
R = recommended NR == not recommendedAS = application specific (NR*) = not recommended in nonunidirectional f
lowTable 19.2 Garment systems for aseptic cleanrooms (IEST RP CC-003.
2)
Processing of Cleanroom GarmentProcessing of Cleanroom Garments and Change Frequencys and Change Frequency
• Processing– to be reused cleanroom laundry antistatic
treatment and disinfection or sterilisation• Frequency of change
• semiconductor industry ( the highest specification), changed once or twice a week.
• fresh garments are put on every time personnel move into an aseptic pharmaceutical production area.
Body box: a, metronome; b, bacterial and particle sampler
Comparison of clothing made Comparison of clothing made from different fabricsfrom different fabrics
• Bacterial dispersion (counts/min) in relation to fabrics
Particle dispersion rate per minute Particle dispersion rate per minute in relation to fabric in relation to fabric
20. Cleanroom Masks and 20. Cleanroom Masks and GlovesGloves
Dispersion from the monthDispersion from the month
• sneezing, coughing and talking; these droplets contain salts and bacteria.
• Saliva particles and droplets : about 1 to 2000μm; 95% of them lie being between 2 and 100μm, with an average size of about 50μm; bacteria in saliva is normally over 107 bacteria per ml.
• A 100μm particle will drop 1 metre in about 3 seconds, but a 10μm particle takes about 5 minutes.
• Drying time: Particles of water 1000μm in diameter will take about 3 minutes to evaporate, a 200μm particle will take 7 seconds, a 100μm particle about 1.6 seconds and a 50 μm particle about 0.4 seconds.
• Efficiencies of over 95% for particles expelled from the mouth are usually obtained by most masks. A loss in efficiency is caused by particles passing round the side of the mask, and much of this is due to small particles (reported to be < 3μm in the dry state).
Number of inert and microbe-carrying Number of inert and microbe-carrying particles emitted by a personparticles emitted by a person
Particles emitted when pronouncing Particles emitted when pronouncing the letter `f’ the letter `f’
Face masksFace masks• surgical-style with
straps and loops: disposable surgical-type
• Consideration: pressure drop across the mask fabric; masks high filtration efficiency against small particles give a high-pressure drop across the mask that causes the generated particles to be forced round the outside of the mask. 'veil' or 'yashmak' type, one of these types being exposed to show its shape in Figure 20.4. The normal way it is worn is shown in Figure 20.5.
Powered exhaust headgearPowered exhaust headgear• These provide a barrier to
contamination coming from the head, as well as the mouth. The exhaust from the helmet and face-shield is provided with a filtered exhaust system so that contamination does not escape into the cleanroom. An example is shown in Figure 20.6.
Cleanroom GlovesCleanroom Gloves
• Hand contamination and gloves– There are two types of gloves associated with
cleanrooms. • Knitted or woven gloves are used for lower classes,
i.e. ISO Class 7 (Class 10,000) and poorer areas, as well as undergloves. The knit or weave should be tight and a number of loose threads minimised.
• Barrier gloves, which have a continuous thin membrane covering the whole hand are used in the majority of cleanrooms.
• Cleanroom gloves are not usually manufactured in a cleanroom; they therefore require cleaning before being used.
• Gloves may be required in some cleanrooms to prevent dangerous chemicals, usually acids or solvents, attacking the operator's hands.
• Some operator's skin is allergic to the materials that gloves are made from.
• Other glove properties: chemical resistance and compatibility, electrostatic discharge properties, surface ion contribution when wet, contact transfer, barrier integrity, permeability to liquids, heat resistance and outgassing.
Glove manufacturing processGlove manufacturing process• Gloves are generally manufactured by dipping a 'former'
(porcelain or stainless steel), shape of a hand, molten or liquid glove material removed from the molten or liquid material a layer of material stripped by release agent Release agents are a problem in cleanrooms Release agents kept to a minimum.
• When stripped from the formers, latex gloves are 'sticky'. To correct this, latex gloves are washed in a chlorine bath. The free chlorine combines chemically with the latex chemical bonds and lead to a 'case-hardening' of the surface of the glove, which prevents them sticking to each other. This washing also helps to clean to the gloves.
Types of glovesTypes of gloves
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gloves• Latex Gloves• Other Polymer Gloves
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) glovesPolyvinyl chloride (PVC) gloves• These plastic gloves are also known as vinyl glo
ves and are popular in electronic cleanrooms; can not sterilised, not used in bioclean rooms.
• They are available in normal and long-sleeve length. Consideration should be made of the fact that plasticisers make up almost 50% of a vinyl glove. Plasdcisers come from the same group of chemicals used to test the integrity of air filters, i.e. phthalates, antistatic properties, outgassing
Latex GlovesLatex Gloves• This is the type used by surgeons, and the 'particle-free' type is now
used in cleanrooms. Latex gloves can be produced 'powder-free', and those gloves that are washed further by use of filtered, deionised water are often used in ISO Class 4 (Class 10) or ISO Class 3 (Class 1) cleanrooms.
• They have good chemical resistance, giving protection against most weak acids and bases, and alcohols, as well as having a fairly good resistance against aldehydes and ketones.
• They are slightly more expensive to buy than the PVC type, but cheaper than any other polymer. They can be sterilised. Because of their elasticity, the glove can securely incorporate the cuff of a garment under the sleeve.
Other Polymer GlovesOther Polymer Gloves• Polythene gloves
– are used in cleanrooms and have the advantage of being free of oils and additives, as well as resistant to puncturing. They are not resistant to aliphatic solvents. The main drawback of this glove type is that they are constructed from float sheets and the seams are welded. Manual dexterity is reduced with these gloves.
• Neoprene and nitrile gloves – are chemically similar to latex gloves, but have the advantage of having a better resistance t
o solvents than latex gloves. They are slightly more expensive than latex.• Polyurethane gloves
– are strong, very thin, quite inflexible, and expensive. They may be manufactured with microporous material for better comfort, or with carbon in the formulation which makes them conductive.
• PVA gloves – are resistant to strong acids and solvents, but not water in which they are soluble. They are
expensive.• Gore-Tex gloves
– have welded seams and are hypoallergenic. They are breathable because of their porous membrane. They are expensive.
21. Cleaning a Cleanroom 21. Cleaning a Cleanroom
Why a Cleanroom Must be Cleaned?Why a Cleanroom Must be Cleaned?
• Particles: – cleanroom clothing, over 100,000 particles >= 0.5 μm and over 1
0,000 particles >= 5.0μm. – Machines also disperse millions of particles.
• Microbe-carrying particles: People can also disperse hundreds, or thousands, of microbe-carrying particles per minute. Because these micro-organisms are carried on skin cells, or fragments of skin cells, their average equivalent diameter is between 10 μm and 20 μm.
• Transfer: Cleanrooms surfaces get dirty be transferred by personnel touching a cleanroom surface and then the product.
Cleaning Methods and the Physics Cleaning Methods and the Physics of Cleaning Surfacesof Cleaning Surfaces
• Forces hold particles to cleanroom surfaces:– The main force : the London-van der WaaP’s f
orce, this being an inter-molecular force. – Electrostatic forces can also attract particles t
o a surface. – A third force can arise after wet cleaning. Parti
cles that are left behind will dry on the surface, and may adhere to it
• The methods that are generally used for cleaning a cleanroom, are:– Vacuuming (wet or dry): immersing the particle in a liq
uid, as occurs in wet pick-up vacuuming– Wet wiping (mopping or damp wiping): an aqueous-ba
sed detergent is used then the London-van der WaaFs force and electrostatic forces can be reduced or eliminated. The particle can then be pushed or drawn off from a surface by wiping, mopping or vacuuming.
– Picking-up with a tacky roller.
VacuumingVacuuming
• Dry vacuuming : – depends on a jet of air moving towards the vacuum
nozzle and overcoming the adhesion forces of particles to the surface
– Figure 21.1 : efficiency of dry vacuuming against different sizes of sand particles on a glass surface.
• Wet vacuum: Water and solvents have much higher viscosity than air, so that the drag forces exerted by liquids on a surface particle are very much greater.
Efficiency of dry vacuuming
• Wet -wiping– Wet wiping, with wipers or mops, can efficientl
y clean cleanroom surfaces. The liquid used allows some of the particle-to-surface bonds to be broken and particles to float off.
• Tacky rollers– The particle removal efficiency of 'tacky' roller
s is dependent on the strength of the adhesive force of the roller's surface.
• dry brush should never be used to sweep a cleanroom. they can produce over 50 million particles >= 0.5 μm per minute.
• String mops are not much better, as they can produce almost 20 million particles >= 0.5 μm per minute.
• Dry vacuuming: popular method– relatively inexpensive – no cleaning liquids are needed– Note: unfiltered exhaust-air must not pass into
the cleanroom. This is achieved by using either an external central-vacuum source, or providing a portable vacuum's exhaust air with a HEPA or ULPA filter.
• Wet vacuum or 'pick-up' system: is more efficient than dry vacuum – more efficient than a mopping method,– less liquid left to dry on the floor– floor will also dry quicker.– Wet pick-up systems are used on conventiona
lly ventilated cleanroom floors, but may not be suitable for the pass-though type of floor used in the vertical unidirectional system.
• Mopping systems– mops for cleanroom:
• materials that do not easily break up: PVA or polyurethane open-pore foam, or a fabric such as polyester.
• The compatibility of the material to sterilization, disinfectants and solvents should be checked
• Buckets should be made from plastic or stainless steel.
Two and three bucket systems
How to use a three-bucket mopping system
• Wipers– Purpose: wipe surfaces and remove contamination; to
wipe contamination from products produced; used dry to mop-up liquids that may have been spilled.
– Sorbency• Sorbency is an important property of wipers. Wipers are ofte
n used to mop up a spillage and other similar tasks.
• wiper's sorbency: both its capacity (the amount of liquid it can sorb) and its rate (how fast it can sorb liqu
• Tacky rollers– Tacky rollers are
similar in size and shape to paint rollers used in the home, but they have a tacky material around the outside of the roller. An example of a tacky roller is shown in Figure 21.7.
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