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Research Design andFormulation of problem
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How to select research problem
Novel–one which has not been investigated before.- Inject originality in it by coming up with another
research design,
- Interesting-Relevant Will the results add knowledge to information already
available in the field?
• Is the topic too broad?
• Can the problem really be investigated? What costs and time are involved in the analysis? Researchable Can the data be analyzed? Ethical
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Literature Review
Why
- Broaden Knowledge Base
- Ensuring originality in the conduct of one’sresearch;
- Clarity and focus
- Gaps : findings and conclusions of past
studies- Formulating the theoretical and conceptual
framework
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How
Search for existing literature
Prepare a working bibliography
Write in index cards; group togetherreferences froma. booksb. journals and periodicals
c. unpublished material 3. Examine each material, then
decide which ones will actually beincluded in your review
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WHAT TO INCLUDE
Review should be brief and to thepoint.
A plan to present the review
Emphasize relatedness
Don’t reproduce it
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Research Design
The research design is the master plan specifying the methods and procedures forcollecting and analyzing the needed information.
Three traditional categories of research design: Exploratory Descriptive Causal
The overall research design for a project mayinclude one or more of these three designs as part's of it.
Further, if more than one design is to be used,typically we progress from Exploratory towardCausal.
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Research Objective Appropriate Design
To gain background information, to define terms, to clarify Exploratory
problems and develop hypotheses, to establishresearch priorities, to develop questions to be
answered
To describe and measure phenomena at a point Descriptive
in time
To determine causality, test hypotheses, to make “if -then” Causal
statements, to answer questions
Basic Research Objectives and
Research Design
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Research Design: ExploratoryResearch
Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured, “informal” research that is undertaken to gainbackground information about the general nature of theresearch problem.
Exploratory research is usually conducted when the
researcher does not know much about the problem andneeds additional information or desires new or morerecent information.
Undertaken with the aim of clarifying ambiguousproblems
General problems usually known but not sufficiently
understood The purpose is to get more information, not to uncover
specific courses of action (subsequent research)Example: Child-Care support programme for employees
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Methods for Exploratory Research
A variety of methods are available toconduct exploratory research:
Secondary Data Analysis
Experience Surveys
Case Analysis
Focus Groups
Projective Techniques
h i i i
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Research Design: DescriptiveResearch
Descriptive research is undertaken to provide answers toquestions of who, what, where, when, and how – but notwhy.
Some examples: What is the prevailing organizational culture in
broadcast networks?- Who are the main consumers of organic foods?- How many students read the prescribed course
literature?
Two basic classifications: Cross-sectional studies Longitudinal studies
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Research Design: DescriptiveResearchCross-sectional Studies
Cross-sectional studies measure unitsfrom a sample of the population at onlyone point in time.
Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies whose samples are drawn in such a way as to be representative of a specific population.
On-line survey research is being usedto collect data for cross-sectional
surveys at a faster rate of speed .
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Research Design: Descriptive ResearchLongitudinal Studies
Longitudinal studies repeatedly draw sample units of a population over time.
One method is to draw different units
from the same sampling frame. A second method is to use a “panel”
where the same people are asked torespond periodically.
On-line survey research firms recruit panel members to respond to onlinequeries.
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Research Design: DescriptiveResearchLongitudinal Studies
Two types of panels:
Continuous panels ask panel members thesame questions on each panel
measurement. Discontinuous (Omnibus) panels vary
questions from one time to the next.
Longitudinal data used for:
Market tracking
Brand-switching
Attitude and image checks
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Causal Research:
Undertaken with the aim of identifyingcause and effect relationships amongstvariables
Are normally preceeded by exploratory anddescriptive research studies
Often difficult to determine because of theinfluence of other variables (concommitant
Variation and the presence of other hiddenvariables) Example: Higher ice-cream consumption
causes more people to drown (indicative ofa causal relationship (?))
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Causal Research
Types of variables: Independent variables – the cause
supposed to be responsible for thebringing about change in a phenomenon or
situation. Dependent variables – the outcome of
change brought about by change in theindependent variable
Intervening variable – a variable whoseexistence is inferred but cannot bemanipulated or controlled
Moderator variable – a variable that mayor may not be controlled but has an effect
on the research situation/phenomenon
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Causal Research
For example:
Does a commitment to ethics among mediapractitioners depend on their educational or
professional training? Independent variable: educational attainment
of journalist.
Dependent variables: ethical behavior,
knowledge of Code of Ethics Intervening variable: newsroom policies
Moderator variables: civil status, age, years ofwork experience
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Experimental Design
An experimental design is a procedurefor devising an experimental setting
such that a change in the dependent
variable may be solely attributed to achange in an independent variable.
Symbols of an experimental design:
O = measurement of a dependent variable
X = manipulation, or change, of anindependent variable
R = random assignment of subjects toexperimental and control groups
E = experimental effect
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Stages in the Research Process
Define
Problem
Planning a
Research Design
Planning
a Sample
Gathering
the Data
Processing and
Analysing the Data
Conclusions
and Report
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Flowcharting the Research Process(1)
Problem Discovery
Secondary (historical) data
Pilot Study
Experience Survey
Case Study
Problem Definition
(Statement of research objectives)
Selection of
exploratory
research technique
Selection of
basic research
method
Survey (Interview, Questionnaire)
Experiment (Laboratory, Field)
Secondary Data Study
Observation
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Flowcharting the Research Process(2)
Survey (Interview, Questionnaire)
Experiment (Laboratory, Field)
Secondary Data Study
Observation
Sample Design
Probability
Sampling
Non-Probability
Sampling
Collection of Data (Fieldwork)
Editing and Coding Data
Data Processing and Analysis
Interpretation of Findings
Report