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COMMUNICATION
SPEECH:
Ability to communicate complicated messages
Achieved by 2 types of sensory stimulation:
- auditory stimulation- visual stimulation
. WRITING:Conventional visual representation of speech.
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LANGUAGE:
It is a system of conventional signals used for
communication by a whole communityIt includes:
- Phonemes: system of sound units
- Inflection and arrangement of words
- Association of meaning with words
. REDUNDANCY
An utterance will provide a large complex of cues
for the listener to interpret but a great deal of thisinformation will be redundant as far as thelisteners needs are concerned.
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SPOKEN LANGUAGE
Younger and older generations / men and women
soft: /sft/ /s:ft/
. Locality
part /p:t/ /p:rt/boot /bu:t/ /but/book /buk/
. Educated and uneducated speech
help /elp/ house /us/ /hus/
name /nem/ /nam/ about /but/ /but/
. Childish mispronunciations or physical defects
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STYLES OF PRONUNCIATIONThey depend on a series of features (phonetic adjustments
which help us adapt to the situation:
TEMPO speed of delivery
RHYTHMuse of prominent syllables or words
CONTINUITY place and length of pauses
MUSCULAR TENSION articulatory precision
GRADATION weaknening of structural words
COMPRESSION - age: /ed/ /dv:ntd/
ELISION - /g:dn/ /g:dn/
ASSIMILATIONSthat boy/tp b/
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STYLES OF PRONUNCIATION
FORMALSlow tempo, precise articulation, high frequencyof accented words
UNHURRIED COLLOQUIAL
Clear, slow tempo, high frequency of accentedwords, assimilations, elisions and precisearticulation.
INFORMAL COLLOQUIAL
It has a maximum number of assimilations,elisions and compressions, slurred articulationsand a reduction of accented words.
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Received pronunciation - RP
RP: it is the pronunciation used in the south ofEngland by people educated at preparatory boardingschools and Public Schools.
General RP
Refined RP
It reflects a class distinction. It is considered to be upperclass
Regional RP
It is a speech which is basically RP except for thepresence of a few regional characteristics
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LEXICAL DIFFERENCES
The occurence or incidence of phonemes is
different
Boot Book
One Among
REALIZATIONAL DIFFERENCES
The number of distinctive terms operating may
be the same but the phonetic realizations of thephonemes may be different.
Bet Bat
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Systems other than RP
General American (GA)
It lacks a few diphthongs. Beard (short vowel + /r/
/r/ before consonant Part
It has no /o/, it becomes /a:/ Bottle
/a:/ changes Past
Standard Scottish English
No distinction of oppositions Boot Book
Tapped /r/ Red
It lacks a few diphthongs Beard /bi:rd/ (rhotic)
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London English
Front vowels are closer and sound similar
Sat set sitLong vowels /i:/, /u:/ /o:/ become diphthongs
Bed Boot Sword
/ei/ becomes /ai/ Late/ou/ becomes / / Load
omission of /h/ house
Northern English
RP /u/ and /^/ sound /^ / Could cud Australian English
Drops /h/
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LUNGS
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VOCAL CORDS
- Vocal Cords: 2 folds of ligament and elastic tissue
which run in a horizontal position from back to front.
They determine the pitch of voice.
- Glottis: space between the vocal cords
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POSITION OF VOCAL CORDSWide apart:
Normal breathing
Voiceless sound
Tightly together:
glottal stop
Loosely or closely together:
produce voice (but not as
we know it)
Voiced sound
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RESONATING CAVITIES(Hol low sp ace con tain ing air and changes the qual i ty of the so und )
PHARYNX
ORAL CAVITY
NASAL CAVITY
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THE MOUTH (oral cavity) FIX ORGANS (Passive: incapable of movement)
Teeth
Alveolar Ridge
Hard Palate
Pharyngeal wall
MOVABLE ORGANS (Active: capable of movement)
Lips Uvula
Tongue Lower jaw
Soft Palate
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ARTICULATORSTongue: (very moveable organ)
Tip
Blade opposite alveolar ridge
Front opposite the hard palate
Back opposite the soft palate
Rim edges
Dorsum upper area
Palate
Alveolar ridge - Hard Palate - Soft Palate or Velum (Uvula)
Lips: (can adopt different shapes. Lip position is important for the formation ofvowels). When producing vowels the tip of tongue is behind the lower teethand the back is bunched up in different ways
Close together / f /
spread / i: /neutral or relaxed / e /
open rounded / o /
close rounded / u: /
Teeth
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English Vowels
/i:/ //
/e/ //
/:/ // /:/
/u/ /u:/
// // /:/
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English Diphthongs
/a/ /e/
//
/u/ /u/ // /e/
/u/
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English Consonants
Voiceless Voiced /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/
/k/ //
/f/ /v/
// //
/s/ /z/
// //
/t/ /d/
/h/
/m/
/n/ //
/r/
/l/
/j/
/w/
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PHONETICS -PHONOLOGY
PHONEME: the smallest contrastivephonological unit which can produce adifference in meaning.
met pet
ALLOPHONE: variants of each phoneme. Theydepend on the position of the phoneme in a
word or syllable (followed by vowel, con. orpause)
light health tall
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PHONOLGY:
Deals with phonemes.
Studies selection and organization ofphonic substance into given form.
The wrong choice of a phoneme will lead
to a different meaning. PHONETICS:
Deals with allophones. How the
phonemes are realized.The wrong choice of an allophone will leadto a foreign accent.
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CARDINAL VOWELS
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Cardinal Vowels
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CARDINAL VOWELS
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Secondary Cardinal Vowels
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Cardinal Vowels
Front CV: are
pronounced with
spread or open lips Back CV: have a
varying degree of lip
rounding
Secondary Cardinal
Vowels
They are obtained by
reversing the lipposition:
Front: lip rounding
Back: lip spreading
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ENGLISH VOWELS
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ENGLISH VOWELS
Tongue tends to be behind lower lip
Some require raising of the front of the tongue
other are articulated with hump at the back.
Air must escape over middle of the tongue
Oral: air escapes through the mouth
Vowel description will usually be based on
auditory judgements of sound relationshiptogether with some articulatory information,
especially as regards the position of the lip.
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CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELSAccording to the height to which the
tongue is raised.
Close to the palate
Close-Mid (half close)
Open-mid (half open)
Open
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. According to lip position
- Rounded
- Spread
- Neutral
According to muscular tension
- Tense- Lax
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According to the part of the tongue which israised highest.
- Front vowels
- Back vowels
- Central vowels
According to lip position
- Rounded- Spread
- Neutral
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Tense / Lax Vowels
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Front Vowels
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Back vowels
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VOWEL / i: /
Height: slightly below and behind the front
close position (almost touching the palate)
Part of tongue: front of tongue
Lips: spread
Muscular tension: tense.
Side rims of tongue: firm contact againstupper molars.
Quality: near cardinal [ i ]
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VOWEL / i: /
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VOWEL / i: /
Ordinary spelling Weed Leeks
Meters Even
Season
People
Piece Field
Receive Seize
Key Caesar
Foetus
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VOWEL / I /
Height: just above the close-mid position.
Part of tongue: nearer to the centre than to front
Lips: loosely spread
Muscular tension: lax
Side rims of tongue: light contact with upper
molars
Degree of closeness and centralization variesaccording to accentual force
Quality: that of centralized C [ e ]
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VOWEL / I /
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VOWEL / I /
Ordinary spelling Little Silly
Village Private
Pretty Before
Busy Business
Married
Captain
Sovereign Biscuit Building
Symbol
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VOWEL / i /
Final unaccented positions
Short variety of /i:/
Example: lady
maybe
kitty
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VOWEL / e /
Height: between the close-mid and open-mid positions.
Part of tongue: front
Lips: loosely spread Side rims of tongue: making light contact
with upper molars
Quality: between C [e] and C [] Position: does not occur in final, open
syllables
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VOWEL / e /
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VOWEL / e /
Ordinary spelling Went
Head lead
Said again
Any says
Geoffrey leopard
Leicester leisure
Friend Extra
Burry
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VOWEL / /
Height: just above open
Part of tongue: front
Side rims of tongue: very slight contact with the
back upper molars Lips: neutrally open
Quality: close to C [a]
Length: short but lengthened before voicedconsonants
Position: does not occur in final position
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VOWEL / /
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VOWEL / /
Ordinary spelling
Cab
Bag
Rabbit
Latter Later
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Linguistic Sciences
Phonetics
Is interested in
sounds (phonicsubstance) and how
they are organized
and transmitted.
Linguistics
Is concerned with how
language is structuredgramatically and
semantically.
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Phoneme and allophones
PHONEME: the smallest contrastivephonological unit which can produce adifference in meaning.
met pet
met mat ALLOPHONE: variants of each phoneme. They
depend on the position of the phoneme in aword or syllable (followed by vowel, con. or
pause)light health tall milk
nine ninth unfortunate
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PHONETICS
Phonology:Studies the selection andorganization of the phonicsubstance into a givenform or pattern.
Deals with phonemes.The wrong choice of aphoneme will lead
to a different meaning.
Phonetics:
Studies the phonic
substance. Studies how
the phonemes are
actually realized.
Deals with allophones.
The wrong choice of an
allophone will lead to a
foreign accent.
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Transcriptions
Phonemic (broad)
Records only theorder in whichsegments occur.
Details such asdevoicing, secondaryarticulation, variationsof vowel length arenot accounted for..
ex. su:p
Allophonic (narrow)
Records the actualrealization of eachphoneme.
Details of articulationare accounted forvisually.
ex. su.p
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SPEECH CHAIN
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Speech Chain
Activity/ Stage Area of
Level phonetics
Psychological linguistic
Physiological articulatory articulatory
Physical acoustic acoustic
Physiological perceptual auditory Psychological linguistic
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VOWEL / /
Height: just above the fully open position
Part of tongue: centre
Side rims of tongue: no contact between the
tongue and upper molars. Lips: neutrally open
Quality: centralized and slightly raised C [a]
Length: short vowel
Position: does not occur in final, open syllables.
Jaws: considerable separation
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VOWEL / /
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VOWEL / /
Ordinary spelling
Hurry Jungle
Monk London
Enough Touch
Flood
Does
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English Vowels
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English Vowels
Position of tongue
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Vowel Elision
Vowel elision: is the loss of vowels under weak accentwithin a word. The forms exhibiting elision
are typically of rapid, colloquial speech.
Cons. + // + / r / + weak vowelterritory lavatory
Primary accent + // or / i / + consonant
murderer temperature
difficult national
university reasonable
/ r / + weak vowel + consonant
barracking Dorothy
Vowel Elision
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Vowel Elision
Cons. + weak vowel + / l / or /n/ (syllabic sound)
paddle paddling (syllabic /l/ becomes syllable marginal)
double doubling thicken
Pre-primary position:
// or /i/ in weak syllable + primary accent /l/or /r/police veranda delightful
Loss of syllabicity in the present participle ofverbs where the // may be elided or the syllablic
cons. /n/ replaced by non syllablic cons.lighten lightening lightning
thicken thickening
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Vowel Elision
No vowel elision
Nasal + // + nasal
Ex. Woman
Nasal + plosive + // + nasal
Ex. London
Hampton
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VOWEL / a: /
Lips: neutrally open Jaws: considerable separation
Part of the tongue: centre and back
Hight of tongue: open position
Rims: no contact of the rims of the tongueand the upper molars
Quality: nearer to C [ ] than to C [ a ]
Length: long vowel. May be shortened when followed
voiceless consonant, however this shortening
is not as marked as for other long vowels.
. Does not normally occur before / /
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VOWEL / a: /
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Vowel / a: /
Ordinary spelling
Calm staff after grant class fast
Part
Heart
Clerk sergent
Aunt laugh
Hurrah Calm half
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VOWEL /:/
Height: between close-mid and open-mid Part of tongue: centre of the tongue
Lips: neutrally spread.
Length: long vowel
Rims: no firm contact between the tongue and uppermolars.
Quality: is remote from all peripheral cardinal vowel
values. The quality coincides with that of //, the
difference between the two being only one of
length Position: usually occurs in accented syllables, but may
appear in unaccented sy.: foreword foreward
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VOWEL /:/
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VOWEL /:/Ordinary spelling
Her Serve Err
First
Myrtle
Work World (preceded by w)
Journey
Church
Purr Earn
Vowel lengh
Bird fur first church
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VOWEL / /
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VOWEL / /
Height: fully open position Part of tongue: back
Side rims of tongue: no contact between thetongue and upper molars.
Lips: slight open lip rounding Quality: that of an open lip-rounded C [ ] (i.e.
secondary cardinal vowel )
Length: short vowel
Position: does not occur in final, open syllables.
Jaws: wide open jaws
O / /
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VOWEL / /
VOWEL / /
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VOWEL / /
Ordinary spelling Cough
Want (w+ a)
Knowledge Australia
Bottle (o + doble cons.)
From (o + final cons.)
Vowel length
Cod cot dot solve
S d C di l V l
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Secondary Cardinal Vowels
VOWEL / : /
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VOWEL / : /
Height: between open-mid and close-midposition
Part of tongue: back
Side rims of tongue: no contact between the
tongue and upper molars. Lips: medium lip rounding
Quality: between C [ ] C [ o] Length: long vowel
Position: initial (august), mid (born), final (saw)does not occur before /velar n /
VOWEL / : /
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VOWEL / : /
VOWEL / : /
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VOWEL / : /Ordinary spelling
Warm
Score Short (o + r final or o + r + cons.) Authorization Daughter
Yawn
Course
Thought More
Floor
Board
All (a + l final)
Salt (a + l + cons)
George
Vowel Length
Saw sward sord short
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English Vowels
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English Vowels
Position of tongue
VOWEL / / ( h )
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VOWEL // (schwa)
Part of tongue: central vowel
Side rims of tongue: no contact between thetongue and upper molars.
Lips: neutral lip position
Quality: that of a central vowel
Length: short vowel
Position: unaccented syllables. Jaws: slightly open jaws
VOWEL / / ( h )
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VOWEL // (schwa)
VOWEL / /
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VOWEL //Ordinary spelling
Breakfast attempt
Particular
Pavement
Concert
Horrible
Protect
Effort
Famous
Colour
Minimum
Figure
cupboard
VOWEL / /
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VOWEL //
It is commonly used in unaccented weakforms:
Examples:
n n
t t
f: f
tu: t
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VOWEL / /
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VOWEL / u /
Height: just above close mid position Part of the tongue: nearer the centre than
to the back
Muscular tension: lax
Rims of tongue: no firm contact between
the tongue and upper molars
Lips: rounded, but there is a tendency to
be unrounded
Position: both accented and unaccented sy.
Does not occur in word initial position nor
before / / and finally only in unaccented form of to
and you . Length: short
Quality: Centralized C [ o ]
VOWEL / u /
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VOWEL / u /
VOWEL / u /
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VOWEL / u /
Ordinary spelling
Cushion Bush
Wood Book
Woman
Could
Vowel lengh Full Could Pull Wolf
VOWEL /u:/
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VOWEL /u:/
Part of tongue: back Height: Close to palate
Muscular tension: tense
Lips: closely rounded
Rims of tongue: no firm contact is madebetween the tongue and the upper molars
Position: Does not occur before / /
Length: Long
Quality: relaxed, slightly lowered and centralized C [u].
VOWEL /u:/
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VOWEL /u:/
VOWEL /u:/
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VOWEL /u:/
Ordinary spelling Future
Spoon
Move
Routine
deuce
New
Blue
Juice
ShoeVowel lengh
Blue mood boot fooled
VOWEL /u:/
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VOWEL /u:/
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Write in phonetics
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Write in phonetics
Flights Cookies
Authors
Talks
Rushes
Hopped
Phoned
Mended Walked
Started
Inches Protest
Declare
Repay
Aimless
Policeman
Document
Celebrate Fortunate
Agreeing
Write in phonetics
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Write in phonetics
Being Seeing
Illusion
Precision
Communication
Preclinical
Subarea
Example Excellent
Except
Expert React
Readmit
Bicentenary
Music
Amusing
European
Universal Human
Aspiration
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Potatoes Tentative
Conclude
Recover Attitude
Attempt
Politics
Consumers
Spanish
Particular Crops
Carried
Peculiar Includes
Consideration
Circumstances
Appears
Rapid
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Strong and weak forms
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Strong and weak forms
We know her, but she doesnt know us.
He really does believe that story
She said you must, not that you may go.
They hate you but not us. Am I serious? Yes, I am afraid I am!
Shall we call the doctor or will you.
There is a man calling you. Where? Over there. Thats the tool for this work.
TRANSCRIPTION
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Just two months ago my life was completely
different. I had been living abroad for four months
but I hadnt begun to feel at home yet. Its always
hard making friends if you go somewhere new, but
in another country there is the added problem ofdifferences in language and culture. I was feeling
lonely and bored and I spent all my time reading
and going to the cinema. There were benefits: I
read some books that Id always wanted to readand I became very knowledgeable about the films..
Characteristics of English
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diphthongs
Falling: 1st element is moreprominent than 2nd.Decreasing prominence
All english diphthongs.
Closing: glide from a more
open to a closer position.
According to distance tonguetravels
Narrow:
Length: they are equivalent to a
long, pure vowel
Syllables: consist of only 1 syllable
Position: never before cons. / /
Rising: Second element ismore prominent than first - /i/and /u/ unaccented syllables
happier - influence
Centring: glide to a central
position //
Wide: /ai/i/u/
English diphthongs
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English diphthongs
yourtongue
moves to:
CHART POSITIONS OF THE
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DIPHTHONGS:
RISING TO
RISING TO
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RISING TO
RISING TO
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CENTRING
Diphthong
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Diphthong
Glide: begins between half open and halfclose and moves in direction to /u/
Jaw: slight closing movement of lower jaw
Lips: neutral for 1st element, 2nd elementlips have a tendency to round.
Starting point: tongue position similar to
/ : /
Diphthong
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Diphthong
Diphthong
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Diphthong
o - both
oe toe
ow pillow
oa toast
ou shoulder
o + cons. + e vote o + cons. + y cosy
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Plural/Possessive/3rd Person
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Plural/Possessive/3rd Person
Wheels Welshes
Benches
Fields
Chicks
Begs
Moods
Youths bruises
Wreaths Doctors
Shapes
Stones
Combs
Ceases
Sneezes
Springs garages
Past tense - regular verbs
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Past tense regular verbs
Hardened Leadked
Farmed
Coursed Shamed
Grounded
Depicted tripped
Received Lived
Served
Grounded Pointed
Stored
Obtained Finished
Prefixes
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Prefixes
. Rewrite Reliable
Reproval
Reckon Preexistent
Prevents
Deputy
Device
Subtract
Provider Prospect
Pro-celebrity
Excite
Exist
Binomial
Binary
Word endigs
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Word endigs
Fruitless Thursday
Happen
Cheapest Noticeable
Encourage
Argument Tiredness
Lace Necklace
Open
Nature Vicious
Colour
Graceful Hotest
/ / + k / g
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/ / k / g
Incurs Think
Banger
Hanged
Longing
Longest
Drinking
Younger ankle
Ringer Sting
Hunger
Length
/ j / - / w /
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/ j / / w /
Human Yard
Beautiful
View
Wordly
Square
Upwards
Humanity acquire
Elision
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Elision
Favourite Opera
Average
Moderate Camera
History
Boundary Every
Miserable Different
Missionary
Flavouring Cookery
Victory
Temperature Darken
Strong and weak forms
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Strong and weak forms
It was the pick of the bunch. What can we suggest to them for
Christmas?
Havent you heard from them at all? There could be a bit of rain at the end of
the morning. In the evening there will besunshine.
Have you taken them from that box?
Arent there some letters for her to open?
Diphthong //
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Diphthong //
Glide: begins with tongue position of close mid andcentralized from front and moves in direction of a moreopen variety of // - when // is in final position in aword.
In non final position the glide is not so extensive.
Lips: neutral, with slight movement from spread to open.
In unaccented syllables it is not always falling. // can beweaker of the two and becomes rising diphthong. Ex.periodserious prd -srs
The rising type // is often used when // represents asuffix with morphemic status.
easy i:zi easier i:z carry kri carrier kr
Diphthong //
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Diphthong //
Ordinary spellingDeer dear
Weird fierce
Fakir idea
Material museum
Theory Period
medium
Long and reducedhere pierce dear serious
Diphthong /u/
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Diphthong /u/
Glide: begins with tongue position of close mid andcentralized from back and moves in direction of a moreopen variety of // - when // is in final position in aword.
In non final position the glide is not so extensive. More
closer variety of //. Lips: weakly rounded at the beginning of the glide andneutrally spread as it progresses.
In unaccented syllables this diphthong may be rising.Ex. Influence /nfluns/
In many cases it represents a realization of a finalunaccented /u:/ + morpheme.
ex. Rescue /reskju:/ rescuer /reskju/
Diphthong /u/
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p t o g /u/
Ordinary spelling
Poor sewer
Tour endure
Fluent actual
During
Diphthong /e/
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p g
Glide: it begins in the open-mid frontposition and moves in direction of the
more open variety of // - when it is in final
position. In non final position it tends to glide to a
mid // type.
Lips: neutrally open.
Diphthong /e/
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p g
Diphthong /e/
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p g
Ordinary spellingStare Stair
Pair Pear
Mary HeirThere
Long and reduced
affair scarceNever before dark /l/
Narrow transcriptionM k li ki / / d k /l/ li ti f ti li i f ll
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Mark linking /r/, dark /l/, nasalization, pre-fortis clipping, fulland weak aspiration, rising diphthongs.
e: tek :d t:n n rat // en stp ba t:t// ad lak j t rv:s raund t k:n //
bi: jes / a s:t()nli ni:d t prkts rv:s //
e: nt bd // bt j w:nt klus nf t k:b // t:n
str wi:l f: t left // bi: u ke // l:st lesn a t:nd t tu: mt / nd a wz tu:
klus t k:b // u d / t wz w:s //
e: wi:l rt:n t rv:s let // nu drav n // t:n ratba bg f: tri: //
bi: a ni:d t l:n hau t du: n mdnsi stp //
e: jes / wen wi:v gn bt f: // tek f:st t:n -mand t g:l // wel dn / t wz p:fkt m:dnsistp //
Linking /r/
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g
I love buns with butter and honey. This is the city where I live.
The fast car was far in the dark.
They were aware that the barbarians could
be everywhere.
Write in phonetics
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p
These are my lead soldiers. He always takes the lead in any group.
Whenever he goes fishing he comes back with ahuge sole.
Something is stuck on the sole of my left shoe. The boy I live with knows a good pub with live
music.
If we don`t hurry, it will be hard to wind in the
sails in this wind. Don`t worry it`s just another family row about theholidays.
Plurals
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Laughs things Roses angels
Sinks garages
Ridges rugs
Hopes moths
Laws churches
Tins stops
Transcribe the following verbs in
their past version
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their past version
Growl knit Walk die
Raised permit
Wash invest Nod work
Expect regard
Answer add Pack listen
Transcribe the following sentences
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g
A little girl aged four. An aged man with a weather-beaten face.
She learned her lesson with no difficulty.
He was a learned scholar from Cambridge
The priest blessed the people at the end of theceremony
A blessed saint.
She was beloved by all. He as a beloved monarch.
Strong and weak form
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g
The woman couldnt put on her hood. Use a ruler as you do at school.
You put the book as high as you could.
She herself said it was a bit expensive.
He and his wife have both had a lot of work. We have a friend who has an owl and a parrot.
She said that that was the problem they had to solve.
He is the one who made a mistake, not me.
There is a book we need over there. We dont smoke but some people do.
Where have you been? Ive been to the butchers
DIPHTHONG /u/DIPHTHONG
/u/
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/u/
Glide: begins at a point between the back andfront open position, slightly more fronted thanthe position for /a:/ or C[ ], and moves towardsvowel /u/.
Lips: change from neutrally open to a weaklyrounded position.
Requires extensive movement of the tongue(wide diphthong)
Jaw: closing movement Long: how / loud Reduced: shout
Diphthong /e/
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p g
DIPHTHONG /u/
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Ordinary spelling: House
Cow
Long or reduced:
Shout loud town
Mouse owl mouth
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DIPHTHONG /e/
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Glide: begins from slightly below close-mid frontposition and moves towards /I/
Jaw: slightly closing movement.
Quality: the starting point is somewhat closer
than vowel /e/ Before dark /l/: the // is often absorbed into the
// or /u/ ex. /mel/
Does not require extensive movement of thetongue. (narrow diphthong)
Long: day / made Reduced: late
DIPHTHONG /e/
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DIPHTHONG /e/
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Ordinary spelling: Late
Rain
Day
Eight
They
Long or reduced
Shade chaseFailed ache
Steak
Face
Lazy
Range
hatesave
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DIPHTHONG / a/
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Glide: begins slightly behind front open positionand moves in the direction of vowel //
It requires an extensive movement of thetongue. (wide diphthong)
Lower jaw: closing movement. Lips: change from a neutral to a loosely spread
position.
Before dark /l/ the // element is often absorbedinto the // or /u/ glide on to the /l/.
Eg. Pile
DIPHTHONG / a/
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DIPHTHONG / a/
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Ordinary spelling
Write high
Pie height
Aisle dry
Dye
Long or reduced:Fly like mile ripe
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DIPHTHONG //
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Glide: begins at a point between the open-mid and openback positions and moves in direction of of vowel //
Tongue movement: extends from back to centralizedfront. Does not require such an extensive movement ofthe tongue as diphthong /a/. (wide diphthong)
Jaw movement: slighter than for diphthong /a/
Lips: open rounded for the first element, changing toneutral/slightly spread for the second element.
Before dark /l/ the // element is often absorbed into the
// or /u/ glide on to the /l/Eg. Oil
DIPHTHONG //
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DIPHTHONG //
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Ordinary spelling
Boil
ToyVoyage
Long or reduced:Noise voice joy boils
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Classification of consonants
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According to the organ that sets the airstream inmotion:
pulmonic non pulmonic
If the air is forced outwards or sucked inwards.
egressive - ingressive
If the vocal cords vibrate or not.
voiced - voiceless
Position of the soft palatenasal - oral
Classification of consonantsA di t ti l t d ( l f ti l ti )
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According to articulators used: (place of articulation)
bilabial: /p/ /b/ /m/
labiodental: /f/ /v/
dental: // //
alveolar: /t/ /d/ /n/ /s/ /z/ /l/post alveolar: /r/
retroflex: / /
palato alveolar: // / / /t/ /d/
palatal: /j/velar: /k/ // //
glottal: /h/
Classification of consonantsBil bi l th t li th i ti l t ( d fi l )
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Bilabial: the two lips are the primary articulators (pressed firmly).
Labiodental: lower lip articulates with the upper teeth.
Dental: tip and rims of tongue articulate with upper teeth.
Alveolar: tip and blade of tongue art. with alveolar ridge.
Post-Alveolar: tip of tongue articulates with rear part of alveolar
ridge.
Retroflex: tip of tongue is curled back to articulate with the hardpalate.
Palato-alveolar: tip and blade of tongue art. with alveolar ridge and
the front part of tongue is raised towards hard palate.
Palatal: front of tongue articulates with the hard palate.
Velar: back of tongue articulates with the soft palate.
Glottal: an obstruction or narrowing causing friction between vocal
folds.
Classification of consonants
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According to type of closure: (manner of articulation)
Complete closure:Plosive: complete closure in the mouth, air pressure builds up,
sudden release.
/p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ //
Affricate:complete closure at some point in the mouth, airpressure builds up, separation of organs is slow, producing friction
/t/ /d/
Nasal: complete closure at some point of the mouth, soft palate islowered, air escapes through the mouth.
/m/ /n/ //
Classification of consonants
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Intermittent closure:Rolled:rapid succession of taps made by a flexible organ on afirmer surface
/r/
Tap (flapped): single tap by a flexible organ on a firmer surface.The tongue taps once against the teeth ridge. (Scottish /r/)
//
Partial closure:
Lateral: partial closure at some part in the mouth and air escapeson one or both sides of the tongue.
/l/
Classification of consonants
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Narrowing:Fricative:two organs approximate to such an extent that
at the air passes between them and produces friction.
/f/ /v/ // // /s/ /z/ // //Narrowing without friction:
Approximants: (frictionless continuant): there isnarrowing in the mouth but not sufficient to produce
friction./j/ /w/
Correct the mistakes
A d // k h l j ?
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A: u:d m:rn // k a help j?
B: jez/ pli:z/ am lu:kin fr pki hlidei
smwer w temprts n:t fli: tu
fri:sng pntz/ n if psibl / tp wn //
A: a nk ez sm f: ju: // wi: hvwndrful turz / e klt le w ple:
la n e snain //
B: t`l bi: gret //
A: hs bruu / w :l i: pless nd
prazz//
Transcription
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I won`t ever go by boat..
John Brown`s been to town.
The postmans over the road.
He has a bouncing hound who covers the ground bybounces.
Go home and dont joke.
.
TRIPHTHONGS
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Technically a triphthong is a group of threevowel sounds set in one syllable and with a peak
of prominence said on the central vowel.
A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another
and then to a third, all produced rapidly and
without interruption.
In English, they are not really triphthongs
because they are set in two syllables and themiddle sound is the weakest of the three.
DIPHTHONG + //
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All diphthongs may be followed by // withinthe word, either
As an inseparable port of the word
hire /ha/ sour /su/
As a suffix (morpheme) appended to the root.
higher /ha/ employer /mpl/
As a separable element internal in a composite
formnowadays /nudez/
DIPHTHONG + //
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DIPHTHONG + //
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/e/ + // ple /a/ + // fa
// + // l
/u/ + // flu
/u/ + // slu
SMOOTHING (LEVELLING)
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There is a tendency to omit the second // or /u/,especially when // is not felt as a separable morpheme.
fire /fa/ /fa()/ /fa:/ /fa:/
flower /flu/ /fl(u)/ /fl:/ /fl:/
There is confusion between /u/ and /a:/, resulting inhomophones such as:
Shaire /a/ Shower/u/ Shah/:/
/a:/ /:/ /:/
Tower /tu/ /t:/ tar/t:/
DIPHTHONG + //
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/e/ + // ple ple ple:
/a/ + // fa fa fa:
// + // mpl mpl
/u/ + // flu fl fl:
/u/ + // slu sl sl:
mu m:It may occur accross word boundaries:
They are - /e :/- /e / - /e() / - /e/
There are - /e :/- /e / - /e() / - /e/
Boy and girl - b() g:l
TRANSCRIPTION
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Despite the fact that my grandmother is ninety-two years old, she is still very active and full oflife. Actually she behaves as if she were thirtyyears younger than she is. She works eight
hours every day around the house, and shegoes shopping by herself. When shes not busycooking and cleaning she likes spending hertime reading, knitting and doing crosswords.Her memory is as good today as it ever was andher sence of humour seems to get better theolder she gets.
Correct the transcription e = mai sstr z kmg tu: si: mi: tmru //
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e mai sstr z kmg tu: si: mi: tmru //
a wnd wtz n // bi:= lu:k n i: nju:spep // n i sekn k:ld
enttenments //
e = u / jes // lu:k / t plers t // es
kmedi / w mnd m:rgn / nd makellen //
bi: = av h:d f mnd m:rgn / bt huz
makel len? e = hi: wz n t telvn si:rs but e
hsptl // hi: pled dkt hu: cem frm
knd //
Correct the transcription
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bi: = u jes / a rmembr // tmru z gu:d nat t gu tu: i: t // n mndes
/ ju: kn get tu: si:ts f: pras v wn //
e = ts gu:d // juuli / wen a gu tu: t / a st t bk / ts nt z
kmftbl / bt ts ti:p / bt tmru wi:
k f:d bet si:ts / t i frnt //
Homographs(group of words that share the same spelling but have different meanings and
different pronunciation)
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p )
Give two different pronunciations for eachword
Lead Live
Minute Polish
Read RowUse Wind
Wound Bow
Nice TearSow Put(t)
Vowel // or //
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All the words have // or //, decide whichis the correct sound.
Monday afraidTonight enough
Human recover
Become troubleSugar important
Homophones(word that is pronounced the same as another but differs in meaning and spelling)
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Give two different spellings for thefollowing pronunciations:
ti: si: sm b:dha hm w: wi:k
nat nu ri:d e
ru: wt
Homophones
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Transcribe and list the following words into
groups of homophones.
Pore saw course orSeen nun one paw
Won oar scene coarse
None ore soar
Relation letter-sound Give the different pronunciations of the spelling
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p p g
ea in:
Team guinea leather Sean
great idea Wearing
Give the pronunciation of the vowel sound in:
Truth boot clue soup
flew juice shoe tomb
. Give the pronunciation of the spelling ough in:Through tough thorough thoughPlough thought cough hiccough
Strong and weak forms
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You should have seen her! What is that for, for goodness sake?
There were some fifty people there.
If I had known he was going to be laughedat, I would have stopped it.
She said she couldnt show it to himbecause it was for his birthday.
She told me that the baby had had itssupper, not him.
Classification of vowels
According to the classification of vowels,
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g ,
circle the odd word out in each group andgive the reason why.
Hand wolf bath sorry Dock move match board
Cheese pretty does stock
Son world car soup Heart group leaf juice
NARROW TRANSCRIPTION
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Write the following words in phonetics andindicate: nasalization, pre-fortis clipping, smoothing
(levelling), full aspiration, weak aspiration, vowel elision.
Meetings mint History dreadful
Quiet resist
Particular resists
Ship expenses Badness moment
Allowed available
VOWEL AND DIPHTHONG
DIAGRAM
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On the diagram below indicate the vowelsand glides for the diphthongs in the
following words.
Spy rent saint choiceHall laugh fewer rare
Homographs
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Give two different pronunciations for eachword.
Close drawer Invalid buffet
bathed
Homophones: match and transcribe the following
list of words into groups of homophones
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Blew Sought
Q
Sight
Y Steak
Knight
Weight
Neigh Yolk
there
Wait Stake
Nay
Sort
Night Yoke
Why
Cite
Their Blue
Queue
Transcription
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The yearly report of the Blue Cross the charity that runanimal hopitals reported 9% increase in the number of
animals treated at its four centres. Many pet owners
cannot afford their vets bill and are now going to the
charity. One of the main reasons for the increase in bills isa new European Community law which has doubled the
cost of veterinary medicines. Vetscosts are going up, and
like all small businesses they have to keep up with the
times if an animal has to have an expensive treatmentthen people have to pay for it.
GRADATIONArticles, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs
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And nd nd - n - n
As z z But bt bt
From frm frm - frm
Of v v
Or : -
Than n n
That t (demonstrative) t To tu: t + cons. / tu + vowel
There e (adv. Of place)
A e
An n n
The i: + or i:
i + vowel except or i:
+ consonant
At t t
Off f ---
On n ---
Up p
GRADATIONRelative, personal, possessive and objective pronouns
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Who hu: hu
Whom hu:m hum Whose hu:z huz
Me mi: mi
You ju: ju + vowel / j + cons.
Your ju -j: j
He hi: hi - i His hz z
Him hm m
She i: i
Her h: h /
We wi: wi Us s s
Them em m
Their
Rules for strong form
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When the word is used as a noun.And means .
When contrasted
I didnt say and I said but. Before a pause
What are you looking at?
Pronoun in a compound subjectHe and his wife painted the house
Rules for strong form
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When an auxiliary is contracted on to thepronoun.
He`d like to go to Europe this summer
Inversion of subject and verb.
Yes, said he.
When the pronoun is followed by an emphasizer
He himself did it.
Preposition + pronoun
Look at me
Rules for strong form
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There Introductory there is usually in weak form.
Theres a book on the shelf
There are some flowers in the garden.
There will be no classes tomorrow.
When used as an adverb it is said with the
strong form.
Leave it over there!There you are, I have been looking for you.
GRADATIONAnomalous Finites
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Must mst (supposition) mst (obligation)
Can kn kn - kn - k
Could kud kd - kd
Be bi: bi
Being bi: b
Been bi:n bn Am m m - m
Are :
Is z z - s
Was wz wz Were w: w
Where we ---
GRADATION(Anomalous Finites) Have hv (main verb) hv - v - v * (auxiliary)
Has hz (obligation) hz z z s **(auxiliary)
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Has hz (obligation) hz - z - z - s **(auxiliary)
Had hd (obligation) hd - d - d * (auxiliary) Do du: (perform activity) du - d - d
take cause of action)
Does dz dz
Shall l l -l
Will wl l Should ud d -d
Would wud wd d
* used after I, we, you, they and generallly after vowel sounds
** used after vowel sounds and after voiced consonants. Not usedafter a pause
*** Never used after a pause. After l it becomes l. Paul will
Rules for use of strong form When used as a noun
Must means obligation
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Must means obligation
When contrastedI didnt say can I said must
Before a meaningful pause
She was, suprisingly enough, the best
student. When the AFinite stands for the whole sentence
Can we meet? Yes we can.
In yes/no questions, the A.F. can be eitherstrong or weak.
Do you like eating chocolate? Yes I do.
Rules for use of strong form
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In wh questions either the weak or strong formcan be used. Generally when we use the strongit means annoyance on the part of the speaker.
What are you doing?
When the AF is contracted on to the negativeadverb.
She shouldnt drive so fast. She wasntpaying attention
Affirmative sentences for the sake of emphasis.Yes I do know what I have to do.
Rules for use of strong form
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Must
when must is used with the sense of forming aconclusion or deduction it is used in the strong form.
She left at 8 oclock, she must have arrived
When must means obligation it is used in the weak form.
You must try harder When must is used before a consonant we may drop the
t
You must speak clearly
When must is used before a vowel you write the final t
He must eat more. In final position we always use the strong form.
Must I go. Yes, you must.
Rules for use of strong form
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Some
When some expresses indefinite number or quantitywe use weak form.
There are some children in the park
When some expresses contrast we use strong form.
Some people like it, others dont.
We use strong form when some indicates a restrictedgroup.
I like some animals not all.
We use strong form when it is used as a pronoun or aspart of a compound.
Sometimes somewhat
somewhere somehow
Prefix
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Ante / / anteroom . Antecedent .Antechamber .. antefix ..
Ad / / admit .... advertisement .....
En / / enlighten .......................... entangle .......................................
Hyper / / hyperactive ...................... hypersonic ....................................
Hypo / / hypodermic .................... . hypothermia .................................
Im / / impossible ...................... influence .......................................
Inter / / interact ............................ interfere ........................................
Intra / / intravenous .............................
Semi / / semicircle ......................... semiconscious ..............................
Sub / / submarine ........................ subtropical ....................................
Trans / / transatlantic ...................... transport ........................................
Un / / unreal ............................... unhappy .........................................
Unacceptable .............................. Under/ / underarm .......................... underdeveloped ................................
Prefix
D
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De
Delimit - devil - decide - depart - dessert - despair - denigrate - detach/ / / /
............................................... ..............................................
............................................... ...............................................
............................................... ...............................................
............................................... ................................................
............................................... ...............................................
PrePremature - predict - premonition - precedent - precancel - preceed present
Premarital - predictable prematurily predicate premix presence Preserve
/ / / / / /
.............................. ................................. ...................................
................................... .................................. ...................................
................................... ................................... ................................... ................................... ................................... ...................................
................................... .................................... ...................................
Prefix
P
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Pro
Protest protestant profitable pro life produce proclaim promissory - Progressiveproject promotion pro work
/ / / / / /
.................................. .................................... ...................................
................................... .................................... ...................................
................................... .................................... ...................................
................................... ................................... ...................................
................................... .................................... ...................................
Re
Repaint receive recommend relay recount redemand rebel record
Recall refill rectify refugee recurrent regular
/ / / / / /
.................................. ................................. ...................................
................................... .................................. ...................................
................................... ................................... ...................................
................................... ................................... ...................................
................................... .................................... ...................................
Prefix Bi
Bili l bi t bibli l bi t billi d billi bi t bi l Bi bitt
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Bilingual bisect biblical bimester billiard billion bicurcate bipolarBigamy bitter
/ / / / ................................................ ..............................................
................................................ ...............................................
................................................ ...............................................
................................................. ................................................
................................................. ...............................................
Tri
Triangle - tribune triaxial trimotor -
/ / / / ................................................ ..............................................
................................................ ...............................................
................................................ ...............................................
Ex
Exit expand exasperate exclude exalt exibition exercise executive -Execute
expectation export external exotic/ / / / / /
.................................. ................................. ...................................
................................... .................................. ...................................
................................... ................................... ...................................
................................... ................................... ...................................
................................... .................................... ...................................
Word endings
t t i t
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- ate to associate ..............................
The associate .............................. considerate ........................ - able: abominable ................................. enjoyable ...........................
- age: average ......................................
- ible: responsible .................................
- day: day ............................................ Sunday: ................................
- est: coldest ....................................... - et:
- ful: adj. Dreadful .............................
Noun: handful ............................
-land: Awkland ...................................
- less: aimless .................................. powerless ............................. - man: man ....................................... policeman ..............................
Word endings
t i t
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- ment: noun: equipment .........................................
Verb: to complement ....................................
To implement ......................................
- ness: bitterness .......................................................
- sion: vision ..............................................................
television ........................................................
- tion: communication ................................................
- some: some ...........................................................
handsome ...................................................
Past tenses, plurals, possessives and third
person
/p/ stop cup /b/ rob cub
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/t/ rest carpet /d/ end diamond
/k/ look book // jog dog
/f/ laugh cough /v/ live love
// bath moth // bathe
/s/ miss place /z/ buzz prize
// wash wish //
/t/ watch church /d/ judge hedge /h/
/m/ name gum
/n/ turn gun
// sing ring
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