HTHS 1110 / Biomedical Core
Module 1
Measurement Systems and Calculations
Used for the Human Body
Body Plan & Organization
Homeostasis
Disease: A Disruption in Homeostasis
Anatomy vs. Physiology
• Anatomy (study of structure)
• Word is from Greek: • ανα-, on/up/backwards/through/towards
• -τομη, cutting
• Anatomy = ―cutting backwards‖, putting things together from slices
• Physiology (study of function)• υυσις-, nature
• -λογος, study
• Includes homeostasis, the systems that keep the body in balance
Objective 1see footnote 1
Structure and Function
• Structure and function are
complementary to each other.
• Structure determines functional
possibilities.
• Structure designs the specific function.
• Function influences the size, shape,
action, and reaction of the structure.
Objective 2
Structure and Function Example
Objective 2
This structure is the liver, which has the function of filtering blood and producing bile. Can you see how the function is determined by the structure, and vice versa?
Subdivisions of Anatomy
• Embryology– The first 8 weeks of
development
• Developmental Biology– All stages of development
• Cell Biology– Cell structure and function
• Histology– Microscopic structure of
tissues
• Surface Anatomy– Surface markings of the
body
• Gross Anatomy– Structures viewed without a
microscope
• Systemic Anatomy– Structure of specific systems
• Regional Anatomy– Specific regions of the body
• Radiographic Anatomy– Body structures visualized
with X-ray, CT, or MRI
• Pathological Anatomy– Structural changes with
disease
Objective 3
Subdivisions of Physiology
• Neurophysiology– Functional properties of
nerve cells
• Endocrinology– Hormones and how they
control body functions
• Cardiovascular physiology– Function of the heart and
blood vessels
• Immunology– How the body defends
itself against disease-causing agents
• Respiratory physiology– Functions of the air
passageways and lungs
• Renal physiology– Functions of the kidneys
• Exercise physiology– Changes in cell and organ
functions as a result of muscular activity
• Pathophysiology– Functional changes
associated with disease and aging
Objective 4
Levels of
Organization
Objective 5
smallest
largest
• Chemical• Atomic
• Molecular
• Cellular
• Tissue
• Organ
• System
• Organism
Modules 1-7
Movie showing levels of organization
http://www.wehi.edu.au/uploads/wehi-tv/Body_Code.mov
(8:36)
Reproductive(these organs, the primary sexual characteristics, define the two human genders)
Female Male
Objective 6Module 20
Systems of the Body
• The systems of the body may appear to
be separate and distinct in their
functions, but the maintenance of
normal body function requires the
integration of many systems.• Body temperature: integumentary, muscular,
cardiovascular, and nervous
• Body fluid composition: urinary, digestive,
respiratory, and cardiovascular
Objective 6
Anatomy vs. Physiology
• Anatomy (study of structure)
• Word is from Greek: • ανα-, on/up/backwards/through/towards
• -τομη, cutting
• Anatomy = ―cutting backwards‖, putting things together from slices
• Physiology (study of function)• υυσις-, nature
• -λογος, study
• Includes homeostasis, the systems that keep the body in balance
Objective 6
Levels of
Organization
Objective 6
smallest
largest
• Chemical• Atomic
• Molecular
• Cellular
• Tissue
• Organ
• System
• Organism
Modules 1-7
Human Anatomical
Position• In the anatomical position the
subject stands erect facing the
observer with the head level,
the eyes facing forward, feet flat
on the floor, feet directed
forward, and the arms at their
sides with the palms facing
forward.
• All anatomical descriptions are
in reference to this position.
Objective 7
Superior ̶ Inferior
Medial ̶ Lateral
Proximal ̶ Distal
Anterior ̶ Posterior
Ventral ̶ Dorsal
Ipsilateral ̶ Contralateral
Objective 9
this arm is ipsilateral to this leg
this leg is contralateral to this arm
Cardinal Body
Planes
• Sagittal
• Midsagittal• Divides the body into two
equal, mirror-image halves
• Parasagittal• Parallel to sagittal, but not
through the midline
• Transverse
(Horizontal)
• Frontal (Coronal)
Objective 10
Sagittal (Midsagittal)
Frontal (Coronal)
Transverse (Horizontal)
*note the relationship between the plane of section and the shape of the section ̶̶ that’s anatomy! (See Objective 14.)
Objective 10
Objective 12
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Quadrants and Regions of the
Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Identification of quadrants and regions
in the abdominopelvic cavity helps
clinicians describe the location of the
many abdominal and pelvic organs.
• There are 4 abdominopelvic quadrants
and 9 regions.
• The dividing lines between these are
centered on the umbilicus (―belly button‖)
Objective 13
Objective 13
RUQ
liver
LUQ
spleen
left kidney
RLQ
cecum (where small intestine meets large)
appendix
LLQ
left ovary (if this were a woman)
Objective 14
Cross-Sectional Anatomy:
Thorax
Tortora & Derrickson
Figure 1.10
Identify:
Pleural cavity
Pericardial cavity
Heart
Right lung
Aorta
Thymus
Left lung
Esophagus
Cross-Sectional Anatomy:
Head• Imaging modalities are methods used to see
anatomy
– X-rays are a modality
• These images are from the Visible Human
Project
• From top to bottom:
– photograph of frozen, sawed head
– computed tomography (CT) scan of the same
level/plane
– magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of
the same level/plane
• Note brain in each section: how does it
appear different depending on modality?
http
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Objective 14
Objective 14
Cross-Sectional Anatomy:
Thorax
• This section through the thorax is about the
same level/plane as Tortora & Derrickson
fig 1.10
• Find: lungs (left and right), thymus,
esophagus, aorta, heart
• Why is the lung on the right side of this
drawing labeled ‗left lung‘?
http
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http://vhp.med.umich.edu/browsers/images/female/color/coronal/high/700.jpg
Objective 14
Objective 14
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liver
spleen
kidney
sm intestine
Cross-Sectional Anatomy:
Abdomen
• This section is through the lower arms (note
two bones) and kidneys
• Abdominal organs at this level are the liver,
spleen, small intestines and kidneys
Identify
Major
Bones
Clavicle
Scapula
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Objective 15
Identify
Major
Bones
Objective 15
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
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Pelvis
Homeostasis: A Balancing Act
Homeostasis
The condition of equilibrium (balance) in the
body‘s internal environment due to the
constant interaction of the body‘s many
regulatory processes
Objective 16
Homeostasis
Objective 16
The condition of
equilibrium (balance)
in the body’s internal
environment due to
the constant
interaction of the
body’s many
regulatory processes
Homeostasis
Objective 17
Component Function
ReceptorMonitors controlled
condition
Control CenterReceives input and
provides output
EffectorsBring about change in
controlled condition
Homeostasis
Positive Feedback Characteristics
Negative FeedbackCharacteristics
Strengthen or reinforce a change.
Reverses a change in a controlled condition.
Action continues until it is interrupted.
Action stops automatically when setpoint is reached.
Reinforces conditions that do not happen very often.
Regulate conditions that remain fairly stable over
long periods.
Objective 20
Homeostasis
Positive Feedback
Examples
Negative Feedback
Examples
Blood clotting Body temperature
Childbirth Blood glucose
Severe blood loss Many, many others
Objective 20
Generalized Signs & Symptoms
of Disease• Signs
– Determined by observation of patient
• i.e., what we see
– Examples of signs
• swelling, redness, rashes, pus, fever, vomiting
• Symptoms
– Determined by asking the patient
• i.e., what the patient tells us
– Examples of symptoms
• nausea, pain, shortness of breath, headache, generalized
malaise
• Laboratory tests are used to determine presence of
infectionObjective 21
Syndrome
• A syndrome is a set of signs and/or symptoms
that often occur together
• Usually, we don‘t understand the relationship
between these
• For example, in metabolic syndrome, four
signs occur together
– Hypertension (high blood pressure)
– Dyslipidemia (abnormal fats in blood)
– Obesity (overweight)
– Type II diabetes (increased sugar in blood)
Objective 21
Diseases from Internal and
External Sources
• Disruptions in homeostasis can be caused by
genetic or environmental factors
• For example, autoimmune diseases are
disruptions in the homeostatic loops involved in
defense against invaders
• Disruptions in homeostasis can also be caused
by outside agents (infectious disease)
– More on this in Module 6
Objective 22
Modes of Disease Transmission
• Contact Transmission
– Direct (touching, kissing, intercourse)
– Indirect (fomites: shared objects)
– Droplet (distance < 1 meter)
• Common Vehicle Transmission
– Contaminated food, water, blood
• Airborne Transmission
– Pathogens stay alive in droplets or dust
traveling > 1 meter
Objective 23
The Velveteen Rabbit was a fomite
Modes of Disease Transmission
• Vector Transmission
– Organism that transmits disease
• Tick that transmits Lyme Disease
• Mosquito that transmits malaria
• Flies transmit various diseases
• If the vector is a person who does
not appear to be ill, they are called a
carrier
Objective 23
―Typhoid Mary‖ was a carrier
Scientist working with the H1N1 influenza virus
(note Biosafety Level 3 precautions)PHIL #7988Infections in
Populations
• Sporadic infection
– Individuals are infected here
and there through the
population
• Endemic infection
– Occur regularly in low to
moderate levels in a population
within a given geographic area
• Epidemic infection
– Disease has a higher-than-
normal incidence in a given
population
• Pandemic infection
– Worldwide epidemic
– e.g. HIV
Objective 23
Nosocomial Infections
• Nosocomial means ―hospital acquired‖
– Most severe in patients who have problems with their
immune system function (immunocompromised)
• Exogenous
– Transmitted from external environment
• Endogenous
– Infections arise from organisms already present in or on
the patient
– For example, diseases kept in check by immune system
begin to cause problems
– Organisms may be introduced during invasive procedures
Objective 23
Universal Precautions
• Guidelines from CDC to help reduce
transmission of infections
• Hand-washing
• Protective barriers
• Strict protocols for the disposal of
contaminated needles, scalpels, and
other equipment
Objective 23
Getting Rid of all the Zeroes
• No one has enough time to write all of the
zeroes if we frequently use very small or very
large measurements. To alleviate this
problem, we have exponents.
• An exponent is a little number that is raised ½
a space above (superscript) a big number.
• 103, 22, 53, etc.
• An exponent tells you how many times you
multiply the big number by itself.
(23 = 2 x 2 x 2)
Objective 25
Exponents in the Metric System
• Working with exponents in the metric system is
very easy because it only deals with units of
10. The decimal system is also based on units
of 10, so converting from one unit to another
requires only the movement of the decimal.
• If the number is getting bigger (positive
exponent), the decimal moves to the right. If
the number is getting smaller (negative
exponent), the decimal moves to the left.
• 1x103 = 1000.0 and 1x10-3 = 0.001
Objective 25
Significant Figures
• We can‘t create information where none
existed before
• For example, what‘s one-seventh of a foot?
• A foot is 12 inches, divide by 7.00
• 12 inches / 7.00 = 1.714285714285714 inches
• Rulers aren‘t that accurate!
• One-seventh of a foot is 1.7 inches
• 12 has two significant figures and 1.7 has two
significant figures as well
Objective 27
What if we don‘t have a direct
conversion factor?
• A problem-solving technique that converts
from one unit to another by using
conversion factors is called ―Dimensional
Analysis‖• A (given unit) x B (requested unit) = D (requested unit)
C (given unit)
Objective 28
Dimensional Analysis
or
The Factor-Label Method
http://bit.ly/DimensionalAnalysis
http://bit.ly/FactorLabel
Objective 28
Make the Units Work
The ―philosophy‖ behind
Dimensional Analysis (also called
the ―Factor-Label Method‖) is that
as long as we make the units work
out, we can get to the right answer
Objective 28
Dimensional Analysis Toolbox
What do we need for Dimensional
Analysis?
1. Given amount, with units
2. Desired units (we are
calculating the amount)
3. Conversion factors
Objective 28
Make the Units Work
Realize that conversion factors can be
turned into fractions that are equal to 1
It‘s always ―legal‖ to multiply by 1 — it
doesn‘t change anything except the
units.
Objective 28
Multiplying by 1 to Change Units
• For example, we know that
• So if we divide both sides of the equation
by 2.54 cm, we get
(1 inch
)2.54 cm
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1
=(2.54 cm
)2.54 cm
(1 inch
)2.54 cm=
Objective 28
Putting Conversion Factors to
Work
X5 cm (1 inch
)2.54 cm=
X5 cm (1 inch
)2.54 cm= (
5)2.54
inches
5 cm = 1.97 inches
Objective 28