Presented by the NatioNal ENdowmENt for thE humaNitiEs and the amEricaN library associatioN
Camp of 31st Pennsylvania Infantry near Washington, D.C., 1862
Essay by Edward L. AyersPrEsidENt, uNivErsity of richmoNd
â 1 â |â from the moment AmericAns foundâ themselvesâ pulledâintoâ aâ civilâ warâ ofâ unimaginableâ scaleâ andâ consequence,â theyâ triedâdesperatelyâtoâmakeâsenseâofâwhatâwasâhappeningâtoâthem.âFromâtheâsecessionâ crisisâ intoâ theâ maelstromâ ofâ battle,â fromâ theâ nightmareâofâ slaveryâ intoâ theâ twilightâ ofâ emancipation,â Americansâ ofâ allâbackgroundsâconfrontedâtheâchaosâwithâstoriesâtoâexplainâhowâthingsâhadâ comeâ toâ be.â Peopleâ continuedâ toâ tellâ themselvesâ thoseâ storiesâaboutâtheâwarâandâitsâmeaningâforâtheânextâcenturyâandâaâhalf,âandâtheyâprobablyâalwaysâwill.
StoriesâaboutâtheâAmericanâCivilâWarâhaveâbeenâtoldâinâmanyâforms,âoftenâdisguisedâasâsomethingâelse.âMostâofâtheâstoriesâatâtheâtimeâcameâinâlettersâorâdiariesâorâreports,âfashionedâfromâwhateverâmaterialsâwereâcloseâatâhand.âSpeeches,âmadeâupâonâtheâspotâorâcarefullyâcraftedâforâtheâworldâtoâread,âtoldâstoriesâthatâplacedâblameâandâlaidâoutâstrategies.âNewspaperâarticlesâwrittenâovernightâshapedâfragmentsâandâreportsâ intoânarrativesâofâvictoryâandâ loss.âMemoirs,â shortâ stories,ânovels,â andâhistoriesâwrittenâmonthsâorâyearsâlaterâwoveânewâpatternsâofâstorytelling.
Whateverâtheirâoriginsâorâtiming,âallâtheseâstoriesâtellâmoreâthanâappearsâonâtheâsurface.â Theyâ speak,â oftenâ inâ spiteâ ofâ themselves,â ofâ largerâ purposesâ andâ patterns.âLookingâback,âweâcanâseeâthatâtheyâsometimesâbeliedâthemselves,âwereâoftenâprovedâwrongâ byâ unfoldingâ events,â wereâ fullâ ofâ wishfulâ thinkingâ andâ self-deception.â Theâhistoricalâstoriesâweâtellâtodayâstriveâforâbalanceâandâinclusion,âbutâweâmustârecognizeâthatâweâtellâthemâtoâourselvesâforâourâownâreasons.
Theâreadingsâselectedâgiveâusâaâglimpseâofâ theâvastâsweepâandâprofoundâbreadthâofâAmericansââwarâamongâandâagainstâthemselves.âEachâkindâofâstoryâcarriesâitsâownâpowerâandâitsâownâlimits.âEyewitnessesâhadâtheâadvantageâofâfirsthandâexperience,âbutâcouldâseeâthingsâonlyâthroughâtheirâownâeyes.âTheâpassageâofâtimeâoffersâperspective,âbutâ interveningâeventsâ introduceâ theirâownâdistortions.âFictionâallowsâusâ toâengageâ
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withâ theâ interiorâ livesâ ofâ characters,â butâ thoseâ charactersâ didâ notâ actuallyâ walkâ andâbreathe;âtheyâare,âunavoidably,âprojectionsâofâourselves.âhistory,âdespiteâitsâdedicationâtoâevidence,âhasârootsâinâitsâownâtimeâasâwellâasâinâtheâpast.â
âMakingâ Senseâ ofâ theâ Americanâ Civilâ Warââ isâ organizedâ asâ aâ seriesâ ofâ fiveââconversationsââthatâareâmeantâtoâbeâconsideredâtogether.âEachâconversationâisâitselfâarrangedâ asâ anâ unfoldingâ story,â movingâ forwardâ inâ time.â Theâ selectionsâ necessarilyâforeshadowâandâfoldâbackâonâthemselves,âforâeachâaspectâofâlifeâtouchedâeveryâotherâaspectâduringâtheseâdenselyâpackedâyears.âreadersâwillâwantâtoâpayâattentionâtoâwhenâtheâselectionsâwereâwritten,âforâwhatâpurposes,âandâforâwhom.âSomeâwereâcomposedâforâ oneâ readerâ ââ perhapsâ theâ authorâ aloneâ ââ whileâ othersâ wereâ imaginedâ forâ vastâaudiences.âSomeâwereâwrittenâforâaâmoment,âothersâtoâendureâforâasâlongâasâpeopleâcareâaboutâtheâUnitedâStates.â
Theâpurposeâofâtheâselectionsâisâtoâgiveâpeopleâinterestingâthingsâtoâtalkâabout.âTheâAmericanâCivilâWarâisâintrinsicallyâinteresting,âthoughâitâhasâoftenâbeenâburiedâinâclichĂ©âandâoverfamiliarity.âhistoriansââunderstandingâofâtheâglobalâsignificanceâofâtheâwarâhasâshiftedâfromâfiftyâyearsâago,âatâtheâtimeâofâtheâcentennial,âwhenâitsâmajorâconsequenceâseemedâtoâbeâtheâunificationâofâaânationâthatâwouldâstandâagainstâcommunism.âtoday,ââtheâCivilâWarâmattersâjustâasâmuch,âitâseems,âforâbringingâanâendâtoâtheâmostâpowerfulâsystemâofâslaveryâinâtheâmodernâworld.ââAâhundredâandâfiftyâyearsâafterâtheâdefiningâwarâinâourânationâsâhistory,âweâareâstillâdiscoveringâitsâmeanings.
imagining War r e A di n g s : March by geraldine Brooks; Americaâs War anthologyâPart one
thEâFirStâCoNvErSAtioNâbEgiNSâWithâaânovelâofâourâownâtimes,âaâworkâthatâimaginesâourâwayâintoâtheâpast.âgeraldineâbrooksâsâMarchâtellsâitsâstoryâthroughâtheâcharactersâofâanotherânovel:âLittle Women,âLouisaâMayâAlcottâsâstoryâofâsistersâandâaâmother,âpublishedâinâ1868,âonlyâthreeâyearsâafterâAppomattox.âbrooksâtellsâtheâstoryâofâtheâfatherâandâhusbandâofâthoseâwomen,âtheâreverendâMarch.âinâAlcottâsâstory,âheâisâbelovedâbutâsignificantâmainlyâbyâhisâabsence.âinâMarch,âweâseeâtheâstoryâthroughâhisâ eyes,â eyesâ thatâ doâ notâ alwaysâ comprehendâ clearlyâ whatâ theyâ perceive.â Weâ travelâwithâtheâchaplainâintoâplacesâwhereâheâisânotâwanted,âwhereâhisâvaluesâelicitâridiculeâandâ contempt.â Theâ harshâ worldâ ofâ slavery,â men,â andâ warâ challengesâ everythingâ theâMarchâfamilyâbelievesâin,âincludingâoneâanother.âbrooksâsânovelâisâaâlovelyâandâpowerfulâmeditationâonâAmericaâasâitâdescendedâintoâtheâchaosâofâwar.
Anotherâ voiceâ inâ theâ firstâ conversationâ isâ Louisaâ Mayâ Alcottâs,â drawnâ fromâ herâjournalâofâherâexperiencesâasâaânurseâforâtheâUnionâinâ1862.âinâthisâremarkablyâfrankâdocument,â theâ unmarriedâ 30-year-oldâ tellsâ ofâ herâ determinationâ toâ findâ aâ purposeâforâherâ lifeâbyâhelpingâinâtheâhospitalsâofâWashington,âD.C.,âanâimportantâsettingâinâbrooksâsânovel.âAlcottâexperiencesâhorror,âsatisfaction,âandâdeepâpersonalâtrialsâduringâ
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herâtimeâwithâtheâwounded,âill,âandâdyingâmen.âherâjournalâallowsâusâtoâcompareâfictionâandâfirsthandâtestimony,âandâtoâthinkâaboutâwhatâweâcanâlearnâfromâeach.
choosing sides r e A di n g s : Americaâs War anthologyâPart two
thEâSECoNDâCoNvErSAtioNâtAkESâUSâdirectlyâintoâtheâworldâgeraldineâbrooksâimagined.âSelectionsâfromâAmericaâs War allowâusâtoâseeâthroughâtheâeyesâofâpeopleâwhoâhadâtoâdecideâforâthemselvesâwhereâjustice,âhonor,âduty,âandâloyaltyâlay.âSinceâstrugglesâoverâslaveryâunderpinnedâeverythingâassociatedâwithâAmericaâsâCivilâWar,âFrederickâDouglassâbeginsâtheâconversationâbyâchallengingâusâwithâaâsearingâspeechâfromâ1852.âAskedâ byâ peopleâ muchâ likeâ theâ Marchâ familyâ andâ theirâ abolitionistâ friendsâ toâ giveâaâspeechâonâtheâFourthâofâJuly,âDouglassâgivesâthemâmoreâthanâtheyâaskedâfor.âhisâspeechâstripsâawayâanyâillusionsâwhiteâAmericansâmayâhaveâhadâaboutâtheirâinnocence,âconfrontingâ themâ directlyâ withâ theâ hypocrisyâ ofâ aâ nationâ dedicatedâ toâ freedomâ andâbuiltâonâslavery.â
henryâDavidâThoreau,âaâcharacterâinâMarch,âconfrontsâhisâfriendsâwithâaâblisteringâdefenseâofâJohnâbrownâafterâtheâabortedâ1859âraidâonâtheâarmoryâatâharpersâFerry.âWhileâmuchâofâtheânationârushedâtoâdenounceâandâridiculeâbrown,âThoreauâcelebratedâhimâandâallâthatâheâstoodâfor.âSuchâdefensesâconfirmedâtheâworstâsuspicionsâofâwhiteâSoutherners.
AbrahamâLincoln,âelectedâtheâyearâafterâharpersâFerry,âfoundâhimselfâconfrontedâwithâdisunionâevenâbeforeâheâtookâoffice.âbyâtheâtimeâheâdeliveredâhisâfirstâinauguralâaddress,âpresentedâhere,âtheâsevenâstatesâofâtheâDeepâSouthâhadâalreadyâformedâtheâConfederateâStatesâofâAmerica.âhisâspeechâwasâanâattemptâtoâreassureâtheâvotersâwhoâhadâelectedâhim,âannouncingâthatâheâwouldânotâbetrayâtheirâtrustâbyâallowingâtheânationâtoâbeâdivided;âthatâsameâspeechâwasâalsoâanâattemptâtoâreassureâwhiteâSouthernersâthatâheâwouldânotâdriveâthemâaway.âAlexanderâStephensâofâgeorgia,âtheâviceâpresidentâofâtheânewâConfederacy,ârepliedâtoâLincolnâinâtheâmostâdirectâwayâimaginable,âcelebratingâslaveryâasâtheâveryâcornerstoneâofâtheânewânation.â
Withâ theâ alternativesâ soâ starklyâ drawn,â aâ conventionâ inâ virginiaâ debated,â weekâafterâweek,âwhatâcourseâthatâstateâshouldâtake.âPridingâitselfâonâbeingâtheâbirthplaceâofâgeorgeâWashingtonâandâThomasâJefferson,âvirginiaâknewâthatâitsâdecisionâwhetherâtoâ joinâ theânewâConfederacyâorâ toâ remainâwithâ theâUnionâwouldâchangeâeverythingâthatâ followed.â robertâ Montagueâ andâ Chapmanâ Stuartâ crystallizedâ whatâ manyâ hadâbeenâsaying:âSecessionistsâarguedâthatâtheyâhadânoâchoiceâbutâtoâdefendâthemselves;âUnionistsâarguedâthatâchoicesâdidâindeedâremain,âthatâtheâcountryâmustâbeâsaved.âSuchâdebatesâcollapsedâasâsoonâasâLincolnâcalledâforâmilitiaâfromâvirginiaâandâotherâstatesâtoâputâdownâtheârebellionâinâSouthâCarolinaâafterâtheâfiringâonâFortâSumter.âTheâconventionâinâ virginia,â whichâ hadâ votedâ forâ unionâ onlyâ weeksâ before,â nowâ votedâ forâ secession.âSoon,âNorthâCarolina,âtennessee,âandâArkansasâwouldâfollow.âTheâConfederacyâwouldâ
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embraceâelevenâstates,âaâvastânewânationâdeterminedâtoâmakeâitselfâindependentâofâtheâUnitedâStatesâandâtoâmakeâitsâplaceâinâtheâworld.â
robertâ E.â Leeâ embodiedâ theâ agonyâ ofâ disunion.â Aâ formerâ commandantâ ofâ WestâPoint,âaâmanâwhoâhadâlivedâhisâentireâlifeâinâtheâUnitedâStatesâArmy,âLeeâtraveledâfromâhisâpostingâinâtexasâtoâhisâvirginiaâhomeânotâfarâfromâWashington,âD.C.,âtoâconfrontâtheâ decision.â inâ aâ recentâ workâ ofâ imaginativeâ scholarship,â Elizabethâ brownâ PryorâreconstructsâtheâtorturedâdaysâinâwhichâLeeâstruggledâwithâtheâdecisionâofâwhetherâtoâfollowâhisâoathâtoâtheâUnitedâStatesâââindeed,âtoâcommandâitsâarmiesâââorâtoâfollowâvirginiaâonâaâcourseâaboutâwhichâheâwasâprofoundlyâambivalent.â
Markâtwainâtells,âwithâhisâcharacteristicâself-deflatingâhumor,âofâhisâownâwaywardâpathâ inâ theâ confusingâ earlyâ daysâ ofâ theâ war.â Alongâ withâ otherâ boysâ ofâ hisâ Missouriâneighborhood,âtwainâjoinedâtheâConfederacyâonlyâtoâdecideâthatâheâhadânoârealâstakeâinâtheâwar,âandâheadedâwest.âSarahâMorgan,âanâ18-year-oldâgirlâinâbatonârouge,âLouisiana,âhadâbeen,âlikeâherâfather,âaâstaunchâUnionist.âbutâinâtheâfirstânineâmonthsâofâtheâwar,âwithâherâtownâalreadyâoccupiedâbyâtheâUnitedâStatesâArmy,âMorganâalternatedâbetweenâdefiantâglorificationâofâtheâConfederacyâandâdeepâdoubtâaboutâtheâwarâandâherâownâroleâinâit.âLikeâtheâMarchâgirls,âherâcontemporariesâinâtheâNorth,âMorganâfindsâherselfâsurroundedâbyâaâwarâsheâfeelsâherselfâpowerlessâtoâalter.
making sense of shiloh r e A di n g s : Americaâs War anthologyâPart Three
thEâ horriFyiNgâ bAttLEâ oFâ ShiLohâ changedâ Americansââ understandingâ ofâtheâCivilâWar.âoccurringâ inâAprilâ1862,âalmostâexactlyâaâyearâafterâFortâSumterâandâtheâsecessionâofâvirginia,â theâbattleânearâtheâtennessee-Mississippiâborderânotâonlyâredefinedâ theâ boundariesâ ofâ theâ militaryâ conflictâ butâ alsoâ theâ boundariesâ ofâ theâimaginable.â Thousandsâ ofâ menâ withâ littleâ trainingâ andâ noâ experienceâ inâ warâ wereâthrownâagainstâoneâanotherâinâdaysâofâinexpressibleâsufferingâandâwaste.âAâdesperate,âdefiantâeffortâbyâtheâConfederacyâtoâstopâtheâprogressâofâtheâUnionâArmyâandâNavyâinâtheâLowerâMississippiâvalleyââââindeed,âtoâpushâtheâUnionâArmyâallâtheâwayâbackâtoâtheâohioâriverâââtheâbattleâofâShilohâshatteredâanyâfantasiesâpeopleâhadâthatâtheâwarâwouldâbeâwonâeasilyâbyâeitherâside.âWhileâtheâUnitedâStatesâpreventedâtheâConfederacyâfromâ seizingâ theâ greatâ victoryâ itâ hadâ imagined,â Unionâ generalâ Ulyssesâ S.â grantâ wasâwidelyâattackedâforâincompetenceâandâworse.
Theâthirdâconversationâinâthisâseries,âwhichâusesâtheâbattleâofâShilohâtoâconfrontâtheâ experienceâ ofâ war,â alsoâ featuresâ voicesâ fromâ Americaâs War.â Ambroseâ bierce,âperhapsâtheâbestâwriterâtoâemergeâfromâtheâAmericanâCivilâWar,âoffersâanâunflinchingâreportâofâwhatâheâsawâatâShiloh.âAlthoughâwritingâinâ1881,âwhenâformulaicâandâself-congratulatoryâmemoirsâofâtheâwarâbecameâbestsellers,âbierceâwroteâinâaâself-mocking,âdisillusionedâtoneâofâhisâownâroleâatâShiloh.âFourâyearsâlater,âUlyssesâS.âgrant,âbyânowâaâheroâandâformerâpresidentâofâtheâUnitedâStatesâ(andâdyingâofâcancer),âtellsâwhatâheâ
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sawâofâShiloh.âinâwhatâisâoftenâconsideredâoneâofâtheâfinestâpiecesâofâwritingâtoâcomeâoutâofâtheâwar,âgrantâsâMemoirsâpresentsâtheâbattleâofâShilohâfromâtheâperspectiveâofâtheâgeneralâresponsibleâforâcoordinatingâtheâmovementsâofâtensâofâthousandsâofâmen,âmanyâofâwhomâwillâbeâkilledâorâshatteredâforâlife.â
ShelbyâFoote,âlaterâfamousâforâhisâthree-volumeâhistoryâofâtheâwar,âjuxtaposesâtheâperspectivesâofâNorthernersâandâSoutherners,âenlistedâmenâandâofficers,âinâhisâ1952ânovelâbasedâonâtheâbattle.âFoote,âlikeâbierce,âacknowledgesâthatâeveryoneâinâaâbattleâseesâonlyâaâsmallâpartâofâsomethingânoâoneâcanâfullyâcomprehend.â inâthisâselection,âFooteâadoptsâtheâperspectiveâofâaâyoungâMississippiâman,âaâboyâreally,âwhoâseesâwarâforâtheâfirstâtime.âhisâinnocenceâstripsâawayâtheâbombastâofâspeechesâheâcanâbarelyâhear.âinâaâveryâdifferentâkindâofâstory,âwrittenâthirtyâyearsâafterâFooteâs,âbobbieâAnnâMasonâusesâShilohâasâaâwindowâonâlifeâinâourâownâtimes.âTheâgoryâbattlefieldâhasâbecomeâaâpicnicâspot,âaâbucolicâparkâwhereâaâhusbandâhopesâthatâbrokenâlivesâcanâperhapsâbeâputâbackâtogether.â
Theâfinalâ selectionâ forâ thisâ conversationâ isâonlyâaâ singleâpageâ long,âaâ letterâ fromâConfederateâgeneralâbraxtonâbraggâtoâhisâtroopsâaâfewâweeksâafterâShiloh.âinâhisâwords,âweâseeâtheâfierceâdreamsâthatâwouldâkeepâtheâConfederacyâaliveâforâthreeâmoreâyears,âunbowedâbyâtheâhorrorâatâShiloh.
The shape of Warr e A di n g s : Crossroads of Freedom by James mcPherson; Americaâs War anthologyâPart four
thEâ FoUrthâ CoNvErSAtioNâ iNâ oUrâ seriesâ beginsâ withâ Jamesâ McPhersonâsâstudyâofâAntietam.âTheâmostâwidelyârecognizedâCivilâWarâhistorianâofâtheâlastâquarter-centuryâ forâ hisâ Pulitzerâ Prize-winningâ survey,â Battle Cry of Freedom,â McPhersonâworksâ hereâ onâ aâ smallerâ canvas.â Theâ historianâ doesâ whatâ novelistsâ andâ writersâ ofâmemoirsâdoânot:âtellâtheâstoryâinâasâobjectiveâaâwayâasâpossible,âwithâdocumentation.âinâ McPhersonâsâ understanding,â Antietam,â foughtâ inâ Sharpsburg,â Maryland,â inâSeptemberâ1862âââmonthsâafterâShiloh,âbutâ inâaâdifferentâ theaterâofâ theâwar,âwithâdifferentâleadersâandâarmiesâââwasâtheâpivotalâpointâinâtheâwar.âAsâatâShiloh,âneitherâtheâ Unionâ norâ theâ Confederacyâ couldâ claimâ aâ gloriousâ victoryâ atâ Antietam,â butâ theâUnionâturnedâbackâanotherâConfederateâoffensiveâthatâcouldâhaveâalteredâtheâcourseâofâtheâwar.âForâMcPherson,âtheâcrucialâvictoriesâatâAntietamâlayâbeyondâtheâbattlefield,âinâtheâdiplomatic,âpolitical,âandâracialârealms.âEnglandâandâFranceâmightâwellâhaveâsidedâwithâtheâConfederacyâhadâitâwonâinâMaryland;âLincolnâsâparty,âunderârelentlessâattackâfromâtheâDemocrats,âgainedâcredibility;âandâemancipationâwasâannouncedâasâaâwarâaimâbyâtheâUnitedâStates.âAfterâthoseâthreeâevents,âMcPhersonâbelieves,âtheâstageâwasâsetâforâultimateâUnionâvictory.â
otherâhistorians,âofâcourse,âdifferâ inâtheirâ interpretations,âpointingâoutâthatâtheâConfederacyâ foughtâeffectivelyâ forâ twoâmoreâyears,â thatâ theâEuropeanâpowersâneverâcameâtoâtheâsideâofâtheâUnitedâStates,âthatâLincolnâwasâbarelyârenominatedâbyâhisâownâ
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partyâinâ1864,âandâthatâslaveryâprovedâremarkablyâresilientâinâplacesâwhereâtheâUnionâArmyâcouldânotâreach.âTheâselectionâfromâgaryâgallagherâinâAmericaâs WarâemphasizesâtheâstrengthâofâtheâConfederateâArmyâandâtheânationâ itâembodiedâacrossâfourâyearsâofâall-consumingâwarfare,âsuggestingâthatâAntietamâmayânotâhaveâbeenâasâdecisiveâaâcrossroadsâ asâ McPhersonâ argues.â Theâ Confederateâ Armyâ foughtâ manyâ moreâ battlesâafterâtheâsummerâofâ1862,âafterâall,âandâbelievedâthatâtheâcrucialâtestâwouldâcomeâinâtheâNorthernâelectionâofâ1864.
Aâdifferentâkindâofâperspectiveâonâtheâwarâappearsâ inâDrewâgilpinâFaustâsâprize-winningâ This Republic of Suffering,â publishedâ inâ 2008.â inâ theâ excerptâ reproducedâ inâAmericaâs War,â Faustâ shiftsâ ourâ focusâ fromâ theâ courseâ ofâ battleâ andâ politicsâ toâ theâsufferingâofâfamiliesâandâcommunities.âSheâwantsâusâtoâunderstandâtheâmanyâmeaningsâofâdeathâandâtheâwaysâdeathâwasâconfronted.âFaustâwouldânotâdenyâtheâimportanceâofâunderstandingâtheâissuesâthatâMcPhersonâandâgallagherâwrestleâwith,âbutâsheâwouldâaskâthatâweâbroadenâourâvision.â
War and freedomr e A di n g s : Americaâs War anthologyâPart five
thEâFiNALâCoNvErSAtioNâiNâthEâseriesâdrawsâfromâreadingsâincludedâinâAmericaâs War,â andâ concernsâ theâ mostâ unanticipatedâ outcomeâ ofâ theâ Americanâ Civilâ War:â theâimmediate,âuncompensatedâemancipationâofâfourâmillionâpeopleâwhoâhadâbeenâheldâinâslaveryâforâoverâtwoâcenturies.âTheâUnitedâStatesâwasâtheâmostâpowerfulânationâsustainingâslaveryâinâ1860,âandâfewâimaginedâtheâinstitutionâbeingâabolishedâasârapidlyâasâitâwas.â
AbrahamâLincoln,âinâtheâfirstâselection,âtriesâtoâpersuadeâaâgroupâofâvisitingâAfricanâAmericanâclergymenâtoâsupportâhisâplanâforâcolonizingâfreedâblacksâinâCentralâAmerica.âLincolnâ thinks,âatâ thisâearlyâpointâ inâ theâwar,â thatâ itâwouldâbeâbetterâ forâwhiteâandâblackâalikeâifâtheâtwoâracesâwereâseparated.âEvenâasâLincolnâstruggledâwithâtheâissue,âenslavedâpeopleâwereâmakingâthemselvesâfreeâwheneverâandâwhereverâtheyâhadâaccessâtoâtheâUnionâArmy.âJohnâWashington,âinâaâmemoirâwrittenâforâhisâfamilyâinâ1873âbutâpublishedâonlyârecently,âtellsâofâhisâescapeâfromâslaveryâinâvirginiaâinâtheâmidstâofâtheâwar.
Followingâ theâ Unionâ victoryâ atâ Antietam,â Presidentâ Lincolnâ draftedâ theâEmancipationâProclamationâasâaâânecessaryâwarâactââthatâwouldâtakeâeffectâinâJanuaryâ1863.âThisâactâallowedâFrederickâDouglass,âaâdecadeâafterâheâdespairedâofâtheâplightâofâAfricanâAmericansâ inâaâUnitedâStatesâ thatâ seemedâdeterminedâ toâdepriveâ themâofâtheirârightsâandâtheirâhumanity,âtoârallyâblackâmenâtoâtheâdefenseâofâtheâUnitedâStatesâbecauseâitâisânowâfightingâforâtheirâfreedom.âLincolnâhimselfâsteadilyâbroadensâandâdeepensâhisâcommitmentâtoâemancipation,âasâtwoâlettersâexpressingâhisâthinkingâreveal.â inâ hisâ 1863â letterâ toâ Jamesâ C.â Conkling,â theâ presidentâ arguesâ withâ thoseâwhoâwantâtoâendâtheâwarâwithoutâdrivingâitâtoâitsâconclusion;âinâtheâletterâtoâAlbertâhodges,âtheânextâyear,âLincolnâlaysâoutâtheâreasonsâwhyâtheâwarâmustâendâslavery.â
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WhileâtheâgettysburgâAddress,âgivenâinâNovemberâ1863,âdoesânotâspeakâofâslaveryâdirectly,âitsâpotentâlanguageâframesâtheâpurposeâofâtheâwarâasâfreedomâunderstoodâinâitsâbroadestâterms.
AfterâAfricanâAmericanâmenâwereâfinallyâallowed,âinâ1863,âtoâenlistâforâtheâUnitedâStates,â 200,000â blackâ soldiersâ andâ sailorsâ joinedâ theâ serviceâ inâ justâ twoâ years.â Theâ1864âreportsâfromâJamesâS.âbrisbinâandâThomasâJ.âMorganâtellâofâtheirâvalorâââandâofâ theâdisrespectâ theyâoftenâenduredâ fromâtheirâwhiteâ compatriots.âAfterâ itâbecameâclearâthatâtheâUnitedâStatesâwouldâwinâtheâwarâandâbringâfreedomâwithâthatâvictory,âblackâSouthernersâstruggledâtoâsecureâtheâtoolsâtoâprotectâthatâfreedom.âinâearlyâ1865,âAfricanâAmericansâinâNashvilleâpetitionedâtheâwhiteâleadershipâofâtheâUnionâpartyâforâtheirârightsâasâcitizensâinâaâfreeâAmerica.âTheirâpetitionâisâaâpowerfulâstatementâofâtheâhighestâAmericanâideals.âThereâisânoârecordâofâaâresponse.
Emancipationâwasânotâaâsingleâeventâbutâaâlongâandâunevenâseriesâofâstrugglesâonâplantationsâandâfarms,âinâcitiesâandâtowns,âallâacrossâtheâSouth.âMargaretâWalker,âinâaâpowerfulâ1966ânovel,âJubilee,âturnsâstoriesâsheâheardâfromâherâgrandmotherâintoâaânovelâaboutâtheâcomingâofâfreedom.âinâherâtelling,âfreedomâarrivedâinâdegreesâofâuncertainty,âunclearâinâitsâreachâorâitsâultimateâmeanings.âLeonâLitwackâsâgroundbreakingâhistoryâofâtheâendâofâslavery,âBeen in the Storm So Long,âpublishedâinâ1979,âusesâremarkableâresearchâtoâtellâtheâstoryâofâfreedomâasâitâemergedâinâtheâburningâofârichmondâinâAprilâ1865,âalmostâexactlyâfourâyearsâafterâtheâconventionâthereâvotedâtoâleadâvirginiaâoutâofâtheâUnion.â
AbrahamâLincolnâwouldâvisitârichmondâwithâhisâsonâtadâonlyâdaysâlater,âsoonâafterâhisâinaugurationâforâhisâsecondâterm.âThatâterm,âsoâmuchâinâdoubtâoverâtheâprecedingâfourâyears,âbeganâwithâwhatâisâgenerallyâconsideredâtheâgreatestâspeechâinâAmericanâhistory,âaâbriefâreckoningâwithâdivineâpurposeâandâhumanâfrailty,âaâhumbleâeffortâtoâfindâmeaningâ inâsoâmuchâsuffering.âSixâweeksâafterâ theâspeechâandâtwoâweeksâafterâhisâvisitâ toârichmond,âwhereânewlyâ freedâmenâandâwomenâsurroundedâhim,âheâwasâassassinatedâinâWashington,âD.C.âAnotherâchapterâinâAmericanâhistoryâbeganâwithâhisâdeath.â
imagesâ usedâ throughout Americaâs Warâ areâ aâ combinationâ ofâ firsthandâ drawingsâbyâ âSpecialâ Artistsââ andâ printedâ lithographsâ basedâ onâ thoseâ drawings.â Theseâ artistsâsketchedâwhatâtheyâsawâinâtheâarmyâcampsâandâtheâmidstâofâbattle,âandâoftenâdidâsoâunderâlife-threateningâconditions.âTheâimagesâtheyâproducedâofferâaâperspectiveâandâhaveâ anâ immediacyâ notâ readilyâ accessibleâ throughâ periodâ photographs,â whichâ couldâcaptureâonlyâimagesâofâsubjectsâwhoâwereâstillâandâsafe.âinâaâfinalâessayâonââimagesâofâtheâWar,ââAmericaâs War illuminatesâhowâtheseâartistsâenabledâtheâpublicâtoâpictureâtheâwarâasâitâprogressed,âandâtoâhelpâusâmakeâsenseâofâtheâAmericanâCivilâWarâtoday.â
EachâofâtheâreadingâselectionsâinââMakingâSenseâofâtheâAmericanâCivilâWarââaddsâaâcrucialâvoiceâtoâourâunderstandingâofâtheâwarâandâitsâmeaning.âTheâsilencesâorâangerâorâ idealismâ thatâ separateâ theâ voicesâ areâ asâ importantâ asâ theirâ commonalities.â TheâAmericanâCivilâWarâwasânotâaâsingleâthing,âaâsimpleâthing.âitâchangedâshapeâfromâtheâ
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beginningâtoâtheâend.âTheâwarâsâfullâsignificanceâwasânotâcompleteâinâ1865âandâitâisânotâcompleteâyet.
edWArd L. AyersPresident, University of Richmond
Additional readingIn the Presence of Mine Enemies by edward L. Ayers
Winnerâofâtheâ2004âbancroftâPrize,âAyersâsâbookâviewsâtheâissuesâofâtheâCivilâWarâasâplayedâoutâonâaâlocalâscale.âtwoâneighboringâcounties,âoneâinâPennsylvaniaâandâtheâotherâinâvirginia,âhadâaâsharedâhistoryâandâaâcommonâgroundâforâcoexisting;âwhenâtheâsectionalâdivideâcameâinâ1861,âeachâcountyâwentâtheâwayâofâtheâstateâofâwhichâitâwasâaâpart,âbutâtheâprocessâofâseparationâwasânotâeasy.â
The Black Flower by howard BahrTheâfocusâofâthisâtightâfirstânovelâisâtheâNovemberâ1864âbattleâofâFranklinâinâtennessee.âTheâexperiencesâofâConfederateâriflemanâbushrodâCarterâspeakâtoâtheâterrorâofâtheâcommonâfootâsoldier,âhauntedâbyâtheâgruesomenessâofârecentâcombatâandâfacingâfutureâbattleâhorror.âTheâauthorâsâsoundâresearchâisâevident,âandâhisâeloquentâvoiceâisâsureâtoâcaptureâtheâreaderâsâinterest.ââ
Cloudsplitter by russell Banks Thisâhistoricalânovelâhasâdeepâpsychologicalâresonance,âsensitivelyâreconstructingâtheâlifeâofâpre-CivilâWarâabolitionistâJohnâbrown.âhisâstoryâisâtoldâbyâhisâthirdâson,âspeakingâtoâaâhistorianâyearsâafterâtheâ1859âraidâbyâbrownâsâbandâonâharpersâFerry,âvirginia,âforâwhichâbrownâwasâlaterâexecuted.â
The Red Badge of Courage by stephen craneThisâslimâbutâpowerfulânovelâisâaâclassicâofâAmericanâliterature,âwrittenâbyâanâesteemedâfictionâwriter.âTheâstoryâsâprotagonist,âhenryâFielding,âisâaâsoldierâinâtheâCivilâWar,âbutâweâareâtoldâlittleâofâtheâexternalâcircumstancesâinâwhichâheâfindsâhimself.âinstead,âtheâreaderâwitnessesâhisâdeeplyâhumanâresponsesâtoâbattleâandâobservesâthatâheâisâhardlyâtheâromanticânotionâofâtheâheroicâsoldier.â
Shiloh: The Battle that Changed the Civil War by Larry J. danielTheâbattleâofâShiloh,âtennessee,âonâAprilâ6âandâ7,â1862,âstandsâoutâasâaâparticularlyâbloodyâeventâinâaâwarâthatâbecameâknownâforârelentlessâbloodletting.âThisâwell-researchedâaccountâoffersânotâonlyâvividâdetailsâofâtheâbattle,âbutâalsoâimpressiveâanalysisâofâtroopâmovements,âopposingâcommandersââjudgments,âandâtheâconsequencesâofâthisâhard-wonâUnionâvictory.
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The March by e.L. doctorow generalâWilliamâtecumsehâShermanâsâinfamousâMarchâtoâtheâSeaâââwhichâcarvedâaâswathâofâdestructionâthroughâgeorgiaâandâtheâCarolinasâââbrokeâtheâbackâofâtheâConfederacy,âhasteningâtheâendâofâtheâCivilâWar.âinâthisânovel,âDoctorowâturnsâhisâconsiderableâtalentâforâreconstructingâperiodsâinâAmericaâsâpastâtoâaâgrippingâaccountâofâShermanâsâmarch,âtoldâthroughâtheâexperiencesâofâcharactersâbothârealâandâfictional.â
Struggle for the Heartland: The Campaigns from Fort Henry to Corinth by stephen d. engle
UnionâforcesâpenetratedâtheâwesternâregionâofâtheâConfederacyâinâaâmonths-longâ1862âmilitaryâcampaignâthatâculminatedâinâtheâcaptureâofâCorinth,âMississippi.âEngleâsâvibrantâproseâbringsâtoâlifeâthisâimportantâepisode,âwhichâbolsteredâtheâmilitaryâreputationâofâgeneralâUlyssesâS.âgrantâandâshowedâtheâConfederacyâthatâtheâconflictâwithâtheâNorthâwouldânotâbeâtheâbriefâencounterâthatâmanyâhadâexpected.â
The Imagined Civil War by Alice fahsFahs,âaâprofessorâofâhistory,âsetsâoutâtoârefuteâtheâconventionalâwisdomâthatâsaysânoâsignificantâliteratureâaroseâduringâtheâCivilâWarâyears.âinâherâhighlyâoriginalâstudy,âsheâcontendsâthatâpopularâliteratureâdidâindeedâflourish,âincludingâpoetry,ânovels,âbooksâforâchildren,âandâsongs,âandâthatâtheseâwereâextensivelyâdisseminatedâinânewspapers,âillustratedâweeklies,âpamphlets,âsongâsheets,âandâbooks.âTheâauthorâperceptivelyâaddressesâhowâtheseâwrittenâworksâshapedâculturalâattitudesâatâtheâtime.â
The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery by eric fonerinâhisâlatestâbook,âwhichâhasâwonâbothâtheâbancroftâPrizeâandâtheâPulitzerâPrizeâforâhistory,âEricâFonerâofâColumbiaâUniversityâinvestigatesâLincolnâsâattitudesâtowardâslaveryâandâAfricanâAmericans.âheâchroniclesâtheâevolutionâofâLincolnâsâthinking,âreflectingâasâitâdidâtheâUnionâsâwartimeâshiftâtowardâaâmoreâopen-mindedâviewâofâblackâfreedom.â
Reconstruction: Americaâs Unfinished Revolution by eric fonerFonerâalteredâpopularâandâscholarlyâperceptionsâofâtheâpost-CivilâWarâperiodâwithâthisânow-classicâ1988âwork.âAsâheâdepictsâthatâtraumaticâperiod,âitâdidânotâliveâupâtoâblacksââandâprogressiveâwhitesââinitialâhighâexpectationsâofâpost-slaveryâAmerica.
Cold Mountain by charles frazierPayingâhomageâtoâhomerâsâUlysses,âFrazierâsâhighlyâsuccessfulâfirstânovelâisâaâlavishlyâdetailedâchronicleâofâtheâjourneyâofâConfederateâsoldierâinman,âwhoâdesertsâhisâunitâinâvirginiaâandâwalksâbackâtoâhisâNorthâCarolinaâhomeâtoârejoinâhisâsweetheart.âFilledâwithâauthenticâdetail,âtheânovelâsparkedâtheâcurrentârenaissanceâinâhistoricalâfiction.â
Writing the Civil War: The Quest to Understand edited by James mcPherson and William cooper
Thisâcollectionâofâ14âessaysâcompiledâbyâtwoâoutstandingâCivilâWarâhistoriansâcoversâaârangeâofâtopics,âallâofâwhichâanalyzeâfromâvariousâanglesâââincludingâpolitical,âmilitary,â
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andâeconomicâââtheâhistoriographyâofâtheâwar.âThisâbook,âthen,âisâaâhistoryâofâtheâwritingâaboutâtheâhistoryâofâtheâCivilâWar,âandâwillâappealâtoâmoreâadvancedâreaders.â
Gone with the Wind by margaret mitchellTheâultimateâAmericanâromanceânovel,âsetâinâgeorgiaâduringâtheâCivilâWarâandâreconstructionâandâpublishedâinâ1936,âshouldâbeâapproachedâwithâthisâcaveat:âitsâdepictionsâofâslavesâwillâstrikeâsomeâmodernâreadersâasâanâapologiaâforâaâwayâofâlifeâthat,âfortunately,âisâgoneâwithâtheâwind.âbeyondâthat,âtheâstoryâofâspoiledâScarlettâoâharaâsâevolutionâfromâplantationâprincessâtoâblood-and-gutsâbusinesswomanâstillâholdsâupâasâaârivetingâstoryâofâAmericanâfortitudeâandâindustry.â
The Impending Crisis: 1848-1861 by david Potter Potter,âaâprofessorâofâhistoryâatâyaleâandâStanford,âwasâawardedâaâposthumousâPulitzerâPrizeâinâ1971âforâthisâseminalâwork,âwhichâoffersâaâcomprehensiveâpictureâofâtheâeventsâandâforcesâinâtheâ1850sâthatâledâtoâtheâoutbreakâofâarmedâconflictâinâ1861.âThisâbookâisâparticularlyâinstructiveâasâweâcommemorateâtheâ150thâanniversaryâofâtheâwarâsâopeningâsalvos.â
The Killer Angels by michael shaara Shaaraâsâ1974ânovelâaboutâtheâbattleâofâgettysburg,âwhichâwasâawardedâtheâPulitzerâPrize,âhasâbecomeâaâmodernâclassicâofâhistoricalâfiction.âTheâfourâdaysâthatâheâreconstructsâinâvividâdetailâareâseenâthroughâtheâperspectivesâofâaâwideârangeâofâhistoricalâfigures,âwithâemphasisâonâtheâcommandersâfromâbothâsides.â
Uncle Tomâs Cabin by harriet Beecher stowe PresidentâLincolnâpurportedlyâremarkedâtoâStowe,âuponâmeetingâherâinâtheâWhiteâhouse,âthatâsheâwasââtheâlittleâwomanâwhoâmadeâthisâgreatâwar.ââForâmanyâdecadesâitâhasâbeenâcommonlyâassumedâthatâherânovel,âsetâprimarilyâinâtheâantebellumâSouth,âservedâasâaâwake-upâcallâforâNorthernersâaboutâtheâevilsâofâslaveryâandâcontributedâheavilyâtoâtheâstrainsâbetweenâNorthâandâSouth.âCharactersâareâstereotypicalâandâtheâplotâhighlyâmelodramatic,âbutâtheâworkâremainsâaâsignificantâdocumentâinâanyâdiscussionâofâslaveryâandâtheâoutbreakâofâsectionalâstrife.â
Patriotic Gore by edmund WilsonWilson,âoneâofâtheâoutstandingâAmericanâliteraryâcriticsâofâtheâtwentiethâcentury,âturnedâhisâconsiderableâskillsâhereâtoâaâsurveyâofâCivilâWarâliterature,âanalyzingâtheâlivesâandâwritingâofâsuchâfiguresâasâAbrahamâLincoln,âharrietâbeecherâStowe,âUlyssesâS.âgrant,âandâMaryâChesnut.â
Glory directed by edward Zwick (film)boastingâanâoscar-winningâperformanceâbyâDenzelâWashington,âthisâmovieâisâconsideredâoneâofâtheâfinestâeverâmadeâaboutâtheâAmericanâCivilâWar.âitâdramatizesâtheâheroicâactionsâofâtheâall-blackâFifty-fourthâregimentâofâtheâMassachusettsâvolunteerâinfantry,âwhichâcourageouslyâattackedâFortâWagner,âSouthâCarolina,âheldâbyâ1,000âConfederateâsoldiers.â
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