Motivation in
Historical Perspective
A historical view of motivation study helps us to consider…
how the concept of motivation came to prominence(유명함),
how it changed and developed,
how ideas were challenged and replaced,
how the field reemerged and brought together various disciplines within psychology.
Outline : History of Motivation
Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts
The First Grand Theory: Will
The Second Grand Theory: Instinct
The Third Grand Theory: Drive
The Fourth Grand Theory: Incentive, Arousal, Discrepancy
Rise of the Mini-theories
Contemporary Era
•Freud’s Drive Theory
•Hull’s Drive Theory
•The Active Nature of the Person
•The Cognitive Revolution
•Applied Socially Relevant Research
All- encompassing theory that seeks to explain the full range of motivated action—why we eat, drink, work, play, compete, fear certain things, read, fall in love, and so on.
GRAND THEORIES
The ancient philosophers understood motivation within the two themes:
good, rational,
immaterial, and active
(i.e., the will)
primitive, impulsive,
biological, and reactive
(i.e., bodily desires).
Physiological analysis of motivation by focusing on the mechanistic.
The appeal of instinct
doctrine was its ability to
explain unlearned behavior
that had energy and purpose
(i.e., goal-directed biological
impulses).
Drive theory view that behavior was motivated
to the extent that it served the needs of the organism and restored
a biological homeostasis.
Will Instinct Drive
A bodily deficit occurs
(e.g., blood sugar drops & a sense of hunger emerges).
The intensity of the bodily deficit grows & emerges into consciousness as a psychological discomfort, which is anxiety.
Seeking to reduce anxiety & satisfy the bodily deficit, the person searches out & consumes a need satisfying environmental object (e.g., food).
If the environmental object successfully satisfies the bodily deficit, satisfaction occurs & quiets anxiety, at least for a period of time.
A SUMMARY OF FREUD’S DRIVE THEORY
Figure 2.1
Drive’s
Source
Drive’s
Impetus
Drive’s
Object
Drive’s
Aim
Decline of GRAND THEORIES
Will Instinct Drive
The philosophical study of the will turned out to be a dead end that explained very little about motivation, as it actually raised more questions than it answered.
The physiological study of the instinct proved to be an intellectual dead end as well, as it became clear that “naming is not explaining.”
Drive theory proved itself to be overly limited in scope, and with its rejection came the field’s disillusionment with grand theories in general, though several additional grand motivational principles emerged with some success, including incentive and arousal.
1. Sigmund Freud 6. Edward Thorndike
2. Clark Hull 7. William James
3. Wilhelm Wundt 8. Max Wertheimer
4. Ivan Pavlov 9. Edward Tolman
5. John Watson 10. Kurt Lewin
Mid-Century Rankings of
The 10 Most Important
Historical Figures in Psychology
Table 2.1
1. B. F. Skinner 6. Carl Rogers
2. Jean Piaget 7. Stanley Schachter
3. Sigmund Freud 8. Neal Miller
4. Albert Bandura 9. Edward Thorndike
5. Leon Festinger 10. Abraham Maslow
The Current Top 10 Eminent Psychologists
in The 21st Century
First,
motivation study rejected its commitment
to a passive view of human nature and
adopted a more active portrayal of human
beings.
Second,
motivation turned decidedly cognitive
and somewhat humanistic.
Third,
the field focused on applied,
socially relevant problems.
Post-Drive Theory Years
Outline of the Typical Development of a Scientific Discipline
New paradigm
Crisis and Revolution
Paradigmatic
Preparadigmatic
A budding science emerges. It consists of participants who
do not share the same language or the same knowledge base.
debates are frequent about what should be the discipline’s
methods, problems, and solutions.
Preparadigmatic factionalism merges into a shared consensus
about what constitutes the discipline’s methods, problems, and
solutions. This shared consensus is called a paradigm.
participants who share this paradigm accumulate knowledge
and make incremental advances.
An anomaly emerges that cannot be explained by the existing
consensus/paradigm. A clash erupts between the old way of
thinking (that can explain the anomaly).
The new way brings discipline-changing progress. Embracing
the new consensus, participants settle back into the new
paradigm(a new Paradigmatic stage). Progress returns to
making incremental advances.
1. Motivational phenomenon
(e.g.., the flow experience)
2. Particular circumstances that affect motivation
(e.g., failure feedback)
3. Groups of people
(e.g., extraverts, children, workers)
4. Theoretical questions
(e.g., what is the relationship between cognition & emotion?)
Rise of the Mini-Theories
Unlike grand theories that try to explain the full range of motivation, mini-theories limit their attention:
Abbreviated list of the mini-theories
Achievement motivation theory (Atkinson, 1964)
Attributional theory of achievement motivation (Weiner, 1972)
Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957)
Effectance motivation (White, 1959; Harter, 1978a)
Expectancy x value theory (Vroom, 1964)
Goal-setting theory (Locke, 1968)
Intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1975)
Learned helplessness theory (Seligman, 1975)
Reactance theory (Brehm, 1966)
Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977)
Self-schemas (Markus, 1977)
Social
Industrial/
Organizational
Developmental
Educational
Personality Cognitive
Clinical Physiological
HealthCounseling
Motivation and Emotion
Domain-specific Answers to
These Core Questions:
What causes behavior?
Why does behavior vary in its intensity?
Relationship of
Motivation Study to
Psychology’s Areas
of Specialization
Figure 2.2
Motivation study in the 21st century is populated by multiple perspectives and multiple voices, all of which contribute a different piece to the puzzle of motivation and emotion study.
Motivation’s new paradigm is one in which behavior is energized and directed not by a single grand cause but, instead, by a multitude of multi-level and co-acting influences.
As expressed in Box 2, most motivational states can be (and indeed need to be) understood at multiple levels—from a neurological level, a cognitive level, a social level, and so on.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Perspective: Motives emerge from…
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Behavioral Environmental incentives
Neurological Brain activations
Physiological Hormonal activity
Cognitive Mental events and thoughts
Social-cognitive Ways of thinking guided
by exposure to other people
Cultural Groups, organizations, and
nations
Evolutionary Genes and genetic
endowment
Humanistic Encouraging the human
potential
Psychoanalytical Unconscious mental life__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Box 2
The Many Voices in Motivation Study