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Construct Validity Issues in the Measurement of Motivation to Learn
AnneMarie M. Conley and Stuart A. Karabenick
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Mailing address:
1400 SEB, 610 East University
Combined Program in Education and Psychology
The University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI 48109
Phone-734-763-1386
Fax-734-615-2164
Email: [email protected]
Presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, SanFrancisco, March 2006. Research reported herein was supported by a grant to the
Math and Science Partnership Motivation Assessment Program (MSP-MAP) fromthe National Science Foundation (EHR No. 0335369). Views expressed are the
authors and are not necessarily representative of the funding agency.
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Construct Validity Issues in the Measurement of Motivation to Learn
Motivation plays a critical role in student learning and achievement; it is intimately
related to the ways students think, feel, and act in schools. Evidence from research on student
learning in general (see Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Pintrich & Maehr, 2004), and mathematics and
science in particular (e.g., Fennema, 1989; Schoenfeld, 1992), demonstrates that students
motivation, affect, strategies, and beliefs about knowledge in these disciplines can influence their
learning and performance. Furthermore, research suggests that students motivation and related
outcomes are sensitive to characteristics of the learning context, including teachers instructional
practices as well as school and classroom climate (Ames, 1992; Anderman & Maehr, 1999;
Eccles & Midgley, 1989). It is important, therefore, for reform efforts to determine how their
programs affect student motivation, especially since such changes can precede, or even occur in
the absence of, targeted cognitive outcomes. The primary goal of the research reported on here
was to develop and make available reliable, valid, and practical tools to assess student
motivational beliefs for mathematics and science. These tools are being used with different math
and science reform projects to support evidence-based claims about the effects of their
interventions, and to explore the role of motivation-related outcomes as mediators and
moderators of student achievement in intervention models (Maehr & Karabenick, 2004).
There exist a number of different approaches to the study of motivation. For example,
consider three different approaches to the question, What makes students want to learn in
school? One approach is to consider this question in terms of interest, as an individuals
attraction to, or liking or enjoyment of, a particular task or domain. Another perspective
conceptualizes wanting in terms of value, a subjective judgment of the degree to which a task
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or domain can fulfill needs, facilitate reaching goals, or confirm aspects of ones self-schema. A
third approach attends to students goals, or their reasons for participating in achievement-related
activities. There often is considerable overlap among these constructs, with consistent, moderate
correlations among them. Though some have highlighted the importance of doing research that
considers these components simultaneously, such research has been limited to date. This paper
presents results from a large-scale study of middle and high school students that aimed to address
definition and measurement issues by considering multiple constructs deriving from different
theoretical traditions simultaneously.
Evidence in support of the construct validity of this set of measures to assess motivation
to learn is offered using a framework proposed by Messick (1989). Historically, construct
validity has been dealt with in different ways, with recent conceptualizations rejecting the
traditional three-part (construct, criterion, content) validity approachin favor of a more unified
validity theory (Messick, 1989; Pintrich, Wolters, & Baxter, 2000). In Messicks (1989) unified
framework, construct validity is central and other forms of validity are subsumed under it.
Messick (1989) proposed a multidimensional framework for thinking about construct
validity, and described five kinds of evidence that can be used to support claims of construct
validity: content, substantive, structural, external, and generality of meaning. Content-related
evidence concerns how well the items reflect the content of the domain. Substantive evidence
concerns the relation between data and theory, and the guiding question is whether the data
generated by the instrument are consistent with the theory. Structural evidence, on the other
hand, concerns the relation between theory and the way the data are reduced: Do the scores
obtained reflect the complexities of the theoretical model? External evidence is perhaps the most
often considered, and questions include how the instrument relates to other measures of the same
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construct, and whether the instrument relates to other constructs in theoretically sensible ways.
Finally, questions of generality of meaning revolve around how the findings generalize across
different populations, contexts, or subject-matter domains. In more recent work, Messick (1995)
specified an additional source of evidence, concerned with the intended and unintended
consequences of score use. This aspect of construct validity is key when tests are used for
assessment or placement decisions, as in the case of performance assessments or standardized
tests. Since a complete discussion of all of Messicks sources of evidence is beyond the scope of
this paper, the focus has been narrowed to present substantive, structural, consequential and
generality of meaning evidence of the validity of a set of motivation-related measures.
The set of motivation-related measures included here draws from the most often-
researched theoretical frameworks in motivation literature today. These theoretical traditions are
characterized by different approaches to the study of the basic questions most research on
motivation in education tries to answer: What makes students want to learn in school? What
makes students feel competent? How do students wants and beliefs in the classroom influence
whether and how they approach learning? The research described here draws heavily on
expectancy-value theory, achievement goal theory, work on personal and situational interest, and
self-efficacy theory.
Self-efficacy refers to students beliefs that they have the resources and confidence to do
the tasks in the classroom (Bandura, 1986; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). It is important that self-
efficacy be calibrated to ones actual accomplishments (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). As
intervention projects make changes and improve instruction, these reforms may require students
to think differently, to do math or science differently, and to engage the material in different
ways than is usual in mathematics and science classrooms. Besides beliefs about efficacy and
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control, task value beliefs are another important motivational component (e.g., Eccles et al.,
1998; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Longitudinal research by Eccles and her colleagues (e.g.,
Eccles, et al., 1998; Fredericks, et al., 2002; Jacobs et al., 2002) has shown that student beliefs
about the importance and utility of mathematics leads them to enroll in more math courses in the
future. In addition, this research has shown that task value beliefs lead to enrollment or choices
to take more mathematics courses, but that once enrolled in the actual course, efficacy beliefs are
more strongly related to actual performance or achievement.
Personal interest refers to an individual's attraction to, or general liking and enjoyment of,
a specific activity or domain (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Eccles and her colleagues (Eccles, et al.,
1998) have shown that personal interest is an important component of motivation and functions
similarly to importance and utility value beliefs. In addition, other researchers have shown that
high levels of personal interest lead to more cognitive engagement, self-regulation, and
achievement (e.g., Koller, et al., 2001; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). In many mathematics and
science reform projects, the goal is to increase student interest and positive attitudes towards
mathematics and science domains as well as interest in careers in these areas. It is an important
outcome in its own right, as well as a potentially important mediator of achievement (Koller et
al., 2001).
Another important component of student motivation concerns general achievement goals,
or students goals for academic learning in classroom contexts. The general distinction between
mastery and performance goals contrasts students who are mastery-oriented and focused on
learning and understanding and those students who are performance-oriented and focused on
doing better than others in terms of grades or other outcomes that invite interpersonal
comparisons (Pintrich, 2000a, b). Generally, mastery goals are positive and adaptive and lead to
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more interest, engagement, and learning. Performance goals, on the other hand, can be adaptive
or maladaptive depending on whether students adopt an approach or avoid focus. Performance-
avoid goals where students are concerned about looking dumb or trying to avoid getting the
lowest scores are clearly maladaptive and are associated with less interest, engagement, and
lower levels of performance (Pintrich, 2000a, b). As intervention projects make changes and
improve instruction, it is important to understand how these different goals may motivate
students to learn and perform in different mathematics and science classrooms.
Method
Design
Data presented here were obtained through a collaboration between the
Motivation Assessment Program at the University of Michigan and a standards-based,
data-driven intervention program in the Southwest improve students academic
performance in mathematics. The collaboration included providing teachers with the
knowledge and tools to accurately diagnose students deficiencies, assess their progress,
adjust the curriculum and pedagogy, and transform the departmental culture to maximize
student learning in mathematics. Over the last two years, the partners have collaborated
to assess changes in motivation of the more than 14,000 students over the course of the
school year. Aggregated analyses of these data were disseminated to teachers and project
staff as part of professional development activities that serve as a major component of the
intervention, as well as through individual reports to teachers. The professional
development activities were designed to change administrative practices in the schools
and in the classrooms, effecting a cultural change that creates a sustainable climate of
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improvement and achievement.
The partnership to date has involved five waves of student motivation surveys
over two school years, as well as two waves of teacher attitude and belief surveys. Data
from the beginning and end of the first year of student surveys are presented here.
Students were administered questionnaires by research assistants in their regular math
classrooms four weeks after the start of the school year and again approximately four
weeks before the end of the school year. All students in class on the day of administration
participated. Students were told that the purpose of the confidential survey was to elicit
their thoughts and feelings about the subject of math and their own math class. Students
were guided through a sample item and then completed a 110- question survey during
their math period. Items were read aloud to the middle school students; high school
students worked through the survey independently after receiving instructions from
trained research assistants. The survey took approximately 30 min. to complete. The
teacher was present in the room while the survey was being completed, but remained
seated and unobtrusive, unable to view any of the survey responses.
Participants
Analyses presented here are based on 8,429 students (49% female) from 487
classrooms in 14 ethnically diverse, working class public middle and high schools in
California (72% Latino/a, 16% Vietnamese, 6% Caucasian, 6% Other - primarily SE
Asian). Between 60 and 75% of the students in these schools were eligible to receive free
or reduced lunch. Two of the four districts have been characterized as high-need districts
by the state and there is a sizable population of English Learners.
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Measures
The student motivation survey included measures of self-efficacy for learning
math and solving math problems, task value for, and students personal achievement
goals. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all true; 3 = somewhat true; 5
= very true), and all questions were worded to have students focus on the domain of
mathematics.
Task Value was measured with 18 items, which included four components
adapted from previous work. Interest (6 items, != .95) referred to students attraction to,
liking for, and enjoyment of math.(e.g., I find math very interesting). Utility (6 items,
!= .87) was concerned with students beliefs about the usefulness of math as an area of
study(e.g., Math is useful to me for things I do outside of school). While utility value
focused on the importance of math as a means to an end, attainment value focused on the
value of math as part of a students identity. Attainment value (6 items, != .87) referred
to students judgments about the importance of math for their sense of who they are (e.g.,
Thinking mathematically is an important part of who I am). Cost value (2 items,!=
.81) tapped students judgments about the amount of effort required to be successful in
math (e.g., Success in math requires that I give up other activities I enjoy).
Efficacy (8 items, != .88) items assessed students judgments about their ability
and confidence to perform adequately in math(e.g., How sure are you that you can do
even the most difficult math work).Achievement goals (three 5-item scales items, !s =
.87, .84, .79) referred to students purposes when approaching, engaging in, and
responding to math instruction. Mastery goals focused on learning and understanding
(e.g., My goal in math is to learn as much as I can), performance-approach goals
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focused on demonstrating ability and outperforming others (e.g., My goal in math is to
look smarter than other students), and performance-avoid goals focused on not looking
dumb (e.g., My goal in math is to avoid looking like I cant do my work).
Substantive Evidence
Substantive evidence is concerned with the internal relations among the items in
an instrument. The guiding question is whether the data generated by the instrument are
consistent with the theory of the construct. The measures of task value and achievement
goals included in our assessment would show substantive evidence of construct validity,
according to Messick (1989), if the number and type of scores generated was consistent
with the theories from which the items were developed. In the case of task value, four
components are predicted: interest, utility, attainment, and cost. Previous studies have
sometimes had difficulty finding the predicted distinctions between utility value and
attainment value. Results from exploratory factor analyses of the task value items are
presented in tables 1 (beginning of school year) and 2 (end of school year).
Structural Evidence
This component of construct validity asks whether the scoring of the instrument
reflects the complexities of the theory. A single total score indicates a unitary construct,
while a combination of composite scores and subscores indicates a hierarchical construct.
Subsumed under the structural component are issues related to scale reliability. With
older validity theories, reliability was separate from validity. This made it possible to
have scales that were valid, but not reliable, or scales that were reliable, but not valid.
With Messicks (1989) unified approach to construct validity, issues of reliability are
factored into judgments of validity. Reliabilities for the achievement goal scales for this
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sample are in line with previous work, which usually shows high reliability as assessed
by indices of internal consistency (!".85) for the mastery and performance approach
scales, but lower reliability for the avoidance scales. Table 3 shows reliabilities for both
waves, presented separately for the middle and high school students.
Consequential Evidence
A critical component of construct validity for our project concerns the intended
and unintended consequences of score use. Messicks discussions dealt with performance
assessments or standardized tests andthe use of those scores for assessment or placement
decisions. Motivation-related data are not typically associated with these same kinds of
immediate consequences for students, however the nature of our partnership is not
typical. Much of our work is focused on disseminating data to teachers through
professional development that targets change in teacher practice to support adaptive
motivation for students. Figure 1 presents a sample report generated for a participating
school. Such reports are used in professional development workshops to help teachers
and schools find areas of strength and weakness from a motivational perspective. The
decision to present these results in their full complexity was made in response to a
general tendency to oversimplify motivation in the classroom. For example, teachers
would report that their students were simply unmotivated. Therefore, one aim of our
project was to show that there were different ways for students to be motivated (and
unmotivated), and that these different ways required different interventions from teachers
when problems arose.
Results were presented to teachers separated by course, because teachers wanted
to address motivational concerns in course-alike teams. The quality of the motivational
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problems with Algebra 1 students was quite different from the quality of the problems
with Pre Calculus students. In response, we structured the reporting of data to support
these conversations.
The intended consequences of the use of these scores included changes in the
content of professional development and changes in the schools action plans. Along with
the graphs, we provided interpretations designed to facilitate discussion. This is an
excerpt describing Algebra 1A students in middle school A:
Algebra 1A students started the year with the lowest scores on interest, mastery,and efficacy (e.g., they saw math as less interesting than other math students, they
were less likely to focus on understanding, and were the least confident in theirmath ability). However, they saw math as just as useful as other students in the
school, and had similar levels of focus on competition.
o Change Algebra 1A students had a more adaptive pattern of change thanother students at this school; the drops were generally smaller than for
students in other courses. They saw math as less useful and were less
focused on learning but slightly more confident in their math ability.
o Goals for next year Help students see how math is useful, and moreimportantly, use TARGET TIpS to help focus students on learning and
developing (rather than just demonstrating) ability.
With 14 different schools as collaborators, we have seen variation in the degree to
which the motivational data have had consequences in terms of teacher practices, and
student outcomes. In some schools, detailed yearly action plans have been revised to
include a focus on motivation. In one school the drop in student interest presented the
biggest concern for teachers, and the math department has made supporting student
interest a major focus. It is more difficult to report at this point on the unintended
consequences of score use, but such questions will be important to examine as we
continue to examine the construct validity of our set of motivation measures.
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Evidence of Generality of Meaning
This component of construct validity concerns how the scores on an instrument
generalize to other populations and contexts. Of particular interest for this set of
motivation measures are characteristics of the sample. This study included an ethnically
diverse sample of 6th
through 12thstudents, and we found the decline in motivation across
middle and high school reported in other studies (e.g., Anderman, Maehr, & Midgley,
1999). Figures 2 and 3 show beginning and end of school year motivation profiles,
separated for each grade level.
Students showed expected drops in motivation over the course of the school year.
They became less interested, saw math as less useful, and felt less confident in their
ability to understand math. In addition, they reported lower levels of achievement goals,
with lower means on all three goals. While a decreased focus on mastery goals of
learning and understanding is problematic, the associated decrease in a focus on
competition should be considered an adaptive change.
The overall decrease in motivation across the school year played a smaller role in
professional development than the variability we found across schools and between
courses. Looking at variability across courses formed the basis for much of the dialogue
during professional development activities. For example, sixth graders were particularly
disadvantaged over the school year, with the greatest drop-offs over the year. They were
less interested, considered math less useful, and were less confident in their math
abilities. A positive change was the decreased focus on competition and not looking
incompetent, but this was accompanied as well by less of a focus on learning and
understanding. Targeted professional development with sixth grade teachers has focused
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Validity and Motivation to Learn 13
on supporting mastery goals, interest, and value over the school year. Other questions of
generality of meaning concern possible gender or ethnic differences, or even domain-
specific differences, in the structure of these constructs. As data from different
populations and science intervention projects becomes available, more evidence of the
generality of these measures will be investigated.
Discussion
Exploratory factor analysis, reliability analysis, and figures showing grade-level
differences are offered here as substantive, structural, and generality of meaning evidence
in support of the construct validity of this set of measures of motivation to learn. Further,
a discussion of the ways in which these data have been reported and used serves as
consequential evidence. Though these sources of evidence have been separated for clarity
of discussion, it is important to remember that there exists considerable overlap, and that
these aspects of construct validity are part of a unified validity theory that does not rely
on nor require any one form of evidence.
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Table 1
Factor Loadings for Task Value Measures at Beginning of School Year (N = 8,429)
1 2 3 41. I enjoy doing math. 0.952. I like math. 0.933. I enjoy the subject of math. 0.884. How much do you like doing math? 0.855. Math is exciting to me. 0.836. I am fascinated by math. 0.757. Math will be useful for me later in
life. 0.948. Math concepts are valuable because
they will help me in the future.
0.83
9. How useful is learning math for whatyou want to do after you graduate andgo to work? 0.71
10. In general, how useful is what youlearn in math? 0.60
11. Being good at math will be importantwhen I get a job or go to college. 0.52
12. Compared to most of your otherschool subjects, how useful is what
you learn in math? 0.4613.
I have to give up a lot to do well inmath. 0.79
14. Success in math requires that I giveup other activities I enjoy. 0.77
15. It is important for me to be someonewho is good at solving problems thatinvolve math. 0.79
16. Being someone who is good at mathis important to me. 0.79
17. Being good at math is an importantpart of who I am. 0.74
18. It is important to me to be a personwho reasons mathematically. 0.63
19. I feel that, to me, being good atsolving problems which involve math
or reasoning mathematically is 0.6120. Thinking mathematically is an
important part of who I am. 0.55Note: Factor loadings under .20 have been omitted.
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Table 2
Factor Loadings for Task Value Measures at End of School Year (N = 8,429)
1 2 3 41.I enjoy doing math. 0.962.I like math. 0.943.I enjoy the subject of math. 0.864.How much do you like doing math? 0.865.Math is exciting to me. 0.836.I am fascinated by math. 0.767.Math will be useful for me later in life. 0.968.Math concepts are valuable because
they will help me in the future. 0.889.How useful is learning math for whatyou want to do after you graduate and
go to work? 0.7510. In general, how useful is what you
learn in math? 0.6511. Being good at math will be
important when I get a job or go to
college. 0.6112. Compared to most of your other
school subjects, how useful is whatyou learn in math? 0.51
13. I have to give up a lot to do well inmath. 0.8314. Success in math requires that I give
up other activities I enjoy. 0.8215. It is important for me to be someone
who is good at solving problems that
involve math. 0.8116. Being someone who is good at math
is important to me. 0.8017. Being good at math is an important
part of who I am. 0.8018. It is important to me to be a personwho reasons mathematically. 0.7319. I feel that, to me, being good at
solving problems which involvemath or reasoning mathematically is 0.65
20. Thinking mathematically is animportant part of who I am. 0.63
Note: Factor loadings under .20 have been omitted.
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Table 3
Reliabilities for Efficacy, Task Value, and Achievement Goal Measures for Beginning of
School Year (N = 8,429)
Middle School High School CombinedInterest Value
0.95 0.96 0.96Utility Value
0.87 0.84 0.87Attainment Value
0.87 0.86 0.87Cost Value
0.79 0.71 0.75Personal Mastery Approach Goals
0.86 0.87 0.87Personal Performance Approach Goals 0.84 0.84 0.84Personal Performance Avoid Goals
0.80 0.78 0.79Efficacy
0.89 0.87 0.88
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Table 4
Reliabilities for Efficacy, Task Value, and Achievement Goal Measures for End of School
Year (N = 8,429)
Middle School High School CombinedInterest Value
0.95 0.96 0.95Utility Value
0.90 0.88 0.89Attainment Value
0.90 0.88 0.89Cost Value
0.83 0.78 0.81Personal Mastery Approach Goals
0.88 0.88 0.88Personal Performance Approach Goals 0.86 0.86 0.86Personal Performance Avoid Goals
0.84 0.82 0.83Efficacy
0.91 0.91 0.91
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Figure 1
Sample School Report
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Figure 2
Cross-sections of Beginning-of-Year Motivation Profiles for Middle and High School
Students (N = 8,429)
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Validity and Motivation to Learn 23
Figure 3
Cross-sections of End-of-Year Motivation Profiles for Middle and High School Students
(N = 8,429)