1. Group PresentationPaper 3.1Techniques ofResearch Mentor : Dr. SailajaChennat

2. CaseStudyPresenters :-Pooja, Rekha, Taruna &Vikram 2 3. Examples where thisresearch method is used 3 4. Examples where this method is used | :o |o |o |4 5. Examples where this method is used TITLE : Critical appraisal of non-formal educationin achieving Universalization of ElementaryEducation (UEE) : Case study of a voluntaryagency. AUTHOR: YEAR: CALL NO.: ACC. NO.: OBJECTIVES :o To critically review the policy perspective andprogramme of action on the role and vision of NFE inachieving UEE.o To critically review specific aspects of a NFE programmeand examine its viability as a system of education. 5 6. Examples where this method is used TITLE: Teaching, Learning and Technology : Acase study of selected schools. AUTHOR : S. Sivaraj Pandian YEAR : 1993 M.Phil Dissertation CALL NO. : 371.102 SIV / DI ACC. NO. : 84999 OBJECTIVES :o To assess availability of educational technologyequipment in D.T.E.A. schools.o To examine how far teachers are able to properly handleeducational technology equipment in promotingteaching-learning process. 6 7. Examples where this method is usedo To identify the status of educational technology inschool context.o To investigate utilization of educational technologyequipment in teaching-learning across variouscurricular subjects.o To find out the option of teachers about the impact anduse of educational technology equipment on teaching-learning.o To assess user- educational technology interface.o To develop suggested guidelines for improved use ofeducational technology.7 8. Examples where this method is used Communication in the early stage of languagedevelopment in children with CHARGE syndrome by Sini Peltokorpi and Kerttu Huttunen in BritishJournal of Visual Impairment 2008 Vol 26: Pg 24. Including visually impaired student in physicaleducation lessons: a case study of teacher andpupil experiences - by Frank Herold and JackDandolo in British Journal of Visual Impairment2009 Vol - 27(1): Pg 7584.8 9. Is there any difference b/wcase studies done inB.Ed./B.El.Ed & M.Ed. ? 9 10. What is a CASEaccording to you ? 10 11. Meaning of CASE11 12. Meaning of Case The unit of analysis in the research. A comprehensive story of a real situation, decision, event, or managerial process. Contains data and information for analysis. Contains situations requiring decisions and/or recommendations Simulates real-world experiences 12 13. Meaning of Case Study A case study is an empirical inquiry thatinvestigates a contemporary phenomenon withinits real-life context, especially when boundariesbetween phenomenon and context are not clearlyevident, and in which multiple sources of evidenceare used. (Yin 1984) A case study is a specific instance that isfrequently designed to illustrate a more generalprinciple (Nisbet & Watt 1984 :72)13 14. Why To Use Case Study Research? To explain the causal links in real-life interventions that is too complex for the survey or experimental strategies (explanatory study). To describe the real-life context in which an intervention has occurred (descriptive study). To evaluate an intervention that has already occurred (evaluative study). To explore those situations in which intervention being evaluated has no clear, single set of outcomes (exploratory study).14 15. ( ) (Interrelationship studies) | 15 16. , | | , , , |16 17. | , , , | | 17 18. Logic of Case Study 18 19. Logic of Case Study19 20. Characteristics20 21. Characteristics The study of particular instances. An in-depth study of the case-a substantialamount of data should be collected about thespecific case (or cases) selected to representthe phenomenon. The data may come in theform of physical objects, words, or images. Study of a phenomenon in its naturalenvironment-Observing the phenomenon in itsown environment helps to close the boundariesbetween the phenomenon and context. 21 22. Characteristics Representation of emic and etic perspectives. o Emic- the participants view of the phenomenon being studied. o Etic- the researchers interpretation of the phenomenon being studied. The etic perspective helps the researcher to make sense of findings.22 23. | | | | 23 24. Sources of DataCollection24 25. Sources of Data Collection Documentation- Use of documents: to corroborateand augment evidence from other sources. AnInternet search prior to field visit is feasible.o Strengths: Stable, unobtrusive, exact, broadcoverageo Weaknesses: Retrievability, biased selectivity,reporting bias, and access Interviews-o Strengths: Targeted, insightful.o Weaknesses: Bias due to poorly articulatedquestions, Response bias, Inaccuracies due to poorrecall, Reflexivity etc.25 26. Sources of Data Collection Archival records- Often take a form of computerfiles and records E.g., organizational records(budget or personnel records).Usefulness ofarchival records vary: from essential to passiverelevance. o Strengths: Precise and usually quantitative. o Weaknesses: Accessibility due to privacy reasons. Direct observation- Observations of meetings,factory work, classrooms, etc. o Strengths: Reality, contextual o Weaknesses: time-consuming, selectivity, reflexivity, and cost26 27. Sources of Data Collection Participant observation o Strengths: Insightful into interpersonal behavior and motives. o Weaknesses: Bias due to participant-observers manipulation of events. Physical artefacts- E.g., technological device,tool or instrument, a work of art o Strengths: Insightful into cultural features and technical operations. o Weaknesses: Selectivity and availability is less. 27 28. Components 28 29. Components A studys question- concerned with how and why questions, so the initial task is to clarify precisely the nature of your study questions in this regard. Its propositions- help to direct attention to something that should be examined within the scope of the study.29 30. Roadmap & Steps OfCase Study30 31. Roadmap for case study Object Case selection Literature review Propositions/hypotheses Data collection Data organization Data analysis Findings and interpretation.31 32. Steps of case research Selection of the case or cases Determining initial status of symptoms Formulation of hypothesis Collection of explanatory data Diagnosis or identification of casual factors Remedial or developmental treatment Follow up of rechecking32 33. An Illustration Initial status on symptoms reading disability of achild Collection of explanatory data factors associatedwith learning disability : physical intellectual,pedagogical, emotional, social or environmental Diagnosis or identification defective vision Developmental treatment correctly fitted glasses Follow-up program 33 34. , | | | , | |34 35. Skills for Researcher35 36. Skills for Researcher Ask good questions. Be a good listener. Be adaptive and flexible. Have a firm grasp of the issues being studied. Be unbiased by preconceived notions.36 37. Principles Of CaseResearch 37 38. Principles Principle 1- Use multiple sources of evidence.o Triangulation -> findings are more convincing andaccurateo Convergence and nonconvergence of sourceso Prerequisites for using multiple sources: costs,knowledge in different data collection methods.38 39. Principles Principle 2- Create a case study database.o Way of organizing and documenting the datacollectedo Increases reliability of researcho Database includes: case study notes (results of interviews & observations) & case study documents tabular materials (e.g., survey and other quantitative data) narratives (open-ended answers to the questions) 39 40. Principles Principle 3- Maintain a chain of evidence. o To allow an external observer to follow the derivation of any evidence from initial research questions to ultimate conclusions o Not only the actual evidence but the circumstances of its collection 40 41. Types41 42. Types Merriam (1988) - on the basis ofo Descriptiveo Interpretativeo Evaluative Merriam (1988) on the basis ofo Ethnographico Historicalo Psychologicalo Sociological42 43. Types Stenhouse (1985) : -o Ethnographic case studyo Action- research case studyo Evaluative case studyo Educational case study Stake (1984) :-o Intrinsic case studyo Instrumental case studyo Collective case study43 44. Types Ethnographic- an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a social unit or phenomenon. This type of case study is concerned with the cultural aspect of the phenomenon being studied. Sociological- attend to the constructs of society and socialization in studying phenomena. Psychological- employs concepts, theories, and measurement theories from psychology in investigating problems. Historical- involves searching for data to answer questions about a past phenomenon for the purpose of gaining a better understanding of present institutions, trends, issues in education. 44 45. Types Collective or multiple - focuses on an issue by analysing multiple cases. This approach uses the logic of replication in which the researcher replicates the procedures for each case. Intrinsic - focuses on the case itself because it presents an unusual or unique situation. Single instrumental - focuses on an issue or concern, and then selects one bounded case to illustrate this issue.45 46. Purpose/Goals46 47. Purpose/Goals Description- provide a detailed account of the phenomenon. A good depiction will provide what is called a thick description, that is, statements that re-create a situation in as much of its context as possible. In creating thick description the researcher looks for constructs (concepts that are observed from phenomena) and themes (salient, characteristic features of a case). Exploratory & Explanatory - It finds the problematic area concerned & gives the prescriptive explanations.47 48. Purpose/Goals Interpretation- descriptive data are used to develop conceptual categories or to illustrate, support, or challenge theoretical assumptions held prior to data gathering. Evaluation- involve description, explanation, and judgment. Case studies serve as a good evaluation because they provide a thick description and are holistic. 48 49. Analyzing The Data 49 50. Analyzing The Data Interpretational Analysis- the process ofexamining case study data closely in order tofind constructs, themes, and patterns that canbe used to describe and explain thephenomenon being studied. Interpretationalanalysis involves developing categories, codingsegments, and grouping category segments.50 51. Analyzing The Data Structural Analysis- the process of examiningcase study data for the purpose of identifyingpatterns inherent in discourse, text, events, orother phenomena. Reflective Analysis- a process in which theresearcher relies mainly on their own judgmentand intuition to evaluate the phenomena beingstudied. 51 52. Reliability & Validity52 53. Reliability Reliability remains to be problematic for casestudy research simply because humanbehaviour is never static. Techniques thatresearchers can use to ensure that results aredependable are: o the investigator should be thorough in providing information about the data collected so that replication can take place. o multiple methods of data collection should be used (triangulation). o Long tem observation of the same phenomenon. 53 54. Validity Questions also arise about the validity of casestudies due to the biases of the researcher and theindividuality of the participant. Strategies toincrease validity include: o using multiple investigators, sources, and methods to confirm findings o member checks- asking participants to recheck data given o asking colleagues to comment on findings o be aware of researcher biases, assumptions, and world view 54 55. Strengths55 56. Strengths The result are more easily understood by awide audience (including non-academics) asthey are written in everyday, non-professionallanguage. immediately intelligible, they speak forthemselves. catch unique features that may otherwise belost in larger scale data; these unique featuresmight hold the key to understanding thesituation. 56 57. Strengths strong on reality. provide insights into other, similar situations andcases, thereby assisting interpretation of othersimilar cases. can be undertaken by a single researcherwithout needing a full research team. can embrace and build in unanticipated eventsand uncontrolled variables.57 58. | | | | 58 59. Limitations/Criticism 59 60. Limitations/Criticism result may not be scientific generalizable exceptwhere other readers/ researchers see theirapplications. not easily open to cross-checking, hence theymay be selective, biased, personal andsubjective. problems of observer bias, despite attemptsmade to address reflexivity. Rigor of case study research is too much. Too long, result in massive, unreadabledocuments. Cant directly address causal relationships.60 61. Limitations/Criticism Researcher must be thoroughly familiar with theexisting knowledge of the field of enquiry andshould be skillful in isolating the significantvariables from the irrelevant variables. It is very difficult to select subjects or units for astudy that are representative or typical. Sources of data may not be very reliable. Sources of data may be reliable but data maysuffer from over-emphasis on unusual events ordistortion. 61 62. | , | | | 62 63. Myths and realities ofcase research 63 64. Myths and realities of case research Rigoro Myth - Case studies do not use standardmethodologies; hence, they lack rigour.o Reality: Case studies use multiple sources of datacollection like observation, interviews, archives,and quantitative data. This ensures triangulationand provides stronger substantiation of constructsand hypotheses (Eisenhardt, 1989).64 65. Myths and realities of case research Generalizabilityo Myth : Case studies are subjective, lack rigour andnot capable of arriving at generalisation.o Reality: An investigators goal is to expand andgeneralise theories (analytic) and not to enumeratefrequencies (statistical). For case studiesgeneralisability is determined by the strength of thedescription of the context.65 66. Myths and realities of case research Data overloado Myth : Case study involves collection of data fromseveral sources. Thus, it accumulates massiveamount of data (documentation overload) & is timeconsuming . Researcher has to analyze this massiveamount of data..o Reality: Multiple data collection & analysis is thestrength of case research as it helps in understandingcomplex phenomena in their context. Caseresearchers always develop a strategy of timemanagement & documentation overload. 66 67. Uses 67 68. Uses Mode of investigation into the casual relationships of complex educational phenomenon Study cases of problem children, maladjusted students and students showing academic & other difficulties Find out the general characteristics of phenomenon of a given class or an area e.g. case studies of truant students in slum areas or learning difficulties of students in mathematics68 69. Uses Investigation of normal & gifted children Find out the factors which are responsible for successful institutions & groups Investigation of ideal teachers Forms basis of guidance in preventing maladjustment Important source of educational programs & reforms Study teaching difficulties of beginning teachers69 70. Paradigms where it canbe situated 70 71. Paradigms where it can be situated Post-Modernismo maintains the death of metanarratives(Lyotard)o dismiss the idea that there is one definitiveinterpretation of an event or historyo scepticism about the notion of truth and objectivityo no unique truth, but a supposed plurality ofconflicting yet valid claims and a choice of mininarratives rather than one overarching explanation71 72. Paradigms where it can be situated Critical Theory o involves critical reflection on current practices, questions taken-for-granted assumptions, and critiques the status quo based on the theories of one or more critical theorists o words such as validity and reliability, which imply an objective reality independent of social reality, are not normally used in critical studies72 73. Paradigms where it can be situated Interpretivism o attempt to understand phenomena through the meanings that people assign to them o define quality in terms of the plausibility of the story and the overall argument (not validity and reliability) o focus on the social construction of reality how and why people see the world the way they do73 74. References R. Yin, 2009, Case Study Research: design and methods, 4th Ed., SAGE. Willis, Jerry, 2007, Foundations of qualitative research : interpretive and critical approaches, Sage Publications, Inc. Cohen L., Manion L. & Morrison k. ____, Research methods in Education, _____. Best, John W & James V. Kahn, 1998, Research in Education, Allyn and Bacon.74 75. References Bogdan, R. C. & Biklen, S. K. (2006). Qualitative research in education: An introduction to theory and methods. Allyn & Bacon. ODonoghue, T., Punch K. (2003). Qualitative Educational Research in Action: Doing and Reflecting. Routledge. Gary Thomas, 2011, How to do your Case Study, Thousand Oaks: Sage.75 76. 76 77. 77