Wendy A. MitteagerState University of New York, Oneonta

CITY SPACES: URBAN STRUCTURE

Urban Structure - Key Terms

Land Use & Spatial Patterns• North American Cities• European Cities• Islamic Cities• Unintended Metropolises

• Mega Cities• Dualism• Infrastructure

Urban Land Use Models• Racial Segregation• Smart Growth• Urban Sprawl• Gentrification• Edge Cities

City• The term is a political designation

• Refers to a municipal entity that is governed by some kind of administrative organization

• In Europe the largest cities (especially capitals) are often

• the foci of the state• microcosms of their national

cultures

Urban StructureIsotropic surface• A hypothetical uniform

plane representing a City & its Use Zones

• Accessibility of a location is a function of its utility, which decreases steadily with distance from the city center.

• Utility decreases from center but at different rates for different land users.

Figure 11.1 Accessibility, bid-rent, and urban structure

Bid-rents - Different users are prepared to pay different amounts for locations at various distances from the City center.Trade-off model• Urban dwellers trade-off

between accessibility & living space

North American City Structure• Central business district

(CBD) – traditional city development based on urban center with administrative functions including government, banking, law, education, & retail functions.

• Zone in transition – as city space evolves & changes, previous zones of industrial use fall into decay, may develop into new business with different land use; mixture of growth, change & decline.

Figure 11.2 Chicago's “Globalized” Financial CBD

Historic 3rd Street Central Business District Santa Monica, CA1950’s to 2012

North American Cities

Figure 11.3 The ecological model of urban land use – The “Chicago Model”

Zones of concentric land use in a model City. Central business district (CBD) at center, location of original agricultural farmers’ markets, livestock transport & slaughter, rail yards for shipping nationally & regionally. Manufacturing. Historic ethnic enclaves with distinct cultural fabric in proximity to groups experiencing discrimination due to race and ethnicity.

http://www.chicagohs.org/history/stockyard/stock6.html

Kids in the Dump yards of Chicago

http://www.chicagohs.org/history/stockyard/stock8.html

Worker Housing

Chicago Union Stockyards, Railroads Manufacturing Zones

Urban Population & Congregation• Congregation provides a means of cultural preservation. Allows

religious & cultural practices to be maintained & strengthens group identity through daily involvement in routines & ways of life.

• Minority groups are population subgroups that are perceived as different from the general population. Defining characteristics of minority groups can be based on race, language, religion, nationality, caste, sexual orientation, or lifestyle.

• Segregation – The combined result of congregation & discrimination, the spatial separation of specific subgroups within a wider population.• Enclaves are tendencies toward congregation & discrimination are long-

standing but dominated by internal cohesion.• Ghettos long-standing products of discrimination than congregation.• Colonies – result from shorter lasting congregation, discrimination or both.

Persistence depends on continuing arrival of new minority-group members.

Racial Segregation

Detroit

Long BeachNew York

Washington, D.C.

Figure 11.a,b,c,d

• Segregation – The combined result of congregation & discrimination, the spatial separation of specific subgroups within a wider population.

• Development of American Cities reflect historical trend of racial segregation.

Spatial Organization

Figure 11.6 Decentralized multiple-nuclei model

Contemporary American urbanization; ever-increasing metropolitan sprawl with outlying nodes of residential & economic development

Ex: Los Angeles & southern California regions, Northeastern Indiana – Chicago metropolitan region

Figure 11.5 Hoyt's model of urban structure: Sector model

Hoyt observed dominant patterns of population classes in as concentric & sectors of land use.Wage earners live in proximity to manufacturing The Central Business District containing administrative functions & segregated low & higher income residential areas.

Where are vistas located?

Spatial OrganizationFigure 11.7 Polycentric new metropolis

Non-concentric reality of American Urban & suburban growth

Both multiple-nuclei & polycentricMetropolitan urban regions merge into “megalopolis” Gottman’s 1961Conceptualization of the urbanized regionfrom Boston – New York – Baltimore – Washington, DC & it’s role in industrial, trade/shipping, financial, & government activities.

Edge City – Tysons Corner, Virginia**Urban development with new Business, commercial, retail, &Upscale residential areas Outside of more established cities.

Business Parks are ex. of outlyingCenters of economic innovation.Also planned developments such as Irvine, CA

Spatial Organization

Figure 11.9 Gentrification in Philadelphia – Elite economic class enjoys revitalization of older core residences near the CBD & Downtown of American cities. Controversial for displacing lower income residents & neighborhoods.

Figure 11.8 Metroburban landscapes – merging of urban centers with edge cities of residences, retail centers, & business parks. Commute times are extended but over time the regions merge into interconnected metro-urban areas. Example is San Diego from Mexico border north east and north west is all developed commercially & residentially & connected via freeway networks to Orange County and to Los Angeles.

Smart Growth versus Sprawl

Figure 11.F Smart growth in Pasadena

Figure 11.E Transformation of California farmland to suburban sprawl – Water comes from Colorado River Water & from Water Table via municipal wells.

Pasadena was founded in 1900, part of original Los Angeles landscape at turn-of-century; not the same as contemporary sprawl, not really a good comparison, nation’s 1st freeway led from downtown LA over pass LA River into town against Mts. Pasadena used to be connected to Pacific Ocean via the Red Cars – trolley system removed when automobiles became popular.

Problems of North American Cities• Central cities – inner-city cores experience decay, crime, poverty.• Fiscal squeeze – Occurs when tax revenue goes down (businesses

leave area, homeowners move out) plus increasing demand for money to improve & support urban infrastructure & city services.

• Detroit – entire industry leaves & city disintegrates• Infrastructure – Bridges, roads,• Sewers, electrical grids, public• Transportation all has to be maintained• Poverty- lower wage populations who • need support to escape cycle of poverty.• Neighborhood decay – lack of investment in maintenance of

properties - low income areas needs investment• Redlining – racial/financial profiling of homebuyers – nice word for

economic Racism. Contributes to economic decline by undermining neighborhood stability.

Figure 11.10 Decaying infrastructure, Minneapolis

Problems of North American Cities

Figure 11.11 Devastation of Poverty in the District of Columbia or DC

The Department of Housing and Urban Development oversees homes owned by the government, and ensures that tenants and renters are treated fairly under the law. http://www.usa.gov/Agencies/Federal/Executive/HUD.shtml

• The mission of the Office of Housing is to:Contribute to building and preserving healthy neighborhoods and communitiesMaintain and expand homeownership, rental housing and healthcare opportunitiesStabilize credit markets in times of economic disruptionOperate with a high degree of public and fiscal accountabilityRecognize and value its customers, staff, constituents and partners

http://defeatpovertydc.org/ Addresses Literacy – “as many as 37% of DC residents are functionally illiterate. “

Discrimination in Education, Employment & Housing: What explains such significant racial disparities?Historically, African Americans have faced many uphill challenges that partly trace back to longstanding spatial segregation, social and economic exclusion, and isolation. All, in turn, can undermine employment and educational success especially in neighborhoods served by failing public schools. Some disparities in employment and income stem from underlying disparities in education and even health. Then there's the outright discrimination revealed in paired testing studies—equally qualified potential home buyers or job seekers get treated differently because of race or ethnicity. Clearly, disadvantages in one area, such as education, can undermine outcomes in others such as employment and earnings.

European Cities • City planning based on• Centuries of History• Beaux Arts style• Modern movement

• Features – Low skylines – Zoning– Lively downtowns– Neighborhood stability– Based on historic Nationalism– Municipal socialism

Figure 11.12 Vigevano, Italy

Urban History• Urbanization• Related concepts

• Primate city• Metropolis • CBD-• Central Business District• Finance, Govt. & Courts, • Parks, Libraries, Museums

Sequent Occupance – ancient relics, historical City planning of boulevards, & modern architecture

Primate Cities• A country’s largest city• Always disproportionately

larger than the second largest urban center -- more than twice the size

• Especially expressive of the national culture

• Usually (but not always) the capital

• Examples: Paris, • London, Athens

Modern Urban Structure

Figure 11.16 La Ville Radieuse – Le Corbusier was a Swiss-born architect who imagined the city of the “future” criticized but also prophetic, take a look at his work: His buildings are to the right:

https://www.google.com/search?q=la+ville+radieuse+le+corbusier&hl=en&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=lrpuUcy2D8jRyAGD64Fw&ved=0CC0QsAQ&biw=1600&bih=758

Chandigar, India - Le Corbusier’s HandMonument: The city of Chandigarh was the firstplanned city in India post independence in 1947

City of Brasilia, Brazil, capital based on “La Ville Radieuse” designed by Le Corbusier, famous early 20th century architect & visionary.Criticized for dis- affecting landscape, presaged modern Cities.

Figure 11.17 The Brazilian National Congress buildings, Brasilia

Latin American architecture – representative of the “Frontier”

Architecture: Who's Oscar?

“Considering the easy nature of the Brazilians, it's almost an enigma that such a country could foster an architect like Oscar Niemeyer. He is the main architect behind Brasilia, the artificial and mostly unbearable capital of Brazil. Perhaps his greatest work is the Niterói Contemporary Art Museum in Niterói, a short boatride just across the Guanabara bay from Rio de Janeiro. Oscar Niemeyer is almost 100 years old, and still going strong. He is currently working on a statue to put down the US blocade of Cuba.”

Spanish Colonial Architecture

Volcano overlooking Antigua, Guatemala

Grid street system with Churches, govt. offices, stores, & slaughter house at Center with Central Plaza

Islamic Cities globally• Basic principles

• Personal privacy and virtue

• Communal well-being• Inner essence of things

• Jami (principal mosque)

• Kasbah (citadel)

Figure 11.18 Mosque in Pakistan

http://www.lonelyplanet.com/indonesia/java/travel-tips-and-articles/76171

“Religious architecture of Islam”

Seville, Spain (1167) - Almohad Mosque

Islamic Cities in Arid Regions

Figure 11.19 A suq, a covered bazaar, in Iran

Figure 11.20 Housing in Tunisia

Interior public spaces addresses hot arid climates.

Landscapes of Wealth - Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Figure 11.H Luxury development, Palm JumeirahFigure 11.G Dubai cityscape

Figure 11 Dubai real estate bust – do the buildings remind you of Las Vegas?

• Over-building, speculation without basis for profit contributed to real estate crisis in UAE during global economic crisis of 2009.

• Large numbers of transnational migrant workers from Turkey & other middle Eastern nations contributed to economy & construction.

Cities of the Periphery• “Unintended” metropolises• Meaning no planning for• Low Income Population• Underemployment• Dualism• The informal economy• Slums = Unaddressed Poverty• Transport & infrastructure

problems• Environmental degradation

Figure 11.23 Dualism in Rio de Janeiro:

Upper middle class & wealthier “official” residents of the City vs. unofficial residents of the Favelas

Cities of the Periphery

Figure 11.26 Self-help as a solution to housing problems in ZambiaFigure 11.25 Informal economic activities in Bangkok, Thailand

Figure 11.22 Recent explosive growth in Lagos, Nigeria due to oil economy & Rural to Urban Migration.

Figure 11.24 Garbage picking in Bangkok, Thailand for Survival

Cities of the Periphery

Figure 11.28 Water-supply problems in India

Figure 11.27 Infrastructure problems in Columbia, S. America

Philippines – Garbage is the business of very poor groups,Shantytown fire in Philippines, people living in containers.

Future Geographies

Sao Paulo, Brazil

Megacities – Population outstrips Major Issues:• Slum housing, environmental

degradation, & lack of infrastructure for sewage treatment, unsafe water supplies or none at all.

• Disease & health risks, especially to children, lack of education & healthcare.

• Economic competition for space & accessibility along with tendency toward social & ethnic discrimination, congregation, & segregation are apparent in World Cities.

End of Chapter 11