JPN494: Japanese Language and LinguisticsJPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics

Phonology & Phonetics (3)

Phonemically (Phonologically) …

Phonemes (vowels) in American English:– /i/, /u/, /ɝ/, /eɪ/, /oʊ/, /ɔɪ/, /aʊ/, /aɪ/(, /ju/)– /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʊ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ/, /ɔ/– /ə/

Phonemes (vowels) in Japanese:– /a/, /i/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/– Some scholars consider /a:/, /i:/, /ɯ:/, /e:/, /o:/ (as

in おばあさん , イースター , etc.) distinct vowel phonemes.

Phonemic inventory of consonants in General American English:– /p/, /t/, /k/; /b/, /d/, /g/– /m/, /n/, /ŋ/– /f/, /θ/, /s/; /v/, /ð/, /z/– /ʧ/, /ʤ/– /l/, /r/; /w/, /j/

Phonemic inventory of consonants in Japanese There are opposing ideas, in particular in relation to

the treatment of 拗音 ( ようおん )– 直音 ( ちょくおん ): カ・キ・ク・ケ・コ– 拗音 ( ようおん ): キャ・キュ・キョ

To identify the set of phonemes in a language is not a trivial matter. The “ground rules” are:

1. To minimize the number of phonemes2. To minimize the number of phonological rules

Option 1 (assumed by Tsujimura)

Step 1 Each 行 ( ぎょう ) in 50 音図 , except for ア

行 , corresponds to one consonant. ( 拗音’ s and “ ん” , ” っ” , “ ー” are put aside)

カ・ガ・サ・ザ・タ・ダ・ナ・ハ・パ・バ・マ・ヤ・ラ・ワ

/k/, /g/, /s/, /z/ ([z], [ʣ]), /t/, /d/, /n/, /h/, /p/, /b/, /m/, /j/, /r/ ([ɾ], [l], [r]), /w/

Step 2 The following sounds are realized by phonolo

gical rules (there is good evidence to believe that such phonological rules exist)– [ʃ] in シ (an allophone of /s/)– [ʤ] in ジ (an allophone of /z/)– [ʧ] in チ , [ʦ] in ツ (allophones of /t/)– [ç] in ヒ , [ɸ] in フ (allophones of /h/)

Step 3 additional phonemes for 拗音’ s /kj/, /gj/, /nj/, /mj/, /rj/ 　 (class 1; palatalized consonants)

– 客 ( きゃく ), 急 ( きゅう ), 今日 ( きょう )– 逆 ( ぎゃく ), 牛丼 ( ぎゅうどん ), 業界 ( ぎょうかい )– 蒟蒻 ( こんにゃく ), 入院 ( にゅういん ), 女房 ( にょうぼう )– ミャンマー , ミュージック , 茗荷 ( みょうが )– 略す ( りゃくす ), 竜 ( りゅう ), 旅館 ( りょかん )

/ʧ/, /ʦ/, /ʃ/, /ʤ/, /ç/, /ɸ/ (class 2)– 茶 ( ちゃ ), 注意 ( ちゅうい ), チェス , 調子 ( ちょうし ) – おとっつぁん , ツァーリ , カンツォーネ– 車庫 ( しゃこ ), 週末 ( しゅうまつ ), シェーク , 商売 ( しょ

うばい )– じゃこ , 十 ( じゅう ), ジェスチャー , 女性 ( じょせい )– 百 ( ひゃく ), 日向 ( ひゅうが ), 氷河 ( ひょうが )– ファイル , フィン , フェリー , フォーク

[ʧ] in チ is a phonetic realization of /t/, while [ʧ] in チャ , チュ , チェ , チョ is a phonetic realization of /ʧ/

Similarly for /ʦ/, /ʃ/, /ʤ/, /ç/, /ɸ/ 　

Option 1’

Consonants in キ・ギ・ニ・ミ・リ too are phonetically palatalized (like those in キャ・ギャ・ニャ・ミャ・リャ , etc.).– 木々 ( きぎ ) [kjigji]– 二ミリ ( にみり ) [njimjirji] ([ɲimjirji])

In other words, [kj], [gj], [nj] ([ɲ]), [mj], [rj] can be either (i) phonetic realizations of /k/, /g/, /n/, /m/, /r/ or (ii) phonetic realizations of /kj/, /gj/, /nj/ (/ɲ/), /mj/, /rj/

Option 2

(Step 1 and Step 2 are the same as before)Step 3 拗音’ s have phonemic representations of the form: /

CjV/, where– C {k, g, s, z, t, d, n, h, p, b, m, r} ∈– V {a, ɯ, (e,) o})∈– e.g. 客 /kjakɯ/

Additional rule:– CjV → CjV (where Cj is the palatalized counterpart of C)– kja → kja

Modification of an existing rule:– s → ʃ / ___ i or j

sja → ʃja– C[+p]jV → C[+p]V (where C[+p] is a palatal or alveo-palatal consonant)

ʃja → ʃa– (similarly: t → ʧ, d → ʤ, h → ç)

The number of phonemes can be largely reduced; namely, we can dispense with /kj/, /gj/, /nj/, /mj/, /rj/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/, /ʤ/, /ç/.

/ʦ/ and /ɸ/ are still needed. /ɸ/ can, however, re-analyzed as /hw/:

– hwV → ɸV (e.g. hwa → ɸa)

Special phonemes

/R/ (corresponds to “ ー” ) /Q/ (corresponds to “ っ” /“ ッ” ) /N/ (corresponds to “ ん” / “ ン” )

/R/ ( 引く音 ): realized as lengthening of the preceding vowel:

– ラーメン /raRmeN/ [ɾa:meɴ] ⇒– お母さん ( おかあさん ) /okaRsaN/ [oka:saɴ]⇒– お爺さん ( おじいさん ) /oziRsaN/ [oʣi:saɴ]⇒– 空気 ( くうき ) /kɯRki/ [kɯ:k⇒ ji]– お姉さん ( おねえさん ) /oneRsaN/ [one:saɴ]⇒– 名刺 ( めいし ) /meRsi/ [me:ʃi]⇒– 狼 ( おおかみ ) /oRkami/ [o:kam⇒ ji]– 砂糖 ( さとう ) /satoR/ [sato:]⇒

/Q/ ( つまる音 ): realized as lengthening of the following consonant:

– sustained closure 一杯 ( いっぱい ) /iQpai/ [ippai]⇒ 一体 ( いったい ) /iQtai/ [ittai]⇒ 一回 ( いっかい ) /iQkai/ [ikkai]⇒ ブッダ /bɯQda/ [bɯdda]⇒ バッグ /baQgɯ/ [baggu]⇒ エッジ /eQzi/ [edʣi] ⇒

– sustained stricture 必死 ( ひっし ) /hiQsi/ [çiʃʃi]⇒

/N/ ( はねる音 ; 撥音 ( はつおん )): realized in various ways depending on what sound follows it:

– uvular nasal 本 ( ほん ) /hoN/ [hoɴ] (⇒ ～ [hoŋ])

– coarticulatory nasals 散歩 ( さんぽ ) /saNpo/ [sampo]⇒ 引退 ( いんたい ) /iNtai/ [intai]⇒ 天気 ( てんき ) /teNki/ [teŋki]⇒ こんにちは /koNnitiwa/ [kon⇒ jnjiʧiwa]

– nasailized vowels 新鋭 ( しんえい ) /siNei/ [ʃieei] (⇒ ～ [ʃiɴei]) 恋愛 ( れんあい ) /reNai/ [ɾeaai] (⇒ ～ [ɾeɴai])

Phonemes in Japanese (Summary)

Option 1– /a/, /i/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/– /p/, /t/, /k/; /pj/, /ʧ/, /kj/– /b/, /d/, /g/; /bj/, /ʤ/, /gj/– /m/, /n/; /mj/, /nj/ – /s/, /h/, /ɸ/; /ʃ/, /ç/– /z/; /ʒ/– (/ʦ/)– /r/– /j/, /w/– /N/, /Q/, /R/

Phonemes in Japanese (Summary)

Option 2– /a/, /i/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/– /p/, /t/, /k/– /b/, /d/, /g/– /m/, /n/ – /s/, /h/(, /ɸ/)– /z/– (/ʦ/)– /r/– /j/, /w/– /N/, /Q/, /R/

Syllables and moras

Adjacent phones can form a group. The most well-known unit of grouping is “syll

able”. A syllable consists of:

– onset: 0, 1, or more consonant– nucleus: 1 vowel (mono-, bi-, or tri- phthongal)– coda: 0, 1, or more consonant

strikes [stɹaɪks]– onset: [stɹ]– Nucleus: [aɪ]– coda: [ks]

owe [oʊ]– onset: φ– nucleus: [oʊ]– coda: φ

Phonotactics

Possible and impossible syllables (phonotactics)– In English, the sequence of [s] and [t] (in the onset) is possi

ble, while it is not in Japanese.– In English, sequences like [ts], [ɹt], etc. are not allowed in t

he onset (star vs. tsar; tree vs. rtee). As a ground rule, sonority of sounds must increase

as they approach to the nucleus.– stops < fricatives < nasals < approximants (< vowels)

Syllables in Japanese

(Phonologically) onset (option 1): {φ, C} onset (option 2): {φ, C (other than /j/, /w/)} +

{φ, /j/, /w/} nucleus: {V} + {φ, V, /R/} coda: {φ, /N/, /Q/} /V/, /VV/, /CV/, /CjV/, /CjVR/, …

Syllables in Japanese

(Phonetically) onset: {φ, C} nucleus: {V, VV, V:} coda: {φ, C} C in the coda of a word-final syllable must be

a nasal:– 胃 ( い ), イー , 木 ( き ), キー , トン , トーン– ひっ . し , げっ . ぷ

胃 ( い ) /V/ [V] 藍 ( あい ) /VV/ [VV] イー /VR/ [V:] 木 ( き ) /CV/ [CV] キー /CVR/ [CV:] トン /CVN/ [CVC] トーン /CVRN/ [CV:C] ひっ . し /CVQ.CV/ [CVC.CV] げっ . ぷ /CVQ.CV/ [CVC.CV]

Moras

“Mora” is a unit larger than phone, but smaller than syllable.

A syllable consists of one or more mora. A syllable with more moras is said to be heav

y(er). E.g., beat is heavier than bit.

Japanese is said to be a mora-timed language (Each mora has equal length).

English: stress-timed language (A stressed syllable occurs periodically).

Spanish: syllable-timed language (Each syllable has equal length).

Each upper case kana, “ ー” , and “ っ” corresponds to one mora:

– 胃 ( い ): one syllable, one mora– 序 ( じょ ): one syllable, one mora– 貝 ( かい ): one syllable, two moras– キー : one syllable, two moras – 謝意 ( しゃい ): one syllable, two moras– 章 ( しょう ): one syllable, two moras– 案 ( あん ): one syllable, two moras– 作家 ( さっか ): two syllables, three moras– サッカー : two syllables, four moras

Haiku

5-7-5 ( ご・しち・ご ):– こがらしや　海に夕日を　吹き落とす

( 夏目漱石 )– 涼風 ( すずかぜ ) の　曲がりくねって　来たりけり

( 小林一茶 ) 字余り :

– すずめの子　そこのけそこのけ　お馬が通る( 小林一茶 )

– 旅に病 ( や ) んで　夢は枯 ( か ) れ野を　かけめぐる ( 松尾芭蕉 )