Bringing Korea into K-12 Classrooms

An Introduction to Pre-Modern Korean History

National Korean Studies Seminar

Copyright 2014Mary Connor and Sung Kim

The Roots of Koreans

• The Neolithic Age ancestors of the Koreans migrated into the peninsula around 4,000 B.C.E. and left many relics.

• Ethnologically, the Korean people belong to the Mongoloid family, and the language belongs to the Altaic language family along with Turkic, Mongolian, Japanese and Manchu-Tungus.

Migration Routes of Ancient Koreans

Dolmen (Island of Kanghwado)

• The early Koreans lived in hilly areas, engaging chiefly in agriculture and even rice farming. They built dolmens and stone-coffin tombs are widespread.

Comb Pattern Pottery

• An example of comb-pattern ware dating from 3,000-2,000 B.C.E. This ancient bowl, excavated from prehistoric remains in Seoul, is very similar to pottery from in Northern Europe and Siberia.

The Creation Myth and the Origins of Ancient Choson

• The son of the divine creator came to the human world to establish a nation on the top of Mt. Paektu. A tiger and a bear came and begged him to make them human. They were told to eat mugwort and garlic and to avoid sunlight for one hundred days. The bear became a woman, but the tiger failed. The son of the divine creator felt sorry for the woman as she was all alone, so he married her. Their son, Dangun, became the first ruler of Joseon.

• Dangun made the walled city of Pyongyang the capital in 2333 B.C.E., called his country Joseon (Land of the Morning Calm), and ruled for 1500 years.

• This legend has contributed to the Korean sense of identity as a distinct and proud race.

The summit of Mt. Paektu, spiritual home of Koreans

National Shrine to Dangun North Korea

The Han Dynasty and The Three Kingdoms Period

• By 108 B.C.E. the Han dynasty had established four outposts in Korea. At this point Korea was not a single entity, but a scattering of tribes.

• The Three Kingdoms gradually arose. Goguryeo (37 B.C.E. – 668 C.E.) in the north, Baekje (18 B.C.E.- 660 C.E.) in the south, and Silla (57 B.C.E. – 935 C.E.) in the southeast. They were independent of Chinese political control, but greatly influenced by China’s material culture.

The Three Kingdoms• Each kingdom recognized

that China was superior in power, and was essentially left alone. Tribute was given to China as a sign of friendship and respect. Trade and cultural exchanges were frequent. Confucian beliefs existed within each kingdom.

• But the three kingdoms engaged in frequent warfare with each other.

The Kingdom of Goguryeo (37 B.C.E. – 668 C.E.)

• Goguryeo’s proximity to China promoted continuous influences. In 372 C.E. a monk introduced Buddhism. Confucianism was also introduced about the same time.

• The artistic skills of Goguryeo people can be seen in royal tombs that contain some of the finest wall paintings of the 4th and 5th centuries.

Hunting Scene of Goguryeo Warriors“Tomb of the Dancers” (Manchuria)

“The Tomb of the Dancers”

The previous image reflects the horseback life of the peoples of Goguryeo. Before the arrival of Buddhist influence, Shamanist beliefs were that the afterlife was the same as actual life, thus the hunters in the tomb can be seen pursuing deer, even though they fly over mountaintops in a spiritual context.

The Goguryeo Controversy• Goguryeo was in the headlines by a relatively recent

Beijing-backed study that claims Goguryeo as an integral part of China.

• South Koreans disagree. Ban Ki-moon, Head of the United Nations, expressed the following:

"It is an indisputable historical fact that Goguryeo is the root of the Korean nation and an inseparable part of our history. We will sternly and confidently deal with any claims or arguments harming the legitimacy of our rights."

The Kingdom of Baekje (18 B.C.E. – 660 C.E.)

• Buddhism and Confucianism were introduced to Baekje shortly after these beliefs came to Goguryeo.

• Artifacts from Baekje show Chinese influences, but they also reveal characteristics that are distinctly Korean.

• The people of this kingdom sailed to Japan and introduced Chinese characters, Buddhism, music, and art.

The Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.E. – 935 C.E.)

• Silla was initially more backward than Goguryeo or Baekkje and less influenced by China, but it ultimately became the longest dynasty in Korean history.

• Although Confucianism came to Silla, its teaching of inequality between men and women does not seem to have had an impact. Two women occupied the throne of Silla. The most famous was Queen Sondok (r. 632 to 647 C.E.).

Queen Sondok’s Reign• During Queen Sondok’s reign,

as in most of the Three Kingdom’s period, the Korean peninsula was a very violent place.

• In spite of constant warfare, the queen devoted herself to the welfare of her people and created Ch’omsongdae, one of the oldest astronomical observatories in the world.

• At the base are 12 stones symbolizing the months of the year, and there are 366 stones in the observatory representing roughly the days of the year.

Queen Sondok’s reign

• The stone pagoda of the Punhwang Temple was built during her reign and is the only one surviving from the pre-unified Silla period. Originally it had nine stories but only three remain.

Important Developments in Silla

• By the 6th century the Chinese title wang (king) was adopted and Buddhism was accepted as the state religion.

• Most of the power rested with the aristocrats who retained power based on hereditary bone rank or bloodline.

• The aristocracy dominated the military and followed a strict code of conduct that combined Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism.

Silla Kingdom

• Distinctive elements of the Silla culture were found in the tombs of royalty and nobility, such as this gold crown.

• Earthenware technology was also transmitted to Japan during this time.

The Silla KingdomOne of the most famous royal tombs in the ancient capital (Kyongju) is now

open to the public. It contains what is called

“the heavenly horse” (part of a mudguard) which

reveals the robust spirit and high level of artistry

of the time. The suggestion of four extra

legs gives the magic horse the ability to fly.

Shamanism• “The heavenly horse” tomb painting is another early

example of shamanistic-type painting in Korea. • Shamans were common in the ancient cultures of

Siberia and northern Asia, and Korean shamanism was most likely introduced by these people. It is believed that these tomb relics confirm the link of Silla to the ancient cultures of Siberia and northern Asia and that shamanism flourished among the ancestors of the Korean people before they first learned of Buddhism or Confucianism.

• Shamanism has survived into the 21st century and it continues to play a role in the Korean consciousness.

Unified Silla (668-935 C.E.)

• After the Tang allied with Silla and defeated Goguryeo and Baekje, Silla was able to get Goguryeo and Baekje to become its allies. After the success of the alliance, Tang threatened Silla, but Silla stood its ground and Tang forces withdrew. Silla then emerged as a unified state.

• The people of Unified Silla were able to lay the groundwork for a long lasting national culture for the Korean people.

Unified Silla (668-935 C.E.)

• Unified Silla lasted for nearly three centuries, and for a time, along with Tang China, was more advanced than any area of Europe except for the Byzantine Empire.

• It achieved rapid development in the arts, religion, education, printing, and commerce.

• Trade with China and Japan flourished.

Achievements of Unified Silla

• Tourists still witness the achievements of the golden age of Silla.

• The craftsmanship and aesthetics of this period are thought to surpass all others throughout the whole of Korean history.

• Present-day Kyongju, the capital of Silla, became the center of learning and creativity.

Kyongju and the Royal Tombs

Bulguksa (“Buddha nation temple”)

Bulguksa (built in 528 C.E. and restored in 1970s )

The Sokkuram Grotto• High in the mountains

in a cave above Bulguksa is the famous Buddha of the Sokkuram Grotto.

• The Buddha is one of the crowning achievements of Silla and conveys a sense of spirituality even for the non-Buddhist.

Kwaenung Tomb (near Kyongju)

The Decline of Silla

• The dynasty declined in the 8th century.• After a king was assassinated in 780,

political turmoil reigned for 150 years.• In 918 General Wang Kon seized control,

moved the capital to Kaesong, and reunified Korea.

• Kyongju faded into obscurity. Not until the 20th century were the achievements of Silla rediscovered.

The Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392): Early Goryeo

• Wang Kon founded a new unified dynasty that lasted for nearly five centuries.

• He named it Goryeo, an abbreviation of Goguryeo, the origin of the name Korea.

• Wang Kon implemented a policy of northern expansion, abolished the bone rank system, and put into place a Chinese form of centralized government.

Influence of Buddhism• Buddhism was at its height in the 10th and 11th

century in Goryeo, played a major role in social life, and acted as a principal force in cultural achievements.

• Hundreds of temples were built throughout Korea.

• One of the most famous temples is Haeinsa which had its origins in the 9th century. It is considered one of Korea’s most beautiful temples.

Haeinsa

Haeinsa

Early Goryeo Achievements

• One of the great achievements was the publication of the entire Buddhist scriptures on woodblocks in 1087.They were later destroyed by the Mongols; however, 81,000 blocks were completed in 1251 and are stored at Haeinsa. They can print 320,000 pages of text.

The Tripitaka (Buddhist Scriptures) at Haeinsa

• It is possible to see the second set of woodblocks when touring Haeinsa.

• These woodblocks are the finest examples of some twenty Tripitaka carvings created in East Asia.

The Invention of Movable Type

• By 1234, if not earlier, Goryeo had also invented movable metal type, two centuries before Gutenberg. Goryeo’s use of this printing method is the earliest in the history of the world.

• The oldest existing book printed with metal type was printed in a Korean temple in 1377 and is now preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris.

Goryeo Celadon• Celadon with delicate

colors (especially jade green) is considered the crowning glory of Goryeo’s artistic achievements.

• Celadon wares are remarkable for their beautiful color, balanced forms, and beautiful patterns with extraordinary inlay techniques.

Later Goryeo and the Mongols

• In the early 13th century Genghis Khan united the Mongolian tribes, captured Peking and northern China.

• In 1231, the Mongols invaded the Korean peninsula, seized the capital of Kaesong and demanded a large tribute.

• The Koreans resisted, over 200,000 were taken captive, and many cultural treasures were destroyed, including the first Tripitaka Koreana.

Mongol Rule• By 1271 the military leadership surrendered and was

forced to accept Yuan domination.• The Korean people suffered severely from the burden of

enormous tribute requirements, which included gold, silver, ginseng, and medicinal herbs.

• The Mongols also demanded Korean women and artisans. It became the fashion for the Mongol aristocracy to take a Korean woman as one of their wives.

• Goryeo men were also forced to build warships and invade Japan; however, the Japanese were saved by typhoons (the kamikaze or “divine wind”).

Mongol Rule

• Because of the vastness of the Mongolian Empire, Korea was now more open to technological influences.

• The cotton plant was introduced, along with a calendar, gunpowder, and astronomical and mathematical knowledge.

The End of Goryeo• With the death of the Khubilai Khan in 1294, the Yuan

empire was weakened and it began to loosen its grip over the kingdom of Goryeo. The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) began to emerge.

• Goryeo was vulnerable during this time as Japanese marauders invaded the peninsula and devastated vast areas. Northern nomads (Red Turbans) also invaded Korea twice.

• The Goryeo court sent General Yi Songgye to the Yalu region to cooperate with the Mongols against the Ming and the Red Turbans, but he brought his troops back to Kaesong and carried out a coup against the Goryeo king. The last king of Goryeo was exiled in 1392. This marked the end of the 475 year old Goryeo dynasty.

Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910): Early period to the 17th century)

• Yi Songgye (Taejo r. 1392-1398) founded Korea’s longest dynasty which lasted until the early 20th century.

• He moved the capital to Seoul, which became the political, economic and cultural center of Korea and has remained so ever since.

• To protect Seoul, he ordered the construction of massive walls and gates, parts of which remain today.

Namdaemun Gate, Seoul• Namdaemun is

considered Korea’s National Treasure Number One. It was first built in 1398 and rebuilt during the reign of King Sejong. In 2008, the wooden pagoda atop the gate was severely damaged by an arson,but restored by 2013.

Relations with China

• King Taejo continued the traditional relationship with China. The missions served the purpose of recognizing Chinese authority and allowed for cultural borrowing and economic exchange.

• During the next five centuries Korea gave virtually unquestioned loyalty to Chinese political institutions and readily accepted cultural influences.

Early Joseon Developments• In spite of the fact that Taejo was a devout Buddhist, he

directed the dynasty to adopt neo-Confucianism. • The establishment of Confucian schools became a high

priority and in time Korea became a model Confucian society.

• For 150 years Joseon experienced peace and prosperity. Taejo and enlightened successors strengthened the bureaucracy, national defense, and promoted the economy and the culture of the kingdom.

• National boundaries were extended to the Yalu and Tumen rivers.

King Sejong (1418-1450): A Golden Age for Korea

• King Sejong became Korea’s greatest monarch by bringing stability and prosperity to his nation.

• He mastered Confucian learning, communicated successfully with the yangban (office-holding aristocrats) scholars.

• His rule was known for good government based on the Confucian classics, the creation of hangul (the Korean writing system), economic development, scientific discovery, and technological innovation.

• Sejong considered the creation of hangul to be his greatest accomplishment. He wanted to find ways to make his people more literate and developed a simple and effective system that was scientific and easy to learn.

King Sejong’s reign• He showed great concern for the peasants,

providing tax reform and relief in hard times. His scholars published a book that became the classic book on agriculture.

• He helped to create an 85 volume medical encyclopedia to cure nearly one thousand diseases.

• He loved science and encouraged the charting of constellations. A rain gauge was invented in 1442, and accurate records of precipitation were maintained 200 years before Europe began such practices.

Joseon and Neo-Confucianism • While the Goryeo dynasty is remembered for the

dominance of Buddhism, Joseon is known for Confucian beliefs which emphasized the importance of education, social stability, filial piety, and good government based on a hierarchical social order of the elite selected through competitive civil service examinations.

• Korea was to become the most Confucian nation in East Asia.

• Women were to understand that they were inferior and that they should be submissive to men at all times.

Neo-Confucianism • Prior to this time Buddhism and Confucianism

had coexisted, but now there were restrictions against the practice of Buddhism and limits on the number of monasteries.

• The yangban, the hereditary elite, continued to dominate in government.

• At this time Korea adopted the idea that rulers had to practice ethical conduct to maintain rule. This notion predated John Locke’s theory of the right of revolution by hundreds of years.

The Impact of Confucianism on Society

• Confucianism contributed to the stability of society and perpetuated for centuries the continuation of a very rigid class structure.

• Ten percent of the population was the yangban class, the upper-class landowners whose goal was education in the Confucian classics and government or military service.

• Fifty percent were yangmin (farmers, merchants, fishermen, and craftsmen. The next class was the chonmin (the lowborn) who were in disdained hereditary professions, such as butchers, shamans, entertainers, or slaves.

Impact of Confucianismon Government

• Confucianism also influenced the growth of the Chinese examination system that had been used in the Goreyo dynasty, but now it was the principal means of gaining high government office.

• This system produced officials based on academic achievement as opposed to social status. It initially produced an effective bureaucracy; however, it deteriorated and finally ended with the overthrow of the Joseon by the Japanese in 1910.

The Influence of Confucianismon Economic Development

• Confucian beliefs helped to perpetuate a static agrarian society and promoted contempt for the development of commerce, an activity seen as self-serving and socially divisive.

• A road system was maintained, but trade within the country and with the outside world (except for China and Japan) remained limited.

The Influence of Confucianism on the Arts

• The influence of Confucianism may also be seen in the arts.

• Chinese-style landscapes, shrines and Chinese music were characteristic of Joseon.

• Enormous palaces, such as the Changdokkung in Seoul, were constructed to reflect the ambition of kings.

• Green celadon gave way to white porcelain, and brown appeared in the 16th century.

Changdokkung Palace• This palace was built in

1405 by the third ruler of the Joseon dynasty as a royal villa.

• After 1405, kings continued to enlarge the palace.

• The palace was destroyed by the Japanese in 1592, but was reconstructed in the 17th century.

White Porcelain

• Modesty and humility were stressed by Confucianism.

• It was felt that colors were associated with emotion and thus “impure,” so simple white porcelain was highly valued.

The Weakening of Joseon• Despite the influence of the early enlightened

monarchs, problems appeared that ultimately weakened the dynasty.

• Kings continued to have limited power and were rarely respected by the yangban.

• To gain the support of the yangban, the monarchs doled out generous grants of nontaxable land which led to higher taxes for the peasants.

• Competition grew for government positions which led to intense rivalry between groups of nobility.

The Rise of Hideyoshi

• As intense factions were growing in Korea, Toyotomi Hideyoshi was crushing his rivals and reunifying Japan.

• In 1592 he launched an invasion against Korea in what was to be a step toward challenging the Ming dynasty and creating an empire.

• Since there had been peace for an extended period of time, Korea was ill prepared for a major invasion.

Admiral Yi Sunsin

• Within a month the Japanese captured Seoul and nearly the entire peninsula; however, Admiral Yi Sunsin rescued the nation.

• For a year he had strengthened his naval forces, building warships and training crews.

• He constructed turtle boats with a protective covering (probably the first use of iron plate) to ward off enemy arrows and shells. Spikes and canons were placed around each ship.

Admiral Yi’s Victory• With the assistance of his warships, Admiral Yi

stopped Japanese advances.• Meanwhile, yangban, peasant farmers, and

slaves united into guerilla armies, and Ming forces arrived to support their tributary state. Attempts at peace failed.

• When the Japanese launched another attack in 1597, Admiral Yi had a spectacular victory. Before the year was over Hideyoshi died and the Japanese completely withdrew.

The Turtle Boat• The Korean War Museum

in Seoul houses a replica of Admiral Sunsin’s famed turtle boat.

• Koreans are proud of the fact that their use of iron on battleships predated the ironclad ships of the American Civil War by over 250 years.

Results of the Japanese Invasions

• The invasion has been emphasized in Korean literature and still contributes to bitterness against the Japanese.

• The invasions were disastrous because nearly all provinces suffered pillage and slaughter. The population decreased and famine and disease were widespread.

• Buildings, works of art and historical records were destroyed.

Arrival of the Manchus

• Korea had barely recovered from the invasions when the Manchus invaded from the north, seized land, and overthrew the Ming dynasty.

• In 1637 Joseon was forced to accept the suzerainty of the newly formed Qing.

• The Koreans considered the Manchus to be barbarians, and for China to be ruled by them seemed like the end of civilization.

A Nation in Transition:The 17th, 18th and 19th Centuries

• The invasions by the Japanese and the Manchus were a turning point in Korean history. Devastated by the outside world, monarchs adopted a policy of isolation.

• Outside forces continued to have a significant impact. Koreans on tribute missions made contact with Jesuit scholars and brought back books on science, maps, telescopes and alarm clocks.

Hendrik Hamel

• In 1653, a Dutch ship was wrecked near Cheju Island. Though the sailors were rescued, the Dutchmen were held as spies for an extended period of time. One of them, Hendrik Hamel, escaped, returned to Holland to write a book on Korea.

• Hamel’s book was the first publication that introduced Korea to the Western world.

Sirhak Movement(Practical Learning)

• During the 17th century, as economic and political problems grew more severe, a group of Confucian scholars advocated reforms that became the Sirhak movement.

• They challenged Confucian ideas and recommended practical solutions to solve Korea’s problems. They resented the power of the yangban.

• They recommended the radical idea that service in government should be opened to all and promoted the rights of man and social equality. Their ideas ultimately had a major impact on reform movements in the late 19th century.

Sirhak’s Intellectual andArtistic Influence

• The Sirhak movement influenced the publication of books on political, economic, health and educational reform.

• It also influenced the growth of historical writing, fiction, poetry, and genre painting.

• The greatest change in the field of literature came with the number of works written in hangul.

• With these developments, a folk culture grew rapidly.

The Folk Culture• Greater realism and individualism appeared in

the arts.• Genre painting of ordinary events of everyday

life became very popular. Folk music, including songs, dance, and mask plays, was performed.

• Shamanist beliefs were evident in music and dramatic performances.

• A new form of dramatic narrative music (pansori) and musical drama developed, enriching the lives of the Korean people.

Genre Painting(“Women’s Outing”)

Mask Drama Plays

• Masked dance dramas developed as an entertainment form expressing the thoughts of the general populace and their resentment of the oppression they suffered.

Catholicism: Another Force for Change

• Catholicism (Western Learning) was introduced by Jesuit missionaries in the early 17th century, but had little impact.

• As Sirhak influence grew, so did the growth of Catholicism because it conveyed a belief in the equality of the children of God.

• When the government learned that Christianity disagreed with Confucian beliefs, such as ancestor worship, persecutions followed. Nevertheless, missionaries continue to spread their religion.

Tonghak(Eastern Learning)

• The Tonghak movement began as a response to Catholicism, government corruption, social injustice and peasant poverty.

• Alarmed by Tonghak’s growing influence, the government decapitated its leader; nevertheless the movement continue to flourish.

• Meanwhile the government resisted reform because powerful yangban officials feared change. Their policies were doomed to fail.

The Opening of Korea, Attempts at Reform, and National Peril

• The Korean people encountered additional problems in the 19th century as a result of the industrialization, nationalism, and imperialism of major world powers.

• Western nations (Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States, and a modernized Japan actively pursued policies enacted to secure wealth in Asian markets.

“The Hermit Kingdom”• Koreans continued to reject outsiders as a result

of the tragic results of contact with the Japanese and the Manchus in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

• They believed that Western ideas threatened Confucianism, the foundation of their civilization.

• Until the 19th century, foreign relations consisted of an annual tribute mission to Peking and limited contact with Japan; however, in the 19th century the West and Japan forced Korea to end its isolation.

A Treaty with Japan (1876)

• In 1876 Japanese warships invaded Korea and demanded commercial and diplomatic relations. Japan said if Korea refused, there would be war.

• Forced by “gunboat diplomacy,” the Korean government signed the Kanghwa Treaty, their first unequal treaty with an imperial power. A clause stated that Korea was a sovereign nation; this paved the way for Japanese aggression.

A Treaty with the U.S., 1882• In 1873 King Kojong, decided to deal more effectively

with the outside world by promoting reforms in foreign trade, arms production, and foreign language education. He hoped to promote good relations with the United States in hopes that the it might offer protection against Japan and Russia.

• In 1882 U.S. Commodore Robert Shufeldt signed a treaty with Korea. It gave special trading rights favoring the U.S. and privileges to its citizens.

• King Kojong was led to believe that the U.S. would protect Korea.

Protestant Missionaries

• With the influx of Protestant (Presbyterian and Methodist) missionaries, Christianity spread and modern schools were established.

• They established hospitals and increased knowledge about agriculture, commerce and industry.

• Their teachings also fostered concepts of freedom and equality.

Imperialism and War

• Korea in the late 19th century became increasingly the center of rivalry among England, Russia, China and Japan.

• In 1895 Japan defeated China and it was then forced to accept Korea’s independence.

• In 1895 Japan murdered the Queen Min.• In 1905 Japan defeated Russia, and Teddy

Roosevelt negotiated the Portsmouth Treaty.

The Loss of Sovereignty and the End of Joseon

• In a 1905 secret agreement with Japan (Taft-Katsura Agreement), Teddy Roosevelt agreed to give Japan a free hand in Korea in exchange for the promise that Japan would not interfere in the Philippines.

• King Kojong was forced to abdicate, and his mentally retarded son became the Emperor of Korea and a puppet of Japan.

• In 1910 the new emperor signed the Treaty of Annexation. The Joseon dynasty, which had ruled Korea for 500 years, thus ceased to exist.

Bibliography

• The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook (2002). Mary Connor (ABC-CLIO)

• Korea Old and New: A History (1990). Carter Eckert, et al. (Korea Institute, Harvard)

• Folk Art and Magic: Shamanism in Korea (1986). Jon and Alan Covell (Hollym)

• Asia in Focus: The Koreas (2009). Mary Connor