1. Cambodia International Cooperation Institute Faculty of Arts, Humanities, and Languages Assignment : Applied linguistics Morphology , Grammar Submitted by: Group 2, Weekend class (C202) Mr. Dy Pheareak Mr. Kem Tithy Miss. Hak Phally Mr. Yun Kunthea Miss. Kang Pisey Mr. Saphon Sophannavong Miss. Phal Thavy Submitted to: Lecturer, Kak Sovanna Batch 6, Group 2, Year 4, Semester 1 Academic Year : 2015-2016 2. Contents Morphology Morphemes Free and Bound morphemes lexical and functional morphemes Derivational and inflectional morphemes Morphological Description Problems in Morphological Description Morph and Allomorph Other languages Grammar Traditional Grammar Agreement grammatical number tense grammatical gender Traditional analysis The Prescriptive Approach Captain Kirks Infinitive The Descriptive Approach Structural Analysis Immediate Constituent Analysis Labelled and bracketed sentence 2 3. Morphology Morphology is the identification, analysis, and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words, affixes, parts of speech, intonations and stresses, or implied context. Morphology means the study of form , was originally used in biology. 3 4. Morphemes We can recognize that English word form such as talks, talker, talked and taking must consist of one element talk , and a number such as -s, -er, -ed and ing. All element are describe as morphemes. Morphemes is minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. 4 5. Morphemes(2) In the sentence the police reopened the investigation. The word reopened consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open, another minimal unit of meaning is re- (meaning again) and a minimal unit of grammatical function is -ed (past tense). 5 6. Free and Bound morphemes There are two type of morphemes Free morphemes and Bound morphemes. Free morphemes can stand by themselves as single words. For example, open and tour. The free morphemes can generally be identified as the set of separate English word forms such as basic nouns, adjective, verb, etc. 6 7. Free and Bound morphemes(2) Bound morphemes can not normally stand alone and are typically attached to another form, exemplified as re-, -ist, -ed,-s. When they are used with bound morphemes attach, the basic word forms are technically known as stem. For example : Un- dress -ed care - less Prefix stem suffix stem suffix (bound) (free) (bound) (free) (bound) 7 8. Free and Bound morphemes(3) In word such as receive, reduce, repeat, we can identify the bound morphemes re- at the beginning, but the elements ceive, -duceand and peat are not separate word forms hence canot be free morphemes. These types of forms are sometimes describe as bound stem to keep them distinct free stems such as dress and care. 8 9. lexical and functional morphemes What we have described as free morphemes fall into two categories. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that we think of as the words that carry the 'content' of the messages we convey. These free morphemes are called lexical morphemes and some examples are: girl, man, house, tiger, sad, long, yellow, sincere, open, look, follow, break. 9 10. lexical and functional morphemes(2) We can add new lexical morphemes to the language rather easily, so they are treated as an 'open' class of words. Other types of free morphemes are called functional morphemes. Examples are and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, it, them. This set consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. 10 11. lexical and functional morphemes (3) Because we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are described as a 'closed' class of words. functional morpheme consist largely of the functional words in the language (grammatically) it is also a closed class words. functional morphemes can be conjunction, preposition, articles and pronouns 11 12. Derivational and inflectional morphemes - Use to make new words or to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem. Example: Good(adj) goodness Care(n) Careless - Derivational morphemes will include both suffix and prefix such as: Prefix: re-, pre-, ex-, mis-,co-; un- .. Suffix: -ness,- less,-ly12 13. Derivational and inflectional morphemes(2) - Not use to produce new words but rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. - Inflectional morphemes are use to show is a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form. - It has eight inflectional morphemes. 13 14. Derivational and inflectional morphemes(3) - There are four inflectional attached to verbs, - s(3rd person singular), -ing (present participle), -ed(past) and en(past participle) - There are two inflectional attached to adjectives: -est and er. - There are two inflectional attached to nouns, s and s. 14 15. Morphological Description - The different between derivational and inflectional morphemes is word emphasizing. - Inflectional morphemes Old, older both of them are adjective - Derivational morphemes teach(V) Change teacher(N) - So, the Suffix er in modern English can be both derivational and inflectional morphemes. Just because they look the same (-er) does not mean they do the same kind of work.15 16. Morphological Description(2) A useful way to remember all these different types of morphemes is in the following chart. Lexical (child, teach) free functional (and, the) Morphemes derivational (re,ness) Bound inflectional (s,ed) 16 17. Problems in sheep Morphological Description * Inflectional: car cars(plural) men man(plural) The relationship between Law and Legal. The modern form law is a result of a borrowing into old English over 1000 years ago. Legal was borrowed 500 years ago from Latin. All in all, there is no derivational relationship between the noun Law and the adjective Legal. 17 18. Morphs and allomorphs Morph is the phonetic realization of a morpheme which study the unit of form, sounds and phonetic symbol. It has been modifying the meaning of the lexical morphs by adding a certain element to them. (ex : un-, -able, re-, -d, in-, -ent, -ly, -al, -ize, -a-, -tion, anti-, dis-, - ment, -ari-, -an, -ism)and denote directly objects actions, qualities and other pieces of real word (ex : table, dog, walk, etc.) 18 19. Morphs and allomorphs(2) Allomorph is variant form of a morpheme about the sounds and phonetic symbol but it doesnt change the meaning. Allomorph has different in pronunciation and spelling according to their condition. It means that allomorph will have different sound, pronunciation or spelling in different condition. 19 20. Morphs and allomorphs(2) We can propose the morphs as the actual form used to realize morphemes. Ex Cars=car+s ; buses= bus+es. If we lose s or es it will change the meaning. Allomorphs Ex. cars= car+-s; buses= bus+ -es men man 20 21. Other Language When we look at the morphology of other language, we can find other forms and patterns realizing the basic type of morphemes we have identify. Stem Derivational Inflectional Dark +en(make) +ed(past) =darkned Mic(die) +tia(cause to) +s(future) =mictias 21 22. Grammar We have already considered two levels of description used in the study to language. We have described linguistic expression as sequences of sounds that can be represented in the phonetic alphabet and described in terms of their features. 22 23. Grammar(2) We can take the same expression and describe it as a sequence of morphemes. The Luck -y boy -s Function lexical derivational lexical inflectional We could characterize all the words and phrases of a language in terms of their phonology and morphology. 23 24. Grammar(3) Example: The lucky boys. The type of phrase must have the sequence article +adjective +noun (and not *noun + article +adjective). The process of describing the structure of phrases and sentences in such a way that we account for all the grammatical sequences in a language and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences is one way of defining grammar. 24 25. Traditional Grammar The terms article. adjective and noun that we used to babel the grammatical categories of the words in/ the phrase the lucky boys/. -The part of speech .Nouns are words used to refer to people. .Articles are words (a, an, the) used with nouns to form noun phrases classifying those things or identifying them as already known. .Verbs are words used to refer to various kinds of actions and states involving people and things event. 25 26. Traditional Grammar(2) Adverbs are words used typically with verbs to provide more information about action, states and event. Some adverbs are use with adjective to modify information about things. Prepositions are words (at, in, on, near, with, without) use with nouns in phrases providing information about time and other connection involving actions and things. 26 27. Traditional Grammar(3) Pronouns are words (she, herself, they, it, you) are use in place of nouns in typically referring to people and things already known. Conjunctions are words ( and, but, because, when) use to make connection and indicate relationships between events.s 27 28. Agreement Agreement is addition to the term used for the part of speech. Its happens when a word changes form depending on the other words to which it relates. It is an instance of inflection, and usually involves making the value of some grammatical category (such as gender or person) "agree" between varied words or parts of the sentence. 28 29. Agreement For example, in Standard English, one may say I am or he is, but not "I is" or "he am". This is because the grammar of the language requires that the verb and its subject agree in person. The pronouns I and he are first and third person respectively, as are the verb forms am and is. The verb form must be selected so that it has the same person as the subject. 29 30. Grammatical number In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions (such as "one", "two", or "three or more").[1] In many languages, including English, the number categories are singular and plural. Some languages also have a dual number or other arrangements. 30 31. grammatical number(2) The count distinctions typically, but not always, correspond to the actual count of the referents of the marked noun or pronoun. The word "number" is also used in linguistics to describe the distinction between certain grammatical aspects that indicate the number of times an event occurs, such as the semelfactive aspect, the iterative aspect, etc. For that use of the term, see "Grammatical aspect". 31 32. Tense In grammar, tense is a category that expresses time reference.[1][2] Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns. Basic tenses found in many languages include the past, present and future. Some languages have only two distinct tenses, such as past and non-past, or future and non-future. There are also tenseless languages, like Chinese, which do not have tense at all. On the other hand, some languages make finer tense distinctions, such as remote vs. recent past, or near vs. remote future. 32 33. Grammatical Gender In linguistics, grammatical gender is a specific form of noun-class system in which the division of noun classes forms an agreement system with another aspect of the language, such as adjectives, articles, or verbs. This system is used in approximately one quarter of the world's languages. In these languages, every noun inherently carries one value of the grammatical category called gender; the values present in a given language (of which there are usually two or three) are called the genders of that language. According to one definition:33 34. Grammatical Gender(2) "Genders are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words. Common gender divisions include masculine and feminine; masculine, feminine and neuter; or animate and inanimate. In a few languages, the gender assignation of nouns is solely determined by their meaning or attributes, like biological sex, humanness, intimacy. 34 35. Grammatical Gender(3) However, in most languages, this semantic division is only partially valid, and many nouns may belong to a gender category that contrasts with their meaning (e.g. the word "manliness" could be of feminine gender). In this case, the gender assignation can also be influenced by the morphology or phonology of the noun or in some cases can be apparently arbitrary. 35 36. Grammatical Gender(4) Grammatical gender manifests itself when words related to a noun like determiners, pronouns or adjectives change their form (inflection) according to the gender of noun they refer to (agreement). The parts of speech affected by gender agreement, the circumstances in which it occurs, and the way words are marked for gender varies cross-linguistically. Gender inflection may interact with other grammatical categories like number or case. In some languages the declension pattern followed by the noun itself may be dependent on its gender. 36 37. Traditional analysis The notion of appropriateness of analytic categories for particular language has not always been a consideration. Present tense of to love: First person singular (1) love amo Second person singular (you) love amas Third person singular (she) loves amat First person plural (we) love amamus 37 38. Traditional analysis(2) Second person plural (you) love amatic third person plural (they) love amat Each of the Latin verb form is difference according to the categories of person and number. 38 39. The Prescriptive Approach This approach was taken by many of influent grammarians mainly in 18 century England. They set out rules for the proper use of English and follow from Latin grammar. This type of approach still be found today. Some of example for these approaches will be: + You must not split an infinitive +You must not end a sentence with a preposition 39 40. The Prescriptive Approach (2) Traditional teacher would correct sentence like When you study abroad , who did you stay with? it changes to when you study abroad , with whom did you stay so that the preposition dont appear at the end of the sentence. Another example He is younger than me became He is younger than I . The word my family and me is change to my family and I. In proper English we wouldnt start word and . 40 41. The Prescriptive Approach(3) If someone writes down and dont follow a linguistic etiquette known as prescriptive rule was judge as uneducated or write badly. Now we take a look whether this approach applied well to English language. You must not split an infinitive 41 42. Captain Kirks Infinitive Captain Kirk is one of main character in Star Trek Episode that he always uses the expression to boldly go. This is an example of split infinitive. His teacher might correct him to say boldly to go or to go boldly. In Latin word the word to go mean ire and the word boldly is audacter. Now in Latin he says Ire audacter. We cannot have a change to split because to go in English has two word to and go but in Latin have only one word is ire.42 43. Captain Kirks Infinitive(2) It would be very appropriate not to split an infinitive in Latin grammar but not in English. In English we can say to boldly go, to solemnly swear, to never ever say goodbye. So it makes us think that the structure of English is different from Latin. At last we should not think that English is bad because it breaks a rule of Latin grammar. 43 44. The Descriptive Approach In some European languages such as Italian or Spanish is guide by a well-established grammatical description of Latin. However it is less useful for English and may be misled when we try to describe some non-European language. As a result for most 20 century new approach was adopted. It called the descriptive approach. They attempted to describe the regular structures of languages as it was use and how it should be uses. 44 45. Structural Analysis It is one type of descriptive approach and its main concern is to investigate the distribution of form in a language. Now let look test-frame 1 The ____ makes a lot of noise. I heard a______ yesterday There are a lot of form that fit the slot for example car, child, dog, radio . 45 46. Structural Analysis(2) The word fit the same test-frame, they are likely to be the same grammatical category as noun but there are also many forms dont fit the slot such Dara, the dog, a car. For test-frame 2 ____ makes a lot of noise. I heard _____ yesterday The forms that fit the slot are it, the big dog, and old car. 46 47. Structural Analysis(3) We can say that it is in the same grammatical category called noun phrases. In older analysis pronouns were used in place of noun phrases. However in test-frame 2 it can replace the noun phrases. By developing a set of test-frame we can produce a description of aspects of the sentence structures of a language. 47 48. Immediate Constituent Analysis The technique employed in this approach is designed to show small constituents ( or component ) In sentences go together to form larger constituents. One basic step is determining how word go together to form phrase. This analysis of the constituent structure of the sentence can be represented in different type of diagrams . 48 49. Immediate Constituent Analysis one type of diagram simply shows the distribution of the constituents at the different levels. One advantage of this type of analysis is that it shows rather clearly that proper nouns ( or names) such as Johny and pronouns such as it. Though single word. Can both be used as noun phrases. 49 50. Labelled and bracketed sentence We can the label each constituent using abbreviated grammatical terms such as *Art * (article) *N*(noun). *NP*(Noun Phrase) *V*(Verb) *VP*(Verb Phrase) and *S*(sentence). The sentence (s) is higher then and contains the noun phrase (NP). The noun phrase (NP) is higher then and contains a verb phrase (VP) which contains a verb(verb)and another noun phrase (NP). 50 51. Thanks you for your pay attention 51