PineapplePineapple

Ananas comosusAnanas comosus (L.) Merr (L.) Merr

An tropical plant, native to Paraguay, An tropical plant, native to Paraguay, Brazil and Bolivia in South AmericaBrazil and Bolivia in South America

A leading edible member of the A leading edible member of the BromeliaceaeBromeliaceae family which embraces family which embraces 2000 species, mostly 2000 species, mostly epiphyticepiphytic and many and many strikingly ornamental.strikingly ornamental.

Botanical DescriptionBotanical Description

Medium tall (1 – 1.5 m) herbaceous Medium tall (1 – 1.5 m) herbaceous perennial plant with 30 or more trough-perennial plant with 30 or more trough-shaped and pointed leaves 30 – 100 cm shaped and pointed leaves 30 – 100 cm long surrounding a thick stem.long surrounding a thick stem.

An example of a compound fruit; multiple An example of a compound fruit; multiple spirally-arranged flowers along the axis spirally-arranged flowers along the axis each produce a fleshy fruit that becomes each produce a fleshy fruit that becomes pressed against the fruits of adjacent pressed against the fruits of adjacent flowers, forming what appears to be a flowers, forming what appears to be a single fleshy fruit.single fleshy fruit.

1. Stem growth1. Stem growth

At blooming time , the stem elongates and At blooming time , the stem elongates and enlarges near the apex and puts forth a enlarges near the apex and puts forth a head of small purple or red flowers, each head of small purple or red flowers, each accompanied by a single red, yellowish or accompanied by a single red, yellowish or green bract.green bract.

The stem continues to grow and acquires The stem continues to grow and acquires at its apex a compact tuft of stiff short at its apex a compact tuft of stiff short leaves called the ‘crown’.leaves called the ‘crown’.

2. Fruit development2. Fruit development

As individual fruit develops from the flowers they As individual fruit develops from the flowers they join together forming a cone-shaped, compound, join together forming a cone-shaped, compound, juicy, fleshy fruit 30 cm in height with the stem juicy, fleshy fruit 30 cm in height with the stem serving as the fibrous but fairly succulent core.serving as the fibrous but fairly succulent core.

The tough, waxy rind, made up of hexagonal The tough, waxy rind, made up of hexagonal units, may be dark green, yellow, orange-yellow units, may be dark green, yellow, orange-yellow or reddish when the fruit is ripe.or reddish when the fruit is ripe.

The flesh ranges from nearly white to yellow. The flesh ranges from nearly white to yellow.

Vegetative structuresVegetative structures

Offshoots, called ‘Offshoots, called ‘slipsslips’ emerge from the ’ emerge from the stem around the base of the fruit and stem around the base of the fruit and shoots grow in the axils of the leaves.shoots grow in the axils of the leaves.

SuckersSuckers (sulur) are shoots arising from the (sulur) are shoots arising from the base of the plant at ground level.base of the plant at ground level.

Climatic factorsClimatic factors

• Pineapple is a tropical or near tropical plant Pineapple is a tropical or near tropical plant limited to low elevations (not exceeding 900 m limited to low elevations (not exceeding 900 m above sea level) between 30above sea level) between 30ooN and 25N and 25ooS.S.

• Temperature range of 18 – 45Temperature range of 18 – 45ooC is most C is most favourable , although the plant could tolerate favourable , although the plant could tolerate cool nights for short periods. cool nights for short periods. AltitudeAltitude has an has an important effect on the flavour of the fruit. At important effect on the flavour of the fruit. At higher elevations the fruit is too acid.higher elevations the fruit is too acid.

Rainfall Rainfall

Ideally, rainfall would be about 1100 Ideally, rainfall would be about 1100 mm annually; though the pineapple is mm annually; though the pineapple is drought tolerant and will produce fruit drought tolerant and will produce fruit under yearly precipitation rates under yearly precipitation rates ranging from 650 – 3800 mm, ranging from 650 – 3800 mm, depending on cultivar and location depending on cultivar and location and degree of atmospheric humidity and degree of atmospheric humidity should range between 70 and 80should range between 70 and 80o.o.

Soil requirementsSoil requirements

The best soil for pineapple cultivation is a well-The best soil for pineapple cultivation is a well-drained, sandy loam with a high content of OM and drained, sandy loam with a high content of OM and it should be friable for a depth of at least 60 cm, and it should be friable for a depth of at least 60 cm, and pH should be within a range of 4.5 to 6.5. Soils that pH should be within a range of 4.5 to 6.5. Soils that are not sufficiently acid are treated with sulfur to are not sufficiently acid are treated with sulfur to achieve the desired level.achieve the desired level.

The plant cannot withstand waterlogging and if there The plant cannot withstand waterlogging and if there is an impervious subsoil, drainage must be is an impervious subsoil, drainage must be improved.improved.

Pure sand, red loam, clay loam and gravelly soils Pure sand, red loam, clay loam and gravelly soils usually need organic enrichment.usually need organic enrichment.

Vegetative PropagationVegetative Propagation

Crowns Crowns (or ‘tops’), (or ‘tops’), slips slips (offshoots from fruiting (offshoots from fruiting stem) stem) suckerssuckers (arising from underground parts of (arising from underground parts of the plant) and the plant) and ratoonsratoons (previous basal stems (previous basal stems allowed to grow) have all been commonly allowed to grow) have all been commonly utilized for vegetative multiplication of the utilized for vegetative multiplication of the pineapple. pineapple.

Vegetatively propagated plants fruit in 15 – 22 Vegetatively propagated plants fruit in 15 – 22 months, & common ones are from suckers and months, & common ones are from suckers and slips slips

Seeds and seedlingsSeeds and seedlings

Seeds are desired only in breeding Seeds are desired only in breeding programs & are usually the result of hand programs & are usually the result of hand pollination. Seeds are hard & slow to pollination. Seeds are hard & slow to germinate; treatment with sulfuric acid germinate; treatment with sulfuric acid achieves germination in 10 days. achieves germination in 10 days.

The seedlings are planted when 15 – 18 The seedlings are planted when 15 – 18 months old & will bear fruit 16 – 30 months months old & will bear fruit 16 – 30 months later.later.

CULTURAL PRACTICESCULTURAL PRACTICES

1. Land Preparation1. Land Preparation

The land should be well prepared before The land should be well prepared before hand (i.e. ploughing, harrowing, etc) hand (i.e. ploughing, harrowing, etc) because the pineapple is shallow-rooted because the pineapple is shallow-rooted and easily damaged by post-planting and easily damaged by post-planting cultivation. cultivation.

Fumigation of the soil, to render the soil Fumigation of the soil, to render the soil sterile, contributes to high quality and high sterile, contributes to high quality and high yields.yields.

2. Planting2. Planting

Suckers or slips are first cured by stripping off Suckers or slips are first cured by stripping off the lower leaves, followed by drying in the sun, the lower leaves, followed by drying in the sun, or in partial shade for 3 to 4 days before or in partial shade for 3 to 4 days before planting.planting.

They are planted either in They are planted either in flat bedsflat beds, where there , where there is no danger of water stagnation, or in is no danger of water stagnation, or in shallow shallow trenchestrenches which are filled as the suckers grow which are filled as the suckers grow and develop. Care should be taken to see that and develop. Care should be taken to see that the bud or ‘heart’ of the suckers does not get the bud or ‘heart’ of the suckers does not get buried.buried.

(a) Manual planting(a) Manual planting

A planting density of 43,000 plants per hectare A planting density of 43,000 plants per hectare can be followed, keeping a distance of 30 cm can be followed, keeping a distance of 30 cm between plant and plant, 60 cm between rows between plant and plant, 60 cm between rows and 90 cm between beds.and 90 cm between beds.

In small plots or on very steep slopes (where In small plots or on very steep slopes (where proper terracing is necessary), planting is done proper terracing is necessary), planting is done manually using the manually using the traditional short-handled traditional short-handled narrow-bladed hoenarrow-bladed hoe..

Crowns are set firmly at a depth of 5 cm; slips & Crowns are set firmly at a depth of 5 cm; slips & suckers at a depth of 9 – 10 cmsuckers at a depth of 9 – 10 cm

(b) Mechanical planting(b) Mechanical planting

Research on the potential of machines to replace hard labour Research on the potential of machines to replace hard labour of planting pineapples was begun in Hawaii in 1945. Over the of planting pineapples was begun in Hawaii in 1945. Over the years with improved equipment, mechanical planting has years with improved equipment, mechanical planting has become a standard practice in large plantations everywhere.become a standard practice in large plantations everywhere.

The most sophisticated machines have attachments which The most sophisticated machines have attachments which concurrently apply pre-mixed fertilizer and lay a broad strip of concurrently apply pre-mixed fertilizer and lay a broad strip of mulch, set plantlets along each edge and place a narrow strip mulch, set plantlets along each edge and place a narrow strip along the outer sides. The only manual operation, apart from along the outer sides. The only manual operation, apart from driving, is the feeding of the plantlets to the planting unit. With driving, is the feeding of the plantlets to the planting unit. With this system, up to 50,000 plants can be planted out per day. this system, up to 50,000 plants can be planted out per day.

3. Fertilization3. Fertilization

Nitrogen is essential to the increase of fruit size and Nitrogen is essential to the increase of fruit size and total yield. Sixteen grams of N and 2.5 g of Ktotal yield. Sixteen grams of N and 2.5 g of K22O per O per

plant should be applied. Of these, part of the N can plant should be applied. Of these, part of the N can be applied as foliar application as 4% urea.be applied as foliar application as 4% urea.

Fertilizer studies elsewhere have shown that 480 Fertilizer studies elsewhere have shown that 480 kg N/ha in 4 equal applications during the first year kg N/ha in 4 equal applications during the first year is beneficial, whereas no advantage is obtained is beneficial, whereas no advantage is obtained from added potassium and phosphorus.from added potassium and phosphorus.

4. Watering/Irrigation4. Watering/Irrigation

In dry regions, the crop requires regular In dry regions, the crop requires regular irrigation. irrigation.

Even when rain-fed, irrigation during dry Even when rain-fed, irrigation during dry weather is necessary every week or ten weather is necessary every week or ten days.days.

5. Ratooning5. Ratooning

For For ratoon cropratoon crop, only two suckers are retained , only two suckers are retained on each plant. After harvest, the plants are on each plant. After harvest, the plants are earthed up to stimulate the rooting of the ratoon earthed up to stimulate the rooting of the ratoon suckers. The plantation are allowed to remain on suckers. The plantation are allowed to remain on the same site for 4 or 5 years after which it is the same site for 4 or 5 years after which it is renewed. renewed.

Fruiting decreased progressively in the case of Fruiting decreased progressively in the case of ratoon crops.ratoon crops.

6. Weed management6. Weed management

Weed control - Manual weeding in pineapple fields is Weed control - Manual weeding in pineapple fields is difficult and expensive. Coir dust (sabut kelapa) has difficult and expensive. Coir dust (sabut kelapa) has been used as mulch in some places to discourage been used as mulch in some places to discourage weeds but it has a deleterious effect on the crop, weeds but it has a deleterious effect on the crop, delaying or preventing flowering.delaying or preventing flowering.

The use of plastic mulch (sungkupan) and timely The use of plastic mulch (sungkupan) and timely application of approved herbicides are the best means of application of approved herbicides are the best means of preventing competition with the pineapple crop.preventing competition with the pineapple crop.

7. Flower Induction7. Flower Induction

Pineapple flowering may be delayed or Pineapple flowering may be delayed or uneven. It is highly desirable to achieve uneven. It is highly desirable to achieve uniform maturity and also to control the uniform maturity and also to control the time of harvest.time of harvest.

Compressed acetylene gas or a spray of Compressed acetylene gas or a spray of calcium carbide solution (which generates calcium carbide solution (which generates acetylene) have been used to expedite acetylene) have been used to expedite uniform blooming.uniform blooming.

More advanced method is the use of the More advanced method is the use of the hormone, alpha naphthalene acetic acid hormone, alpha naphthalene acetic acid (ANA). (ANA).

The treatment is given when the plants are The treatment is given when the plants are 6 months old, i.e. 3 months before natural 6 months old, i.e. 3 months before natural flowering time. The plants should have flowering time. The plants should have reached the 30 leaf stage at this age.reached the 30 leaf stage at this age.

8. Fruit induction8. Fruit induction

Spraying of a water solution of ANA on Spraying of a water solution of ANA on developing fruit has increased fruit size in some developing fruit has increased fruit size in some varieties.varieties.

In Johor, spraying Planofix (ANA-based trade In Johor, spraying Planofix (ANA-based trade product) delayed fruit maturity, increased fruit product) delayed fruit maturity, increased fruit size, weight and acidity.size, weight and acidity.

Ethrel applied at the 1Ethrel applied at the 1stst sign of fruit ripening will sign of fruit ripening will cause all the fruit to ripen simultaneously. It cause all the fruit to ripen simultaneously. It brings the ratoon into fruit quickly. There is a brings the ratoon into fruit quickly. There is a great saving in harvesting costs because it great saving in harvesting costs because it reduces the need for successive pickings.reduces the need for successive pickings.

PESTS AND DISEASESPESTS AND DISEASES

1. Diseases1. Diseases

Pineapples are subjected to a Pineapples are subjected to a variety of diseases,and can be variety of diseases,and can be categorized as either infectious or categorized as either infectious or non-infectiousnon-infectious

a. Wilt diseasea. Wilt disease

the most serious is the most serious is wilt diseasewilt disease ((FusariumFusarium spp) vectored by spp) vectored by mealy mealy bugs. bugs. The bugs are generally The bugs are generally found on the surface of found on the surface of pineapples, but can also be found pineapples, but can also be found inside the closed blossom cups. inside the closed blossom cups.

b. Basal rot (reput perdu)b. Basal rot (reput perdu)

This disease which occurs at the base of This disease which occurs at the base of the plant is caused by the fungus, the plant is caused by the fungus, Ceratocystis paradoxa, Ceratocystis paradoxa, especially where especially where drainage is poor. drainage is poor. The imperfect form of the fungi (conidial The imperfect form of the fungi (conidial stage) known as stage) known as Thelaviopsis paradoxaThelaviopsis paradoxa on on the other hand causes the other hand causes butt rotbutt rot in planting in planting material, also material, also soft rotsoft rot of fruits during of fruits during shipment and storage.shipment and storage.

c. Other diseasesc. Other diseases

- leathery pocket (mata dalam) by - leathery pocket (mata dalam) by Penicillium Penicillium funiculosumfuniculosum

- bacterial heart rot (- bacterial heart rot (Erwinia chrysanthemiErwinia chrysanthemi) )

- anthracnose (bintik berpusar) by - anthracnose (bintik berpusar) by ColletotrichumColletotrichum sp.sp.

- marbling (reput anak buah) by - marbling (reput anak buah) by Erwinia ananas Erwinia ananas && Pseudomonas ananas Pseudomonas ananas

2. Insect pests2. Insect pests

Mealy bugsMealy bugs ( (PseudococcusPseudococcus spp) attack leave spp) attack leave bases and cause wilt. The leaves turn orange-bases and cause wilt. The leaves turn orange-brown and wither due to root rot.brown and wither due to root rot.

Pineapple mitePineapple mite (so-called red spider) also (so-called red spider) also attacks leaf bases and is troublesome during attacks leaf bases and is troublesome during prolonged droughts heavily infesting the slips.prolonged droughts heavily infesting the slips.

Sap beetleSap beetle, , Carpophilus humeralisCarpophilus humeralis is one of the is one of the main enemies of pineapple fruits and is main enemies of pineapple fruits and is especially attracted to fruits affected by especially attracted to fruits affected by gummosisgummosis

3. Other pests3. Other pests

NematodesNematodes can cause stunting and can cause stunting and degeneration in pineapple plants unless degeneration in pineapple plants unless soil is fumigated.soil is fumigated.

Fruit damage by crows, rats and mice can Fruit damage by crows, rats and mice can also occur and this can be controlled by also occur and this can be controlled by poison baits.poison baits.

HarvestingHarvesting

Difficult to judge when the pineapple is ready to be Difficult to judge when the pineapple is ready to be harvested. The grower must depend a great deal on harvested. The grower must depend a great deal on experience. Size and colour change alone are not fully experience. Size and colour change alone are not fully reliable indicators.reliable indicators.

For fresh market – crop is harvested when the eye For fresh market – crop is harvested when the eye shows a light pale green colour.shows a light pale green colour.

Fruits for canning are allowed to attain a more advanced Fruits for canning are allowed to attain a more advanced stage. However, overripe fruits are deficient in flavour stage. However, overripe fruits are deficient in flavour and highly perishable.and highly perishable.

StorageStorage

Cold storage at a temperature of < 5Cold storage at a temperature of < 5ooC C causes chilling injury and breakdown in causes chilling injury and breakdown in fruits. At 10fruits. At 10ooC and above, 80 – 90% C and above, 80 – 90% relative humidity (RH) and adequate air relative humidity (RH) and adequate air circulation, normal ripening progresses circulation, normal ripening progresses during and after storage.during and after storage.

At best, pineapples may be stored for no At best, pineapples may be stored for no more than 4 – 6 weeks.more than 4 – 6 weeks.

Food UsesFood Uses

Field ripe fruits are best eating fresh, and it is only Field ripe fruits are best eating fresh, and it is only necessary to remove the crown, rinds, eyes and core.necessary to remove the crown, rinds, eyes and core.

The flesh of larger fruits is cut up in various ways and The flesh of larger fruits is cut up in various ways and eaten fresh, as dessert, in salads, or cooked in pies, eaten fresh, as dessert, in salads, or cooked in pies, cakes, puddings, or made into sauces or preserves cakes, puddings, or made into sauces or preserves (jams) or in Malaysia utilize in curries and various meat (jams) or in Malaysia utilize in curries and various meat dishes.dishes.

Canned pineapple is consumed throughout the world. Canned pineapple is consumed throughout the world. The highest grade is the skinned, cored fruit sliced The highest grade is the skinned, cored fruit sliced crosswise and packed in syrup. Undersize or overripe crosswise and packed in syrup. Undersize or overripe fruits are cut into ‘spears’, chunks or cubes.fruits are cut into ‘spears’, chunks or cubes.

Other uses:Other uses:

1. Bromelain1. Bromelain – a proteolytic enzyme, was formerly derived from – a proteolytic enzyme, was formerly derived from pineapple juice, now it is obtained from the mature plant stems pineapple juice, now it is obtained from the mature plant stems salvaged when fields are being cleared. The yield from 100 kg of salvaged when fields are being cleared. The yield from 100 kg of stem juice is 2 kg of bromelain.stem juice is 2 kg of bromelain.

The enzyme is used like papain from papaya for tenderizing meat, is The enzyme is used like papain from papaya for tenderizing meat, is added to gelatin to increase its solubility for drinking, in leather added to gelatin to increase its solubility for drinking, in leather tanning process, etc. In modern therapy, it is used as a digestive tanning process, etc. In modern therapy, it is used as a digestive (digests food by breaking down protein) and for its anti-inflammatory (digests food by breaking down protein) and for its anti-inflammatory action after surgery, and to reduce swellings in cases of physical action after surgery, and to reduce swellings in cases of physical injuries.injuries.

2. Fibre2. Fibre - pineapple leaves yield a strong, white, silky - pineapple leaves yield a strong, white, silky fibre which was extracted by Filipinos before 1591. fibre which was extracted by Filipinos before 1591.

Certain cultivars are grown especially for fibre production Certain cultivars are grown especially for fibre production and the young fruits are removed to give the plant and the young fruits are removed to give the plant maximum vitality. The ‘Perolera’ is an ideal cultivar for maximum vitality. The ‘Perolera’ is an ideal cultivar for fibre extraction because its leaves are long, wide and fibre extraction because its leaves are long, wide and rigid. Other uses of fibre: as threads and shoestrings, rigid. Other uses of fibre: as threads and shoestrings, stringing jewels, made into capes and caps worn by tribal stringing jewels, made into capes and caps worn by tribal chiefs, casting nets for fishing, etc.chiefs, casting nets for fishing, etc.

3. Animal feed3. Animal feed – final pineapple waste from the processing factories – final pineapple waste from the processing factories may be dehydrated as ‘bran’ and fed to cattle, pigs, goats and may be dehydrated as ‘bran’ and fed to cattle, pigs, goats and chickens.chickens.

4. Folk medicine4. Folk medicine – pineapple juice is taken as a diuretic and to – pineapple juice is taken as a diuretic and to expedite labour during childbirth, also as a gargle in cases of sore expedite labour during childbirth, also as a gargle in cases of sore throat and as an antidote for seasickness. It is believed the flesh of throat and as an antidote for seasickness. It is believed the flesh of very young fruit is deliberately ingested to achieve abortion, also very young fruit is deliberately ingested to achieve abortion, also help to expel intestinal worms, and as a drastic treatment for help to expel intestinal worms, and as a drastic treatment for venereal diseases. In Africa, the dried powdered root is a remedy venereal diseases. In Africa, the dried powdered root is a remedy for oedema and root decoction is used to treat diarrhoea. for oedema and root decoction is used to treat diarrhoea.

ProductionProduction

Pineapple has traveled far and wide from its centre of origin in Pineapple has traveled far and wide from its centre of origin in central South America and by the time when Columbus arrived in central South America and by the time when Columbus arrived in 1492 it had grown throughout the Americas and he may have taken 1492 it had grown throughout the Americas and he may have taken a sample back to Europe. From there it has spread to other a sample back to Europe. From there it has spread to other continents by traders and seamen.continents by traders and seamen.

Over the past 100 years, the pineapple has become one of the Over the past 100 years, the pineapple has become one of the leading commercial fruit crops of the tropics. In early 1950’s world leading commercial fruit crops of the tropics. In early 1950’s world production was close to 1.5 million tons and reportedly doubled production was close to 1.5 million tons and reportedly doubled during the next decade. Major producing areas are Hawaii, Brazil, during the next decade. Major producing areas are Hawaii, Brazil, malaysia, Taiwan, Mexico, Philippines, South Africa and Puerto malaysia, Taiwan, Mexico, Philippines, South Africa and Puerto Rico. By 1970, the total crop had arisen to 3.6 million tons and by Rico. By 1970, the total crop had arisen to 3.6 million tons and by 1975 it was estimated to be at 4 million tons with about half of the 1975 it was estimated to be at 4 million tons with about half of the production processed. The increased worldwide demand for canned production processed. The increased worldwide demand for canned fruit has greatly stimulated plantings in Africa and Latin America.fruit has greatly stimulated plantings in Africa and Latin America.

Contd/-Contd/-

In 2001 the total world production was 14.2 million tons with In 2001 the total world production was 14.2 million tons with Southeast Asia dominating: Thailand produced about 2 million tons Southeast Asia dominating: Thailand produced about 2 million tons and the Philippines 1.6 million tons, while in the Americas, Brazil and the Philippines 1.6 million tons, while in the Americas, Brazil was the largest producer of about 1.4 million tons. was the largest producer of about 1.4 million tons.

In Malaysia, currently the land area under pineapple cultivation is In Malaysia, currently the land area under pineapple cultivation is close to 10,000 hectares are largely meant for the canning industry close to 10,000 hectares are largely meant for the canning industry with an annual export revenue of RM 35 – 60 million in the last five with an annual export revenue of RM 35 – 60 million in the last five years.years.

Gandul’ on peat soil in Johor has been the major variety planted but Gandul’ on peat soil in Johor has been the major variety planted but with the rapid decline in yield through repeated cropping or with the rapid decline in yield through repeated cropping or ratooning, ‘Josapine’ was substituted but soon replaced with ratooning, ‘Josapine’ was substituted but soon replaced with another variety ‘Maspine’ since 2005. another variety ‘Maspine’ since 2005.

‘‘Maspine’ is a more superior high yielding hybrid with good canning Maspine’ is a more superior high yielding hybrid with good canning quality and high recovery rate.quality and high recovery rate.

- is at least 70% higher yielding than ‘Josapine’, very resistant to - is at least 70% higher yielding than ‘Josapine’, very resistant to heart rot disease and is typified by the completely smooth, non-heart rot disease and is typified by the completely smooth, non-spiny ’piping leaf’ character.spiny ’piping leaf’ character.

- has high sugar content (16-18% Brix) mildly acidic, flesh is - has high sugar content (16-18% Brix) mildly acidic, flesh is blemish-free because of resistance to several fruit diseases. The blemish-free because of resistance to several fruit diseases. The fruit is large, around 1.7 - 1.8 kg, cylindrical in shape with shallow fruit is large, around 1.7 - 1.8 kg, cylindrical in shape with shallow eyes that allows for high cannery recovery of more than 20%. eyes that allows for high cannery recovery of more than 20%.

- fruit has core diameter, 30mm which is usually acceptable by - fruit has core diameter, 30mm which is usually acceptable by canning factory. The flesh is attractive, deep golden, compact and canning factory. The flesh is attractive, deep golden, compact and firm so that sliced round-cuts do not break easily. firm so that sliced round-cuts do not break easily.

Penyakit Mata DalamPenyakit Mata Dalam

Penyakit Mata HitamPenyakit Mata Hitam

Penyakit Reput Buah ThielaviopsisPenyakit Reput Buah Thielaviopsis

Penyakit Buah MarblePenyakit Buah Marble

Penyakit Reput Teras Bakteria Penyakit Reput Teras Bakteria

Penyakit Reput Teras PhytophtoraPenyakit Reput Teras Phytophtora

Penyakit Reput PerduPenyakit Reput Perdu

Bintik BerpusarBintik Berpusar