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The Effects of Wetland
Degradation on the Socio
Economic Welfare
A case study of Nabisasiro
Wetland in Rubaga division
Kampala District
© 2005
By Kateregga Dennis and Magezi Andrew
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Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………1
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....4
Chapter one
1.0 Introduction and Background to the study…………………………………………….1
1.1 Statement of the problem……………………………………………………………...5
1.2 Objective of the study…………………………………………………………………5
1.3 Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………………….6
1.4 Scope and purpose of the study……………………………………………………….6
1.5 Significance of the study………………………………………………………………6
1.6 Definition of the terms………………………………………………………………..7
Chapter two
2.0 Literature Review……………………………………………………………………..9
2.1 Nature of wetlands……………………………………………………………………9
2.2 Wetland Degradation………………………………………………………………10
2.3 Causes of wetland degradation……………………………………………………..10
2.4 Effect of wetland and degradation…………………………………………………..14
Chapter three
3.0 Methodology and study Area……………………………………………………….16
3.1 Study Area…………………………………………………………………………..16
3.1.1 Location……………………………………………………………………………16
3.1.2 Geology…………………………………………………………………………….16
3.1.3 Soil…………………………………………………………………………………17
3.1.4 Vegetation………………………………………………………………………….17
3.1.5 Climate….…………………………………………………………………………18
3.1.6 Population profile…………………………………………………………………..18
3.1.7 Socio-Economic Background of the area………………………………………….19
3.2 Methodology………………………………………………………………………...20
3.2.1 Research Design…………………………………………………………………..20
3.2.2 Sample Size………………………………………………………………………..21
3.2.3 Sampling frame and ample selection………………………………………….…..22
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3.3 Data collection……………………………………………………………………...22
3.31 Interview method…………………………………………………………………22
3.3.2 Questionnaire…………………………………………………………………….23
3.3.3 Observation………………………………………………………………………23
3.3.4 Photography………………………………………………………………………23
3.4 Data Processing……………………………………………………………………24
3.5 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………….24
Chapter four
4.0 Presentation, Analysis and Discussion of research findings…………………………25
4.1Causes of wetland degradation……………………………………………………….25
4.1.1 The influence of Education level on wetland degradation…………………………25
4.1.2 Influence of he size of land owned and wetland Degradation……………………..28
4.1.3 The influence of awareness on wetland Degradation……………………………...32
4.1.4 Influence of declining yields on land and wetland Degradation…………………..34
4.1.5 Population………………………………………………………………………….35
4.2 Effect of wetland Degradation on the socio-economic welfare……………………36
4.2.1 Incidence of wetland Diseases…..…………………………………………………36
4.2.2 Occurrence of Floods………………………………………………………………39
4.2.3 Effect of water Turbidity…………………………………………………………..40
4.2.4 Lowering of water Table and dying on wells……………………………………...40
4.2.5 Loss of Biodiversity……………………………………………………………......41
Chapter five
5.0 Conclusions and Recommendation………………………………………………….42
5.1 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………….42
5.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………43
5.2.1 Collaborative Management………………………………………………………...43
5.2.2 Soil Maintenance…………………………………………………………………..43
5.2.3 Sustainable Utilization of Wetlands………………………………………………..43
5.2.4 Enforcement of Environmental Laws……………………………………………..44
5.2.5 Environmental Education & Public Awareness Campaigns………………………44
5.2.6 Family Planning……………………………………………………………………44
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5.2.7 Provision of Alternative sources of Income to the local people…………………...45
5.2.8 Fishing……………………………………………………………………………..45
5.3 Limitation of the study…………………………………………………………….…46
References…………………………………………………………………………….47
List of pictures
Picture 1: Houses constructed in Nabisasiro wetland…………………….……………...31
Picture 2: Brick laying in Nabisasiro wetland………………………………….………..31
Picture 3: Cultivation in Nabisasiro wetland…………………………………………….35
Picture 4: Frequent flooding which causes seasonal and permanent pool of water which
have accumulated red algae ……………………………………………………………38
Picture 5: Impact of flooding on Human activities in Lubya and Busega trading
centers…………………………………………………………………………………..39
List of tables
Table 1: Summary of population census for Rubaga division (1980-2002)……………..20
Table 2: Sample size and Structure………………………………………………………22
Table 3: Contingency Tabulation of major activities in wetland by Education levels…..27
Table 4: Average size of land holdings (acres) per household in Rubaga Division…..…29
Table 5: Statistics of how land holdings were acquired by respondents…………..…….29
Table 6: Tabulation of wetland benefits as ranked by respondents……………………..32
Table 7: Average yield of selected crops on land per season over time in Rubaga
Division………………………………………………………………………………….34
Table 8: Population Density of Rubaga Division………………………………………..36
Table 9: Number of malaria cases by age in Rubaga Division…………………………..37
Table 10: Some wetland plants that have disappeared due to
reclamation………………………………………………………………………………41
List of appendices
Appendix 1 Questionnaire……………………………………………………………….49
Appendix 2: Map of Kampala District showing the location of Rubaga Division……....53
Appendix 3: Map showing allocation wetlands in Kampala District……………………54
Appendix 4: Map of Rubaga Division showing the study wetland……………………...55
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Abstract
This research study investigates the effects of wetland degradation on the socio –
economic welfare. In Uganda, wetland degradation has been going since 1940’s on a
small scale; it was not until in the 1980’s that wetlands become a subject of large scale
interventions, most notably for crop cultivation. In the Rubaga division, wetland
degradation started in the late 1970’s.
The study was carried out in Rubaga division where a sample of 60 people was selected
as respondents. The sample was based on purposeful and multi – stage random sampling
designs enhanced by the inclusion of key respondents. The data was collected using
questionnaires, interview techniques reinforced by field observations, photography and
informal discussions with local people. Data collected was there after analyzed both
qualitatively and quantitatively (using descriptive statistics and by computation of Chi –
square tests).
In thee investigated sample, the study revealed that wetland degradation has resulted in
serious effects such as changes in micro – climate and hence loss of biological diversity,
lowered water tables leading to drying of wells, shortage of raw materials for handcraft
and some medical plants. The study revealed a number of factors that influence wetland
degradation such as high population densities and declining yields on land. Hence the
influence on education levels, awareness and shortage of land could not be confirmed.
Basing on the above findings, the study therefore recommends environmental education
and public awareness campaigns, legislative controls provision of alternative sources of
income, practice of family planning and use of collaborative management of the wetland
resources.
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Chapter One
1.0 Introduction and background to the study
Wetland ecosystems in the world for account for about 6% of the global land area and
consist of a wide variety of type and are found in all climate of the world (Turner, 1990;
cited in Ngaku, 2002). In Uganda, wetland forms an extensive network covering about
30,000km, Representing 13% of the total area of the country. They include area of
seasonally flooded papyrus, swamp forests permanently flooded papyrus, and upland bog
(state of the environment report for Uganda,2000/2002).The most common type of
wetland in Uganda is the papyrus swamp dominated by cyperus papyrus (MoWLE,
1999).These wetland are divided into the following categories: lakes, riverine swamps
and flooded plans. The lake comprise of Victoria , George, Albert, Wamala, Bisina and
Opera, Kyoga, Kwania, Bunyonyi and many other smaller ones. The riverine swamps and
flooded plans include the, Okole, Kafu and Nile systems. (Ngaku, 2002).
Wetlands in Uganda as well as other parts of the world are a natural resource of
considerable importance. They are recognized for their functions, services and attributes
that constitute a considerable ecological, social and economic value that may be lost
when wetland are converted or altered (IUCN, 2002).Because wetland are the interface
between dry land and oceans, they contain species whose living space straddles the
boundaries between dry land-wetland aquatic systems. wetland goods include : Fish, wild
foods, medicines, Fuel wood, Building poles, sand graves, clay, thatch materials, pasture
and water, among others .Functions and services that include; micro-climate regulation,
water purification, water recharge, nutrient retention, biodiversity and habits provision
(MoWLE, 2001).
Wetlands provide food through cultivation of crops on swamp edges and harvesting of
wetland vegetation. For centuries, extrusive rice fields along wetlands have supported the
world’s most densely populated communities in the coastal plains, estuaries and riparian
land (khan et al, 1994). In south east Asia, a quarter of the population of Irian Jya over
10,000 papuans depend on swamp sogo( mettroxylon sogo)which is an important species
in the flood plains, as their main staple food (Lwanga, 1991).In Kenya, Luo woman
gather wild greens to supplement the supply of cultivated vegetables (crafter et al
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1991).Soritheimer (1999)acknowledges that the gathering of wild plant products provides
nutritional supplements for the entire family.
In Uganda, a variety of crops are cultivated in wetland including yams, vegetables,
sugarcane, cabbages, carrots and rice (Lwanga 1991). Grass from wetland is also used
for mulching banana plantations espeacialy in masaka District (Lwanga Ibid).Wetland
vegetation is used as fodder for domestic animals (Dugan, 1990).In Asia and Africa,
camels, cattle and goats feed on mangrove foliage (Hamilton and shedaleet, 1997).In
Uganda swamp edges serve as areas where pastoral communities communally graze their
animal (Khan et al, 1994).
Wetland provide habitat for a variety of fish species. Fishing is a very important activity
for communities surrounding wetlands for food and generating income. In the lower
Mekong basin in Zaire, 236,000 tons out of the total catch of 500,000 tons per year is
estimated to be derived from wetlands. (Dugan, Ibid).In Uganda communities living near
wetlands earn a living through swamp fishing (Ecaat, 1991).
Wetland vegetation like reeds, palms and papyrus are harvested directly to serve different
needs. In Uganda, women make baskets, carpets and mats out of wetland vegetation.
Handcrafts have been sources of income in rural and urban area especially those without
paid employment .Furthermore, Africa craft play a big role in people’s social life. For
example, weaving mats and baskets is used by women as a recreational activity for
passing their leisure time. Papyrus and other wetland vegetation are used as fuel wood. In
Rwanda, papyrus is harvested and compassed into briquettes with calorific content equal
to that of fuel wood (Dugan, Ibid).In Masaka Uganda, a species usually known as
“mpojja” is used as fire wood (Lwanga Ibid).
In developing counties where modern health facilities are largely inaccessible
(UNICEF,1998), wetland vegetation is used as local medicine for example in Buganda,
clay soil, mixed with herbs make a local medicine called “Mumbwa” for pregnant women
and is believed to cure various other diseases.
Wetland are used as source of water for direct human consumption, watering livestock
and for industrial use .It is assumed that about 1 million families directly depend on
wetland for water , with a consumption of five jerricans (each 20 litres ) per family
(MoWLE 2001).In Uganda about five million people ,many of them cattle keepers
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depend directly on wetland for their live stock water needs (stat of the environment report
for Uganda, 2000/2001).Wetlands are also crucial in the purification of the water table,
among others (National policy for the conservation and management of wetland
resources,1995).
Despite these benefit however, the sustainability of this wetland in being threatened.
Destruction and degradation of these resources throughout the world is approaching
alarming levels. Dugan (Ibid) observes that:-
“Wetlands every where have been lost or altered because of the disruption of
natural processes by agricultural intensification, urbanization, pollution, dam
construction, regional water transfers and other forms of intervention in the
ecological and hydrological system”
It is recognized worldwide that the rate of wetland loss has reached national crisis
proportions in many countries.
This alteration in wetland use is partly attributed to the traditional view about wetland as
waste lands, used as rubbish drains, drums for effluent and habitats for diseases carrying
organisms .Thus, wetlands have been degraded or altered to other uses because society
has viewed eliminating them as either good in itself or small price to pay for the benefits
expected from wetland conservation (Dugan, Ibid).
Wetland have been reclaimed and converted to intensive agriculture (Dugan, ibid).For
example, I(n south Africa, they are converted into plantations of fruits, sugarcane, rice ,
rubber trees, coconut palms, Soya beans and extensive cattle ranching . In Australia,
more than half of the wetlands have been transformed into other uses like pasture farm
land, housing, industrial establishments, agricultural conversion, brick making and over
harvesting of natural products, Wet news (1994) reports.
“Other wetlands however have disappeared and continue to disappear under
pressure from a country hungry for places to put up house, offices, roads, farms
and other uses”
Thus wetlands are converted to other uses under pressure for development. Wetland
degradation is also attributed to pressure on land due to increasing population in many
areas of the world. Demographic pressure leading to increased demand for agricultural
land settlement are breaking traditional systems of resource use (Lwanga, ibid), wetlands
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being an attractive resource for a wide range of economic and social activities creates
conflict between their users today. Traditional users who harvest wetland resources in
their natural state are being pushed away by individual property owners (Turner, 1991).
Mall by (1996) also observes that the selling price of wetlands continues to be set not
according to the value of their overall benefits to society, but according to financial value
when converted to some other use. In this study, it is therefore argued that wetland loss
has led to substantial effects upon local communities, which depend on wetland resources
for their social-economic survival.
1.1 Problem statement
Rubaga division is one of division in Kampala district that is experiencing rapid
degradation and conversion of wetlands. Despite government legislation that seeks to
protect or ensure sustainable utilization of wetland in Uganda, Nabisasiro wetland in
Rubaga division has been encroached upon through cultivation, settlement, brick making,
and sand extraction and recreation. This is attributed to rapid urbanization that has
characterized Uganda’s demographic structure in the last two decades. The degradation
and conversion of Nabisasiro wetland has resulted into regular flooding during the heavy
rain season, development of pools of stagnant water in open pits left behind after brick
making and sand extraction that have become a breeding ground for mosquitoes that
spread malaria. This has led to seasonal displacement of people and destruction of
properties, increase incidence of water related diseases all of which contribute to the
impoverishment of the population.
The purpose of this research there is to examine the effects of wetland degradation on the
socio-economic welfare so that conservation measures can be designed for their
sustainable utilization.
1.2 Objectives of the study
1. To find out the causes of wetland degradation in Rubaga division.
2. To investigate the effect of wetland degradation on people’s socio-economic
welfare in Rubaga division.
3. To come up with strategies for sustainable utilization of wetlands.
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1.3 Hypothesis
1. Wetland degradation doesn’t vary with education levels.
2. There’s no significant relationship between wetland degradation and people’s
awareness.
3. There is no significant relationship between the size of owned and wetland
degradation.
4. Wetland degradation has not led to the incidence of water bone related diseases in
Rubaga division.
1.4 Scope and purpose of the study
The research was conducted in Rubaga division, Kampala district, In Lubya and Busega
Parishes that neighbour Nabisasiro wetland. The study aimed at establishing the effects of
wetland degradation on the socio-economic welfare and in orders to asses this, awareness
and land ownership was considered.
The purpose of this research therefore was to establish the causes and effects of wetland
degradation so that policy makers especially ministry of natural resources, district
environment office and local councils can institute policies aimed at conserving and
protecting the existing wetlands.
1.5 Significance of the study.
The findings will help the planning department at the level, Kampala district in particular
and Uganda in general, on how to plan and policies for sustainable exploitation of
wetland resources.
The localization nature of the research will enable the local communities in Rubaga
division to appreciate the dangers of wetland degradation on their socio-economic
welfare. Generally, the study will enlighten many about the overall importance of
wetland (social, economic and ecological).
1.6 Definition of terms.
Drainage refers to “any activity that denies water access to or residence in a wetland” it
include.
Water removal by cutting or digging drainage channels.
Planting trees or other plants with high water demand to lower the water table
such as eucalyptus, sugarcane etc.
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In filling with municipal / industrial solid waste in landfill situation or with earth
and rocks in a land making situation for industrial and residential development.
Diversion of water from entering the wetland.
Damming of up stream water sources.
Encroachment means taking over part of a wetland for specific purposes, this usually
means the natural state of the wetland is altered and degraded.
Sustainability can be defined as;
The maintenance or improvement of people’s well being overtime, which will in
turn depend on resistance of particular ecosystem and,
The inter-generational compromise by which present resources lesser can
guarantee future generations the right to a similar resource base and life style.
Conservation measures: Refers to any form of protection at or around the wetland,
restricting on destructive development and management practices beneficial for retention
of wetland functions.
Wetlands: The term wetland is used to refer to permanently or seasonally flooded areas.
This also includes areas of impeded drainage where water often collects. These areas are
commonly known swamps in Uganda.
Wetland degradation is the effective utilization of wetlands with imperfect and poor
natural drainage, through the removal of excess soil moisture by encouraging percolation
through land drainage for agriculture.
Ecological feature is a benefit description of the main habitats and vegetation types
present, using the dominant plant communities and animal species present.
Ramsar convention: This is an agreement that was rectified in Ramsar, a city in Iran. The
agreement highlights the commitments under take by all member state aimed at achieving
the sustainable use of wetlands.
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Chapter Two
2.0 Literature review
2.1 Nature of wetlands
Barbier (1989) and turner (1990) argue that there is general lack of available information
in literature concerning tropical wetlands. it is difficult to come up with a specified and
agreed upon definition of a wetland, primarily due to the diversity of wetland ecosystems,
their highly dynamic character, and the fact that demarcation between dry and wet
environment lies a long a transition.
However according to the Ramsar convention of 1972, wetlands are:
Areas of marsh, fen, flesh, blackish or slat, including areas of marine water, the
depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters (Dugan, 1990).
In Uganda, a wetland is referred to as “an area that stays wet long enough for only certain
plants and animals to grow even when there is no rain. Wetlands are generally” called
swamps (National Wetland Conservation Program 1989).
Wetland categories in Uganda include papyrus swamps; forest swamps riverine wetlands,
lake edges, flood plains, Dambos and artificial wetlands (UNEP, 1988).
In the dry savannah areas of Africa, the main wetland types are the seasonally water
logged grasslands in the valley bottom lands. These are commonly known as Dambos in
southern Africa but have a variety of names in other areas such as Fadamas in northern
Nigeria, Basfonds in Sahel, Wadis or Khors in Sudan and Mbugas in Tanzania (Scoones,
1993; Mharapare, 1993).
2.2 Wetland Degradation
The destruction and degradation of wetland resources throughout the world are
approaching alarming levels. For much of the recent past, wetlands have been destroyed
or altered on a global basis, as human society sought to exploit the benefits provided by
these natural systems. Extensive wetland resources in both industrialized and developing
economies have already been lost or are undergoing increasing change. These loses are
occurring either as a district result of conversion to intensive agriculture, or industrial us
(including waste disposal) or through more gradual degradation as the result of
hydrological perturbation, pollution, recreation pressure or increasing grazing and fishing
activities (Turner, 1990).
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Peter H. Omare-ojungu (1992) in his book “Resource management in Developing
countries” wrote about the destruction of the wetland ecosystem on the cost of east Africa
by industrial pollution. He notes that much more destructive effects are from direct
extraction of coral for the production of building limestone, poor methods of trawling
which have destroyed fish habitants and the beauty of coastal landscape. Much more
destructive effect arise from port and harbor construction such as port Victoria, cement
industries, oil prospecting, mangrove swamp reclamation for expansion of coastal towns
and citing of industries, hotels and access roads. In all these developments, industrial
development features most prominently in destruction of coastal wetlands.
2.3 Causes of wetland degradation
wetland degradation has occurred due to in appropriate land use practices, such as over
exploitation of ground water aquifers, increased agricultural activity, waste dumping, in
filling for residential and industrial developments and destruction of wetland
vegetation. The Spanish wetland of the Tablas de Daimil is almost completely
desiccated as a result of lowering of the ground water table, due to over exploitation of
t he ground water aquifers( Finlayson and Moser, 1991). The same authors noted that
“major changes are coming in the Everglades marshes (Florida, USA) as a result of
nutrient inputs from agricultural areas upstream.
Government policies have also facilitated wetland degradation through conversion to
other use. The US have lost some 54%(87 million hectare) of its original wetland as a
result of legislation such as a result of legislation such as the federal swamp land acts of
1849 – 50 and 1860. These acts where designed to alleviate flood dangers, improve
sanitation and reclaim land for agriculture (Dugan, 1990). Government and donor
supported projects such as dam construction and irrigation projects gave far reaching
implications for wetland ecosystems. Lake Kane in Greece has been drained and
converted to agricultural production with the support of major government subsidies,
resulting into the loss of important fisheries.
In the Senegal River delta, 24,000 hectares of flood plains have been dyked in for
irrigation purposes. However the scheme has failed due to salinization of soils and the
vegetation has been degraded (Braakhekke and Marcand, 1987).
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Kagambirwe (1971) dealt with causes of swamp reclamation and its bearing on land
availability. Population was observed as the only cause of swamp reclamation, but he
never investigated on the consequences on the environment as a whole but on the socio-
economic environment.
Swanson (1996, pp 86), however went ahead to explain how population plays a role in
degradation of resources. He wrote thus:
Human population is the key variable in determining the exploitative use of
resources, which implies not only the rapid exhaustion of non-renewable
resources but also the utilization of renewable resources beyond their
regenerative capacity.
He further notes that high rates of world consumption undermine the stock of natural
capital. Societies became accustomed to living on income generated by mining that
capital, consequently degrading such a resource.
Poverty is another factor causes degradation. Recent estimates indicate that over 1,000
million people live in poverty (World Bank, 1992). These poor people tend to live in least
resistant and most threatened environments like tropical forests, upland areas, semi arid
zones and peripheries of large cities. The implications are that the poor are highly
dependent on their immediate environment.
The fragility of the environment can generate a vicious cycle where degradation
causes falling productivity, which leads to more poverty that causes yet more
degradation (Swanson, 1996, pp 109)
For example in survey of people in settled districts of Uganda, over 70% who lived near
wetland area stated that they used the resource for cultivation, hunting, grazing and
collecting materials (MUIENR/WRI, 1992).
Ibrahim Thaw (1992), in his study wetland program mission to Burkina Faso and Niger
gave a flat statement on how wetland in the Sahel are severely being threatened without
spelling out how exactly, and attributed their fate to the administration officials as well as
those in charge of technical and political matters who are unaware of the range of useful
functions wetlands perform, however he did not give a full explanation of how this was
being done.
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Panayotou (1993, pp 30) cities myopic planning horizons and high discount rates as
another cause of wetland degradation. Natural resource conservation and sustainable
development ultimately involve sacrificing present consumption for the promise of the
future benefits. But Panayotou notes that:
Because people tend to prefer immediate over future benefits. Such an exchange
appears unattractive unless one dollar of sacrifice today yields more than 1$ of
benefits tomorrow.
He further notes that future benefits are discounted and the more heavily they are
discounted the less attractive they are. At subsistence levels of living, when people’s very
survival is at stake, a hand to mouth economy prevails in which the future is infinitely
discounted. The results of such myopia are over exploitation of natural resources and
under investment in their conservation and regeneration, which ultimately lead to their
depletion.
Human perception of wetlands also leads to their degradation. Dugan (1990) observes
that wetlands have been destroyed because society has viewed eliminating then as either
good in it or as a small price to pay for the benefits expected from wetland conservation.
Such perception has led to inappropriate management practices and wetland loss
Swanson, (1996, pp 55) concurs with Dugan and notes that:
Certain resources are perceived to be less worthy of attention and investment
than others are and these are the ones that are destined for over exploitation and
degradation.
Many societies perceive wetlands as “wastelands” harboring disease carrying vectors and
wastage of would be agricultural land if drained. This degradation phenomenon is/has
been occurring due to this reason.
Nalubowa Suzan (1997) examined the causes and consequences of wetland degradation
of Lwera wetland in Bukulula sub-county, Masaka district. She observed that a number
of causes including inappropriate farming techniques, resource extraction, unclear land
ownership, population pressure and low levels of environmental awareness were
important in the degradation of Lwera wetland. But she argues that low level of
environmental awareness was the major factor, which contributed to the degradation of
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the wetland. She concluded that efforts must be geared to assess the extent to which the
above factor leads to wetland degradation and control of the associated consequences.
2.4 Effects of wetland degradation
Omoding (1989) analyses the effects of swamp reclamation on water and wood supply in
Agu parish, Kumi district. He notes that swamps are prone to seasonal flooding from time
to time after intense agriculture on drainage areas, which contributes soils to the channels
making them shallow thus the spread of water to the flood plain.
He says that this disrupts the water table through the interference of the recharge system.
Cutting down swamp vegetation causes wood shortage as reclamation involves mass
felling of trees within a short time.
National working group no. 2 June 1995 indicates that “excavation of wetlands for sand
mining and or brick making leaving behind pits with stagnant water have created habitats
for disease vectors such as mosquitoes and snails. Pockets of water hyacinth have been
cited in water pools in some of these abandoned excavation pits in Kyetinda wetland in
Kampala.
Wetland degradation like any other re source leads to economic stagnation Panayotou
(1993) observes that such degradation is more pervasive in the developing world than
high inflation, excessive foreign debt or economic stagnation. In the same line, Pearce
(1993) concurs with Panayotou and supports the nation that “environmental damage costs
developing countries approximately 5% of their Gross National Product (GNP)1
He further argues that moreover this cost is in the form of lost production potentials that
are real resource flows, are associated with these losses.
Reclaimed swamps have evidently indicated that the practice is a form of water resource
degradation. Besides lowering of the local water table and consequent reduction in high
evaporation from the swamp adversely affects microclimate in affected areas. In
southwestern highlands of Kabale and Kisoro, drainage of swamps has led to crops
grown on the valley sides flanking the drained swamps being more prone to dry spells.
Presumably not only due to the decline of the water table, but also to the reduction in
moisture indicated by the early dissipation of fog and mist(Bagoora, 1989).
1 David Pearce et al (1993); World Without End, Economics, Environment and Sustainable Development
pg 27
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The national wetland conservation and management programme (1989), summarizes the
socio-economic impacts of wetland degradation and they include the following.
Subsidence of roads and structures built on converted wetlands occur.
Polarization of wealth and denial of access too ex-wetland resources upon
conversion especially when this is done for large scale agriculture and milk
production, the wealthy few deny the many (poor) of their access to wetland
resources.
Conversion of wetland will only provide a few years of relief from shortages
since population growth will not be materially improved in the medium to long
term will adverse impacts of drainage and conversion will be experienced
immediately.
Drainage of one wetland throws additional pressure on adjacent wetlands for
their resources, this could lead to conflict as “aliens enter the wetlands owned by
others”
The assumed benefits from conversion are not usually achieved, conversion
always results in a net loss rather than again.
Loss of wetland fish and other animal resources.
Increase in mosquitoes and fish populations declining.
Increase in rodent population as predatory birds (herons) leave the area.
Loss of wetland vegetation associated environmental and economic benefits.
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Chapter Three
3.0 Methodology and study area
3.1 Study area
3.1.1 Location
Rubaga division is located in central Uganda in Kampala district and it bordered by
Kawempe, Central and Makindye in the east.(refer to map 1, appendix 4)
Nabisasiro wetland located in Rubaga division lies between longitude 32° 30¹ and 32° 35¹
East of the Greenwich and latitude 0° 16¹ and 0° 22¹ of the equator. It is approximated to
be 5.4km west of Kampala city center. (Refer to map 3, appendix 6)
In terms of the wetland area, iit measures approximately 0.8km² currently and sometimes
calculated as part of Lubigi wetland, which is approximately 2.85km². Before
reclamation, Nabisasiro wetland measured approximately 1.2km² was by approximately
0.39km² has already been altered into dry environment. This wetland borders with
Busega parish in the north, Lubya parish in the south and Kasubi in the west.
3.1.2 Geology and Geomorphology
Nabisasiro wetland is situated in Central Uganda plateau having gentle slopes and flat
topped hills characteristic of the Buganda landscape. The gentle slopes separated from
each other by broad, uniform valley slopes, which descend into the papyrus swamps. The
underlying rocks are generally the Buganda Toro systems of central Uganda rising
between 1219-1524 meters above sea level (Lang lands, 1974). In this rock system, the
argillite (phylites and schists) predominate, but basal or near basal Arenities also exist in
this area.
3.1.3 Soils
The reports of the lands and surveys department (1960) indicate that there is uniformity
between the rocks and soils of Lubigi wetland in Kampala district.The soils are
developed from the Buganda - Toro rock system and the up warped Buganda surface and
their remnants.
According to Lang lands (1974), soils of Kampala wetlands are classified as ferrallitic
soils with little differentiation into clearly defined horizons and possess a fine granular
structure particularly in the uplands (dry lands).
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The swamplands mostly have Kaolinite type of soils, dominated by sandy – clay – loam
as the prevalent types of soils in the study area. The reddish – brown loams do dominate
in the upland area and along the gentle slopes. According to the wetland status report for
Uganda (1996), most soils in wetlands contain peat derived from humidified residues of
swamp plants mainly papyrus mixed with a fairly high proportion of line clay sediments.
The underlying material is generally sticky, dark grey clay but in some areas, coarse clay
sand and grit occur.
3.1.4 Vegetation
Nabisasiro wetland is largely of seasonal swampy type (marsh) with small portion of
approximately 20.9% being permanently flooded. Most of the natural vegetation has been
cleared due to man’s activities and much of what still exist in the swampland has been
modified by man. The area under vegetative cover has thus considerably reduced.
Presently, only secondary vegetation exists, apart from few palm trees in the abandoned
brick making sites. The natural vegetation has been cleared through cultivation, fuel
wood collection, charcoal burning, and collection of building materials and for the
building sites.
Originally, the valley swamps were dominated by cyperus papyrus sedges with some
forest palm tree species maninly Raphia Farinifera, phoenix Reclianta and cala meadows
deeratus. The wetland also consisted of some latifolrus sedge species. The uplands are
covered with elephant grass, perennial grasses as well as ocalised typha clad rum species
and cyperus (pennisetum paurpuren) with isolated forest and savanna trees, remnants of a
previous forest cover (B.W.Lang lands, 1974). Presently, the dominant grasses in the
upland are Hyparrhereca Spp, digilana Scalarum and penniiselum purpurem.
3.1.5 Climate
Nabisasiro wetlands are situated along the shores of Lake Victoria, in area with relatively
high rainfall ranging between 1500 – 2000mm per annum. This rainfall amount is mainly
received in two main wet seasons (March - April) and (September – November). The rest
of the year rainfall is scattered with some rainfall storms and drizzles. The significance of
high rainfall in the two wet seasons is the addition of water run off from surrounding hills
to the already existing water in Nabisasiro wetland.
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The temperatures are usually moderate ranging 24°c - 28°c, which are characteristic of
wetland areas, the highest temperature being 30°c - 31°c, especially during the dry period
and lowest temperature of 16°c (Metrological department, Entebbe).
3.1.6 Population Profile
According to the population statistics of 1980 – 2002 (Housing and population census,
Uganda), Rubaga division in which Nabisasiro wetland is found, has experienced an
increase in population. Population and housing census statistics show that the population
of Rubaga division has increased from 19,854 people in 1980 to 179, 328 people in 1991,
and 295,088 people in 2002 with an annual growth rate of 3.3%. (1980, 1991, 2002
population and housing census)
Table 1: Summary of population census of Rubaga division (1980 – 2002)
Year Male Females Total
1980 9,723 10,131 19,854
1991 85,767 93,561 179,328
2002 137,918 157,170 295,088
Source: Statistics Department Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Entebbe,
Uganda
From the table, it is evident that there is an increase is the population of the area, with out
increase in land. Therefore many problems are envisaged like increased strain on the
natural resources like the wetlands for agriculture, which has led to environmental
problems like occurrence of floods. This calls for proper management and utilization of
resources in the area to avoid disastrous effects.
3.1.7 Socio – economic conditions
3.1.7.1 Social and historical background
Historical sources have revealed that Kampala district was part of the Buganda Kingdom
before kingdoms were abolished in 1966. The indigenous in habitant’s of Lugala, Lusaze,
Busega community and Bulenga villages that neighbour Nabisasiro wetlands are
Baganda, although some other tribes like Lugbara and Banyarwanda exist. Children and
women form the main source of family labour while men are involved in mony
generating activities like brick making.
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Traditionally, some people used to worship traditional gods commonly known as
“Emandwa” in special places under big trees like Ficus Spp and grass thatched shrines
built for the purpose but this has faded out.
The abundance of flora and fauna that existed in the natural ecosystems was of great
benefit to the people. They had the privilege of utilizing it to their satisfaction and
possessed indigenous knowledge of their environment. The resources were put to various
uses including building materials, energy sources, craft sources and agricultural
resources. Many swamplands and forests in the uplands have been converted to crop
growing and others to brick making. Therefore, this calls for intervention to protect these
resources from depletion and over use by applying methods that allow sustainable
utilization.
3.1.7.2 Economic Activities
The majority of the people in the area are peasant farmers, mostly growing food crops.
The main crops grown are yams, maize, sweet potatoes, bananas and beans. They also
carry out brick making sand excavations. The land tenure system in which land is
inherited from the forefathers has led to fragmentation of land into small plots. The small
plots are over used, as they cannot be left to fallow and support large – scale agriculture.
3.1.7.3 Trade
The people are involved in different types of businesses. Most are sole traders with small
shops, others do practice subsistence farming involving mainly sale of food crops. Men
do carry out brick making and sell the bricks to prospective buyers. Sand is also
excavated and sold to other suburbs. The Lugbara especially women are involved in
harvesting of papyrus used for making mats which form an important element in
accommodation especially in the poor communities.
3.2 Methodology
3.2.1 Research Design
This study is a survey research aimed at establishing the effects of wetland degradation
on the socio – economic welfare. The study also tries to find out the causes of wetland
degradation, people’s attitude towards the wetland and the prospects of Nabisasiro
wetland as a resource in Rubaga division.
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The research is based on a cross sectional survey design. Information about the effects of
wetland degradation on people’s income and incidence of occurrence of water borne
diseases, cause of degradation, people’s attitude and levels of education was obtained
from a cross section of the population in Rubaga division. Data was collected using
questionnaires, and interview schedules supplemented by direct observation and
photographic interpretation.
Across sectional survey was used in this research study because studies on the effects of
wetland degradation on socio – economic welfare, more especially on income could best
be established by direct communication between the researcher and respondent. Under
these circumstances the researcher is able to focus
Questions to enable respondents understand them, and therefore minimizing errors in
response. Hence the survey method of research was the most suitable method of
acquiring data.
It would have views, ideas and information of the whole population of Rubaga division in
order to come up with accurate and correct information on the topic under study, but
because it is practically expensive and time consuming to interview the whole population,
samples of people in various categories were used. The views, opinions and ideas
generated can be generalized to apply to the whole population, hence the reason for
adopting a cross – sectional survey.
3.2.2 Sample Size
The total sample used consisted of 60 residents. (25 in each parish, 6 local council leaders
and 4 opinion leaders).
Table 2: shows the sample size and structure
Category of respondents No. of respondents
Local residents 50
Local leaders 6
Opinion leaders 4
Total 60
Source: Field research
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The researcher used a sample size of 60 respondents because it would be manageable in
terms of researcher’s financial resources.
3.2.3 Sampling Frame and Sample Selection
The research was carried out basing on a combination of purposely and multi – stage
random sampling. The first page involved selection of parishes that borders with
Nabisasiro wetland which is Lubya and Busega parishes.
The second stage involved purposely selection of 4 villages from Lubya and Busega
parishes. This selection based on villages nieghbouring Nabisasiro wetland and the
villages selected were Lusaze, Lugala, Busega and Bulenga.
The third stage involved random selection of 25 households in two villages from each
parish, where 13 males and 12 females were interviewed. In order to reach an individual
household, the researcher would move for at least 300 meters and interview a male or a
female. The sample of key respondents was purposefully selected because they didn’t
occur in a regular pattern.
3.3 Data Collection
Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are those
in which the needed data was directly got from the field. Primary sources involved
administering of interview schedules, use of questionnaires, personal observation,
sampling and photography.
Secondary sources of information included data extracted from public and private
libraries.
3.3.1 Interview Method
This was done on key informants and also on local residents of Rubaga division parish.
The key informants included religious leaders, local council chiefs, health officials and
teachers (primary and secondary). Using this method for example, the interviewed some
health officials to find out the effects of wetlands degradation on the incidence of water
borne diseases the number of people who have been affected, how often and also when
the diseases are more prevalent.
Before conducting these interviews, the researcher first met the concerned people,
discussed the objectives of the research after which a programme was set on when to
meet again.
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3.3.2 Questionnaire
The questionnaire was designed by the researcher and it included both open and closed
questions. The questionnaire was designed in English and since the researcher is well
versed with the local language (Luganda) the researcher would interpret for those who
didn’t understand English to avoid distorting thee information. The researcher would then
record the answers himself. While the literate group would record the answers
themselves. The questionnaire – covered questions on variables like levels of education,
people’s attitudes, awareness and source of income. It also covered issues like causes of
wetland degradation, problem encountered and possible solutions among others.
3.3.3 Observation
Direct observation was used to gather information on the status of the wetland, nature of
soils, activities carried out in the wetland and also on the extent of wetland degradation.
3.3.4 Photography
Photographs covering the general background and land use practices in the wetland were
taken. Data that change in space and time such as flooding were also captured.
3.4 Data processing
Data processing involved the formulation of a coding sheet onto which information from
the questionnaires was entered. Each variable entered onto the encoding sheet was
recorded at various levels representing sub – groups used for statistical analysis.
General tables were then constructed showing a summary of total respondents in the
various levels of each variable. For example, on the variable of income, table showing the
summary of a number of respondents who accrued that their incomes had increased or
decreased with wetland degradation was drawn.
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3.5 Data Analysis
Both qualitative and quantitative techniques were used. Qualitative analysis involved the
use of descriptive statistical method of data analysis was employed namely the Chi
square tests.
The formula for the Chi square test is:
X²0bs = ∑
Where
X²0bs = observed Chi square
ƒ = observed frequencies of a given category
ƒe = expected frequencies
∑ = sum of all categories
Qualitative analysis was used to supplement the quantitative analysis in the report.
ƒ - ƒe
ƒe ƒe
- 26 -
Chapter Four
4.0 Presentation, Analysis and Discussion of Research Findings
This chapter presents the analysis and discussion of the research findings of the study.
The chapter consists of two major sections: causes of wetland degradation, and the effects
of wetland degradation on the socio – economic welfare in Rubaga division.
4.1 Causes of wetland degradation
A number of factors are known to case wetland degradation. They include past and
present land use practices, legislation, institutional arrangements, land tenure system.
Poverty, lack of awareness and understanding of values of wetlands, limited land due to
high population densities and general public perception.
Dugan (1990) observed that wetlands have been destroyed because society has viewed
eliminating them as either good in it or a small price to pay for the benefits expected from
wetland conservation. Such perceptions have led to in appropriate management practices
and hence wetland loss.
In Rubaga division, wetland degradation has been going on since the 1960’s on small
scale intervention, most notably for cultivation of food crops, settlement, brick making,
sand extraction and recreation. As a result, large swath of the wetland was drained. A
number of factors help to explain this situation.
4.1.1 The influence of Education levels on Wetland Degradation
Education is an important variable that influence individual’s choice with respect to
resource use. This enables individuals to make choice depending on their abilities and
interests. Education is believed to shape people’s perception of their environment and
what it can offer; hence it helps them build up their socio – economic status. Education
also may influence the way people use their natural resources.
Education was categorized into two groups. The first group consists of respondents who
have not attained any formal education and those with formal education up to primary 7.
The second category consists of those with secondary education and though primary
education exposes individuals to a wide range of opportunities, their choices are limited
due to a wide range of opportunities, their choices are limited due to lack of skills at this
level.
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They are thus likely to be employed in more less the same activities as those without
formal education; hence the categorization of these is one group. After primary level,
there is more integration of skills training in secondary and vocational schools. This
enables individuals to make choices depending on their abilities and interests.
In order to establish whether levels of education influenced wetland degradation,
activities carried out in the wetland according to education levels were considered. The
following null hypothesis was stated; “Wetland degradation does not vary with education
level”
Table 3, next page summaries the frequencies and percentages of major activities in the
wetland as ranked by respondents with education levels.
Table 3: Contingency tabulation of major activities in wetland by education levels
Variable
Level of
variable
Crop
cultivation
% Brick
making
& sand
mining
% Collection
of other
wetland
% Fishing % Grazing % Total
Education These
without
formal
education &
those with
up to
primary 7
education
19 32 6 10 10 1
7
3 5 2 3 40
Secondary
education &
above
14 23 1 1.7 3 5 1 1.7 1 1.7 20
Source: Field research
Wetland resources collected; water, fuel wood, vegetables, medicines, fodder, craft
materials and building materials.
As shown in Table 3 above, for those without formal education and those with formal
education up to primary 7, and those with secondary education and above categories, the
percentages for various activities in the wetland were: - Crop cultivation 32 as compared
to 23; Brick making and sand mining 10 as compared to 1:7 collection of other wetland
resources (water, fodder, building and craft materials) 17 as compared to 5 and grazing 3
as compared to 1.7 respectively.
A Chi – square test was applied to the results in table 3, where the observed Chi – square
value was 4.00 at degrees of freedom 4, level of significance 0.05, and the critical Chi –
square of 9.5. (See part A, appendix 3) since the observed Chi – square is less than
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critical Chi – square values, the null hypothesis was retained, that is “wetland degradation
does not vary with education levels”.
In this research therefore, the influence of education levels on wetland degradation is
irrelevant. Most individuals irrespective of their education status are pre – occupied with
efforts to sustain their livelihood and are therefore prepared to take on any opportunities
present in the wetland. This is particularly so because of lack of secure employment, most
individual’s interviewed either worked full time in wetlands or were employed in the
formal sector. Thus were wetlands resources offer viable economic opportunities,
individuals will always move in as part of their survival strategy. This may end up
degrading the wetland.
National wetland conservation and management program, 1996 argues that the influx of
people into wetlands is due to national decision making in the economic sense in
response to the economic opportunities. This is particularly so where a given use is either
important in the user’s food strategy or income strategy. This was with most users
observed in Rubaga division in Lubya and Busega parishes hence influence of education
has been overshadowed. It can therefore be concluded that wetland degradation is a result
of economic and social pressure existing and that strategies for sustainable management
of wetlands must address the current unemployment status of most wetland users as well
as their depressing economic position.
4.1.2 Influence of size of land owned and wetland degradation.
Land acreage influences the level of resource utilization. Where farmers own limited
land, they turn to marginal habitats including wetlands, forests, steep slopes which may
have been previously set aside either for conservation of biological diversity or as water
catchments areas.
In Rubaga division, it appears that land shortage is a critical factor that drives people into
wetlands leading to degradation in that process. To ascertain whether land shortage is
factor that causes wetland degradation in Rubaga division; average sizes of land per
household were considered. The null hypothesis was stated; “there is no significant
relationship between the size of land and wetland degradation.” Results of the study are
summarized in Table 4.
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Table 4: Average sizes of land holdings per house hold in Rubaga division.
Size of land(acres) Number of households Percentage
Less than 1
1-2
2-3
3 and above
7
31
17
5
12
52
28
08
Total 60 100
Source: Field research
From the Table 4 above, 12% of the respondents had an average land of less than 1 acre,
52% had between 1-2acres, 28% 2-3 acres while only 8% had 3 acres and above. A Chi –
square test was applied to the results in Table 4. The observed Chi – square value was
0.022 at degrees of freedom 3 and level of significance 0.05, the critical Chi – square was
read as 7.8. Since the observed critical Chi – square is less than the critical Chi - square
value, the null hypothesis was retained that is; “there is no significant relation between
the size of land owned and wetland degradation”.
In Rubaga division, wetland degradation can be attributed to cultural factors other than
land shortage. Like in any part of Uganda, land is acquired mainly through inheritance
64%, 10% had borrowed, 23% bought and 3% were renting. In inheritance, individuals
gain land either as heirs after the death of the land owner.
Table 5: Shows statistics of how land holdings were acquired by respondents.
Land acquisition Number of households Percentage
Inherited 38.4 64
Borrowed 6 10
Bought 13.8 23
Rented 1.8 3
Total 60 100
Source: Field research
From Table 5, 64% of respondents had acquired land through inheritance, 10% had
borrowed, 23% bought and 3% were renting. Inheritance, individuals gain land either as
heirs after the death of the land owner or through sub – division amongst family members
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in accordance with customary rules of inheritance. Every individual of the family
according to these rules is entitled to the father’s share.
From the field, it was found out that the parents have to apportion plots of land to their
children whether on land or in the wetland. Thus after acquiring land, individuals are free
to dispose off their land at their own discretion. In wetlands which appear to be fertile,
individuals have to make sure that they maximize production by carrying out viable
activities possible like crop cultivation, brick making, sand mining and others. Such
activities like sand and clay mining and over harvesting of wetland vegetation are
environmentally harmful and lead to wetland degradation.
The need for growing of certain crops is also a factor that influences degradation. From
the field it was found out that crops like cabbages, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, yams, maize
and carrots are the major source of income in Rubaga division. These crops also do well
in areas with constant supply of water throughout their growing seasons. It was also
found out that due to unpredictable rains, and decline soil fertility, they had failed on
arable land since they are water is permanently available. From the field interviews, it
was also found out that Nabisasiro wetland acts as a “store” of sweet potatoes which can
no longer grow own land. The implication of these therefore is that the wetland has to be
cleared and drained continuously to create land for crop cultivation which aggravates the
phenomenon of degradation.
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Picture 1: Houses constructed in Nabisasiro wetland. Shortage of land in Rubaga
division is the major reason why these houses were built in the wetland.
Source: Magezi Andrew
Picture 2: shows brick making in Nabisasiro wetland. Brick making has dominated
nearly all wetlands and has been greatly blamed for wetland degradation.
Source: Magezi Andrew
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4.1.3 The influence of awareness on wetland degradation
Awareness is a critical factor that influences wetland degradation. Awareness affects the
way people utilize the range of benefits wetlands offer and this may lead to their
degradation. Wetland offer a range of benefits namely direct, indirect and
ethical/existence values. Direct values of wetlands include land for crop cultivation and
settlement, sites for brick – making and sand mining, fishing resources, grazing grounds
and collection of the other wetland resources like fodder, water, medicines, fuel wood,
vegetables building and craft materials.
Wetland also have indirect values such as water storage, habitat to wildlife species and
aquatic biodiversity, stabilization of local climate, flood control and natural purification
of water through stripping of nutrients, wetlands also offer ethical or existence values.
Most wetland resource users are only aware of direct benefits from wetlands. They thus
regard wetlands as sources of consumable products only. Such perceptions have often led
to inappropriate management practices and consequently wetland degradation. In order to
establish whether awareness influences wetland degradation, respondents were required
to rank the levels of benefits provided by wetlands. The following null hypothesis was
stated; “there is no significant relationship between wetland degradation and people’s
awareness”.
Table 6: Tabulation of wetland benefits as ranked by respondents.
Level of benefits Number of respondents Percentage (%)
Direct 43 72
Indirect 11 18
Ethical 6 10
Total 60 100
Source: Field research
From the table above, it is shown that 72% of respondents ranked the direct benefits of
wetlands most, 18% ranked indirect while only 10% valued the ethical benefits of
wetlands.
A Chi – square test was applied to test the results in Table 5. the observed Chi – square
value was 0.004, at degree of freedom 2 and the level of significance 0.01, the critical Chi
– square value was read as 9.21 (see part c, appendix 3). Since the observed Chi – square
- 33 -
is less than the critical Chi – square value, the null hypothesis was retained, that is “there
is no significant relation between wetland degradation and people’s awareness.
In this research study therefore, awareness is not a critical factor that influences wetland
degradation in Rubaga division. This could be attributed to scarcity of resources. Many
people irrespective of whether they are aware of the negative consequences of wetland
degradation or not, are not willing to leave any existing opportunities or resources
unexploited.
World Bank, 1992 observed that poor people tend to live in least resistant and most
threatened environments like tropical forests, uplands, semi arid zones and peripheries of
large cities. The implication is that the poor are highly dependent on their immediate
environment. This is true in Rubaga division where limited land due to high population
densities had forced people to encroach on Nabisasiro wetland in order to increase food
production for their households.
It was further noted that lack of fuel wood had forced the people in Rubaga to deplete the
wetland vegetation. (Cyperus, papyrus, Cyprus latifolia and phoenix rectinate) to
supplement declining fuel wood.
Cultural factors such as inheritance of land also influence wetland degradation. Through
inheritance, individuals of the family are shared plots of land wherever they exist. After
acquiring land say in the wetland, it is up to the owners to decide on hoow to develop
their plot(s). From the field study, it was found that majority of the respondents were
involved in brick making and sand mining. Such uncontrolled practices are unsustainable
and lead to wetland degradation.
4.1.4 Influence of declining yields and wetland gradation
Declining yields on land may be another factor that causes people to degrade wetlands.
Decline in yields can be attributed to poor methods of cultivation which cause soil
erosion and consequently soil exhaustion, shortage of land due to high population
densities, pests and disease and general lack of agricultural inputs. Decline in yields may
force people to turn to marginal lands like wetlands which appear virgin and hence very
production.
To ascertain whether decline in yields on land could be a factor that forces people into
wetland, respondents were required too indicate the approximate average yield they used
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to harvest some 5 – 10 years ago, and their recent yields on the same piece of land so that
a comparison can be made. Results are summarized in Table 7 below.
Table 7: Average yield of selected crops on land over time in Rubaga
Crop Yield 5 – 10 years age Recent yield
Beans 2 – 3 sacks ½ - 1 sack
Maize 1 - 2½ sacks Less than 1 sack
Sweet potatoes 3 – 5 sacks Less than 1 sack
Cabbages 50 – 100 heads 20 – 30 heads
Tomatoes 15 – 25 baskets 5 – 10 baskets
Source: Field research
NB: 1 sack is equivalent to 100 kilograms
Table 7 above shows general decline in the recent crop yields as compared with the
yields obtained 5 – 10 years ago. In Rubaga division, the decline is due to high
population densities on land which leads to reduced fallow periods consequently leading
to soil exhaustion. This gradual decline in yields on land therefore has continuously
forced the farmers into the wetland supplement the diminishing crop yield in order to
meet the needs of the ever increasing population. This has constituted to wetland
degradation in Rubaga division.
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Picture 3: shows cultivation in Nabisasiro wetland. Maize on longer does well on
land while sugarcane requires constant supply of water. This explains why the
wetland has been degraded.
Source Magezi Andrew
4.1.5 Population
Another factor contributing to wetland degradation is population density. High
population densities put stress on the existing natural resources which may eventually
lead to their depletion. High population densities for example bring about competition on
land for cultivation, livestock keeping, and settlement, all of which lead wetland
degradation. Tukahirwa (1992) asserted that “ Uganda like most other countries in Sub –
Saharan Africa is experiencing a high population growth rate, yet means of production
remain more or less as they have always been, that is subsistence farming technologies”.
The result is people who are poor and underfed, cultivating marginal habitats and
encroaching on fragile ecosystems such as wetlands.
In Rubaga division, it appears that high population densities is a major factor that causes
wetland degradation as shown in table below.
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Table 8: Population density Rubaga division
Year Population Population per km²
1980 19,854 160.2
1991 176,328 245.2
2002 295,088 420.7
Source: Uganda Population and housing census, 1980 – 2002
This high population density coupled with limited land has contributed to the existing
pressure on wetlands, leading further degradation.
4.2 Effects of wetland degradation on the socio – economic welfare.
Wetland degradation has got a number of effects and these ranges from physical, cultural,
social and economic aspects. Wetland degradation results into lowering of the water table
which affects the soil capacity to sustain agriculture. There is loss of aquatic biodiversity
due to excessive harvesting and habitat destruction, local climatic modification in areas
of drained wetlands, increased floods and occurrence of waterborne related diseases.
In the study area, wetland degradation has contributed to a number of socio – economic
effects and they include the following;
4.2.1 Incidence of water borne diseases
Wetlands are associated with many disease carrying vectors. National working group 2
June 1995 indicated that “excavation of wetlands for sand mining or brick making leaves
behind pits with stagnant water which are ideal breeding ground for disease vectors such
as mosquitoes and snails”. In addition wetland degradation results into the modification
of the local micro – climate which also provides conducive environment for the
multiplication of various disease carrying vectors. In the study area, the research
concentrated in the occurrence of incidence of malaria, which is transmitted by water –
based vector, the mosquito.
Records at Rubaga hospital in Rubaga division gave a summary of malaria cases for the
year 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 as shown in Table 8 below.
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Table 9: Number of malaria cases by age in Rubaga division
Year Under 5 years 5 years Total
2002 (Oct – Dec) 175 380 455
2003 483 989 1472
2004 2215 4714 6929
2005 (Jan – Jul) 879 1013 1892
Source: Records at Rubaga hospital
As shown in the table above, in the year 2002 (October – December) at total of 455
people presented with malaria while in 2003 a total of 1472 were also infected with
malaria. In the years 2004 and 2005 (January – July) a total of 6929 and 1892 also
presented with malaria respectively.
All the figures above show a significant increase in malaria cases from 2002 to 2005
(January – July) with more people aged 5 years and above being more infected than those
under 5 years.
From field observation and interviews, it was found that an increase in malaria cases was
related to constant floods. Degradation of swamp through vegetation clearance, digging
of canals and trenches in order to prepare land for farming all denies the wetland’s
capacity to control floods. Flood waters which were found to stay for more than one moth
are ideal breeding ground for mosquitoes which transmit plasmodia parasites that cause
malaria. It was further revealed by some respondents that malaria disease never used to
be a big problem in the past years in Rubaga division. Some lamented that occurrence of
malaria could be attributed to rapid reclamation of Nabisasiro wetland.
One of the most affected areas is Lusaze trading center located at the lower ends of the
wetland in Lubya parish.
- 38 -
Picture 4: frequent flooding has formed permanent pools of water, which have
accumulated red algae which is poisonous and can induce cancer; such pools are
ideal environment for multiplication of mosquitoes responsible for high malaria
cases in Rubaga division.
Source Magezi Andrew
In the area, constant flooding form permanent pools of water which favour the survival of
mosquitoes. Thus the incidences of malaria cases are very common in Lubya parish
especially around Lusaze trading centre in Rubaga division.
Basing on the above findings, null hypothesis was rejected and instead rephrased thus:
“wetland degradation has led to the increase of the incidence of waterborne related
diseases in Rubaga division.
Occurrence of floods
Wetlands acts powerful systems for temporary storage of run offs from hills. Wetlands
acts as “sponges” by checking the speed of run off and releasing water at reduced
velocities there by averting flooding hazards. In the study area, it was found that floods
usually occur in the months of April and November and this phenomenon of flooding
may be attributed to wetland degradation.
It was observed that wetland vegetation had been depleted leaving the wetland heavily
exposed. In addition no proper channels are dug to drain off excess water during
cultivation of crops. Thus owing to the relatively flat gentle slope relief of wetland, heavy
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down pours which occur in unpredictable seasons leave the wetland submerged, all of
which have negative consequences on the crops, property and surrounding gardens.
From the field it was observed that excess water in the swamp flow as far as Lusaze
training centre located at the lower ends of the wetland is Lubya parish. This water floods
the houses (local bars and shops) bringing business to stand still until the water dries up
in the dry season. This has had negative impacts especially in the income of house
owners.
Picture 5: Frequent flooding has led to the closure of some business houses in
Lusaze trading centre.
Source Magezi Andrew
Flooding was also found to have led to the destruction of gardens neighboring the
wetland. Lack of proper channels to direct excess water inn one direction had resulted
into the invasion of water in some plots of land consequently destroying them.
Respondents indicated that flooding was one of the causes of food shortage is the villages
surrounding the wetland.
4.2.3 Effect on water turbidity
Wetlands acts as “sieves” or “filter” by holding sediments in the run off from hills and
releasing water at very low velocities. Pereira (1973) noted that where, in the river
systems solids are carried in suspension, where low velocity water flow through swamps,
- 40 -
it offers valuable opportunity of setting out sediments and releasing very clean water with
high quality.
In Rubaga division, it was observed that the colour of water (turbidity) from the swampy
had deteriorated. Water was observed to have become muddy and brown in some areas, a
situation which never existed before wetland degradation as laminated by some
respondents. Due to increased erosion as a result of overgrazing, over cultivation and tree
cutting in the catchments area the silt laden run off contribute to the contamination of
water.
In addition, quality had continued to deteriorate due to lack of filtering mechanisms
which used to be provided by thick wetland grasses. This is seen especially after heavy
rains when water drawn near the former wetlands looks dirty and muddy. Water from the
swamp has thus become unsuitable for both human and animal consumption.
4.2.4 Lowering of the water table and drying of water wells.
Reclamation of wetlands to agriculture, human and industrial settlement is known to
lower the water table. Lowering of water table not only affects the soil chemistry but also
supply points such as water wells. Pereira (1973) observed that a recent trend that may be
putting the water resources of the country at risk of degradation is the reclamation and
drainage of wetlands. He further noted that although the impact of this drainage had not
been determined with precision, there is clear evidence that water resources are seriously
undermined by practice. In the study area, it was found out that digging up channels to
drain off excess water, and putting of trees with high water demands like eucalyptus in
the wetland had lowered the water table of the wetland. This has resulted into the drying
of wells as the wetlands can no longer re – charge the water table and the wells are they
issue points. Drying of wells have forced the people surrounding the wetlands to travel
long distances to look for clean water or simply to use the stagnant in ponds, this could
explain why they are many incidences of waterborne related diseases among the people
near Nabisasiro wetland.
4.2.5 Loss of biodiversity
Wetland ecosystems provide a habitant for a variety of plants (flora) and animals (fauna)
species. In Rubaga division through an attempt to create by reclaiming the wetland, man
has altered natural setting of environment. Excessive harvesting and burning of
- 41 -
vegetation has affected the regeneration capacity of vegetation and also has destroyed
habitat. This change in the ecosystem has created unsuitable conditions for plants which
used to thrive in the wetland to near extinction. From the field, it was found out that some
plant species have disappeared due to wetland reclamation a shown below;
Table 10: Some wetland plants that have disappeared due to reclamation.
Plant Before reclamation After reclamation
Water lilies Ω ∂
Cyperus papyrus Ω ∆
Phoenix rectinala Ω ∂
Cyperus latiforia Ω ∆
Pycreus Spp Ω ∂
Syzigium Spp Ω ∂
Source: Field research
Key
∆ Wetland plants that still exist after reclamation
Ω Wetland plants that was in existence before reclamation
∂ Extinct wetland plants after reclamation
It was further observed that building materials, which used to be obtained from the
wetland, are no longer available. For example thatching materials are no longer available
and so people in Rubaga division have to reply on spear grass banana fibres or iron sheets
for thatching. Individuals also were found to have resorted to other strategies such as
buying the products from the market, demonstration of wild vegetation and medicinal
plants and traveling long distances to other wetlands in the district.
Craft materials like mats, and baskets were found to be lacking in many homes. Instead
they have been substituted by polythene bags which are environmentally unfriendly
because they are not easily biodegradable.
Also birds as crested cranes, and wild ducks which used swampland as their breeding
grounds were found to have decreased in intensity in the division. Animals such as
squirrels and mongoose are rarely seen in Rubaga division due to destruction of their
homes.
- 42 -
4.2.6 Loss of fisheries resources
Wetland degradation in Rubaga division was found to have led to the loss of fisheries
resources. Excessive drainage of wetland lowered the water table and hence destroys the
breeding grounds of fish. From the field, it was found out that mud fish (Claria specie)
which used to be caught is no longer in existence due to the above factor. This has
deprived the people of high protein value supplied by fish. As a result defiance related
diseases like Kwashiiokor are very common especially among the children in Rubaga
division in parishes of Lubya and Busega.
- 43 -
Chapter Five
5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusions
A number of factors influence wetland degradation and these include political, economic,
social and cultural factors.
From the field it was concluded that lack of management responsibility over the wetland
has resulted into inappropriate management practices such as indiscriminate cutting and
extensive burning of vegetation and over harvesting of the resources such as papyrus
medicines. These activities have led to resource depletion and wetland degradation.
Another conclusion reached by this research study has to do with employment
opportunities. Lack of employment opportunities and alternative sources of income
among most respondents in Rubaga has had significant influence on wetland degradation.
Most respondents in the study who were involved in brick making, sand mining and
crops cultivation said they could not secure employment elsewhere, while others wanted
additional income to meet family requirements. Thus local communities living near the
wetland depend heavily on it for survival and this result into its degradation.
It was further noted and concluded that increases in population densities coupled with
limited land and declining yields, also influences wetland degradation. In order to
supplement the diminishing crop yields on land, farmers in Rubaga have been forced into
the wetland which was fertile soils leading to its degradation.
The level of awareness about the benefits of wetlands their proper sustainable utilization
is still low both at grassroots and policy making level in Kampala district. Increased
awareness and education are therefore required for efficient management and sustainable
of wetlands.
Furthermore it can be concluded that wetland have the most delicate ecosystems
compared to any type of the existing ecosystems. Tampering with one element causes the
whole ecosystem to be disturbed. In Rubaga, wetland degradation has resulted into
reduced soil fertility, lowered water table, increase in flooding and the ecologically
specialized climax wetland ecosystem.
- 44 -
5.2 Recommendations
Basing on the findings and conclusions of the research study, the following
recommendations are proposed as possible means of achieving proper wetland utilization.
5.2.1 Collaborative Management
Wetland local council organizations to initiate strategies for conservation and
management should be encouraged. These councils can formulate by laws and guidelines
for sustainable utilization of wetland resources. One such by law could be the
conservation of the remaining wetlands.
The government should take an initiative of choosing the local people to look after their
wetlands in collaboration with government officials. This could narrow the conflicts
between the management staff representing the government and the local council
organization, since the local people themselves will be involved in day – to – day
decision making mechanisms.
5.2.2 Soil Maintenance
Local organizations should be set up ensure that soils are property and well managed.
The use of farmyard manure should be encouraged to restore soil fertility. This should be
done along with good husbandry practices such as crop rotation, and rotational grazing to
avoid exhausting a particular plot of land in a short period, which in most cases forces
people to encroach on wetlands.
5.2.3 Sustainable Utilization of Wetlands
The key to sustainable development lies in the government’s ability to integrate economic
and environmental considerations at various levels of decision making, namely at
government, international agency, community and individual household levels. To this
end the government should incorporate the environmental issues into planning and policy
making, strengthen the institutional machinery necessary to co – ordinate and monitor
natural resource activities like swamp reclamation and development of a data base on the
status of the environment.
At the individual level, government should focus more on women in terms of equity of
education opportunities, land ownership, access to credit and agriculture and forestry
extension as well as providing suitable incentives to facilitate the protection of the quality
of land and water resources under individual control.
- 45 -
At the international level, government should promote the integration of environmental
appraisal, monitoring, evaluation of all foreign assistance of policies and Programmes.
For any work or project to be carried out by indigenous people or any other company
organizations, environmental impact assessment (EIA) must be carried out.
5.2.4 Enforcement of Environmental laws
Environmental laws should be enforced or reactivated, where the local people are not co
– operative, some kind of force should be used to make them appreciate that neither man
nor the physical environment is the master of the other, but that there is need for co –
existence between man and his environment. Local authorities like the L.C’s should help
the central government to enforce the laws.
The environment conservation law should not however, completely stop people from
utilizing resources but should stress their sustainable utilization for example fishing and
regulated harvesting of swamp vegetation like papyrus.
5.2.5 Environmental Education and Public Awareness Campaigns.
Education of masses should be encouraged relating to the efficient utilization of wetlands
both by land owners and wetland users.
Public awareness campaigns should be undertaken to educate the local people on the
diversity of values and functions of wetlands. This will help create commitment and
positive attitude towards conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands. This can be
done through public seminars and use of media. There should be integration of
environmental studies in primary and secondary syllabi.
5.2.6 Family Planning
Considering the high population densities in Rubaga parish an attempt should be made to
educate the people at different levels about the use of family planning methods. Such
efforts will work to limit population growth to a certain extent, thus reducing competition
for more agricultural land, hence reducing pressure on swampland resources. This calls
for government participation in establishing institutions which carry out training of
required personnel. The population policy should address such issues and put much
emphasis where majority of the people lack formal education.
- 46 -
5.2.7 Provision of Alternative Sources of Income to the Local People
In order to reduce pressure on wetland resources there is need for government to provide
alternative sources of income to the local people. Wide spread poverty among the local
people, lack of employment opportunities and low income earnings have encouraged
individuals to carry on several activities in wetlands. Diversification of sources of income
will therefore go along way in reducing local people’s dependence on wetland resources.
5.2.8 Fishing
Fishing is an important activity, which can be taken at a sustainable level in Nabisasiro
wetland. This could be affected by restricting people on the size of the nets to be used.
Big nets can be used so that only big and old fish is caught. This would enable fish renew
their population to ensure adequate and continuous catches in future. There is need for
restriction to traditional catching methods like use of hooks and baskets which are
indiscriminate in nature.
Most respondents also concealed information on the amount of land they owned or used
in the wetlands and simply stated that they owned or used one small plot of land. All this
came about due to the fact that most respondents were aware of government directives
over the recent years prohibiting them from draining and reclaiming wetlands. They thus
feared that the information may be used against them.
The other problem experienced by the researcher was that of locating individuals to be
interviewed. Most respondents were always at their places of work and hence could not
be easily located at their homes. This therefore required repeated visits to their homes
either in the evenings or over the weekends, which made the exercise expensive. In spite
of the above problems, the interview process was completed successfully. This was due
to the co – operation received from the local councils and the respondents.
- 47 -
5.3 Limitation of the study
A number of problems were encountered during the course of field data collection. Most
respondents were suspicious about thee reasons for thee study despite explanation given
to them by the researcher and thee local council officials. They were not willing to
disclose information about their activities in the wetlands, which may influence the data
collected.
Most respondents also concealed information on the amount of land they owned or used
in the wetlands and simply stated that they owned or used one small plot of land. All this
came about due to the fact that most respondents were aware of government directives
over the recent years prohibiting them from draining and reclaiming wetlands. They thus
feared that the information may be used against them.
The other problem experienced by the researcher was that of locating individuals to be
interviewed. Most respondents were always at their places of work and hence could not
be easily located at their homes either in the evenings or over thee weekends, which made
the exercise expensive. In spite of the above problems, the interview process was
completed successfully. This was due to the co-operation received from local councils
and the respondents.
- 48 -
Bibliography
David W. Pearce et al (1993); World without end, Economic, Environment and
Sustainable development, Oxford University Press, London
David T.J (ed) (1993); Towards the wise use of wetlands, Ramsar Convection Bureau, A
report of Ramsar wise use of project.
Government of Uganda (1991); Population and Housing Census Report, Ministry of
Finance and Economic Planning.
IUCN/UNEP (1987); World Conservation Strategy for 119 Gland, Switzerland.
James T. Win penny (1990); Development Research, the Environmental Challenge,
Overseas Development Institute, London.
State of the Environment Report for Uganda 2000/2001.
Lang lands B.W.(1974); The Gospel According to B.W. Lang lands
Malt by, Dugan et al (1992); Conservation and Development, The sustainable use of
wetland resources, proceedings of the Third International Wetlands Conference, Rennes
I.U.U.N University of Rennes and National Museum of Natural History.
Michael Williams (1990); Wetlands a Threatened Landscape, Basil Blackwell London.
Muhwezi B.D.(1989); A comparative Study of Land in Reclaimed in Swamps of Rubaga,
Department of Geography, Makerere University
National Wetlands Conservation and Management Program (N.W.C.P) (1980);
Department of Environment, Ministry of water, energy, minerals and environmental
protection.
Omoding James; A report on swamp reclamation and its effects on water and fuel wood
supply in Ago parish, Kumi district, Department of Geography, Makerere University.
Theodore Panayotou (1993); Green Markets, The Economics of Sustainable
Development, Institute for contemporary studies, san Francisco, California.
Timothy. M. Swanson (1996); The Economics of Environmental Degradation Tragedy
for the Commons.
National Policy for the Conservation and Management of Wetlands Resources.
- 49 -
Appendix 1
Questionnaire
The researcher is investigating into the effects of wetland degradation on the socio –
economic welfare; a study of Nabisasiro wetland in Rubaga division, Kampala district.
The information given will be treated in strict confidence. Please answer all questions.
Date of the interview…………………………………………………………………….
Division………………………………………………………………………………….
Parish……………………………………………………………………………………
Village………………………………Distance from the wetland………………………
Wetland………………………………………………………………………………….
A. Demographic
Age………………………………………Sex…………………………….
Occupation…………………………………………………………………
Tribe……………………………………..Nationality…………………….
Marital status;
a) Married b) Divorced
c) Single d) Widowed
e) Separated f) Others (specify)……………….
Education
a) Primary b) Secondary
c) Post-Secondary d) None
e) Any other…………………………………
B. Socio – economic status
1. (i) What income generating activities do you use the wetland areas for?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Which is the most important use? (Rank the most important use as 1, then
other uses 2, 3 e.t.c.)
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Tick where applicable Rank in order of importance
Crop cultivation
Settlement
Fishing
Brick making & sand
mining
Grazing
Collection of animal fodder
Craft materials(Papyrus,
Palm leaves)
Other(specify)
(iii) Why have you ranked one of these as the most important?
a) Supplement household incomes
b) Supplement household food supply
c) Employment
d) Others (specify)………………………………………… …..
C. Crop cultivation
2. (a) What crops do you cultivate on land?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) What crops do you cultivate in the wetland?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Give reasons why you grow certain crops on land others in the wetland?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Give reasons why you grow certain crops on land and others in the wetland? (Tick
the right choice)
a) On land:
(i) Less than 1 (ii) 1 – 2 (iii) 2 – 3 (iv) 3 and above
b) In the wetland
(i) Less than 1 (ii) 1 – 2 (iii) 2 – 3 (iv) 3 and above
4. How did you acquire land in the wetland?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Has there been any noticeable change in the quality of water since you started using
the wetland?
a) Yes b) No
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6. If yes, what changes have been noticed?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....
7. Has the amount of water available for use in the wetland increased or decreased?
a) Increased b) Decreased c) Remained the same
8. Why do think so?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. Name the diseases which you commonly suffer from?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....
10. Of the above mentioned diseases, which ones do you think are associated with
degradation of the wetland?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. Were these diseases very common in this area before you started exploiting the
wetland?
a) Yes b) No
12. If yes, which one?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
13. Compared to the diseases you used to suffer from, before exploiting the wetland and
now, has there been an increase or decrease in their occurrence?
a) Yes b) No
14. If yes, why do you think so?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Part C: Attitude and awareness.
15. Do you consider Nabisasiro wetland important to your daily lives?
a) Yes b) No
16. How important in your daily lives is Nabisasiro wetland in the following terms
direct, indirect and ethical values: (Tick the choice(s) you rank most)
a) Direct b) Indirect c) Ethical
17. Do you know the dangers of destroying the wetland?
a) Yes b) No
- 52 -
18. If yes, list the ways in which a wetland is destroyed?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
19. What suggestion can you give to ensure that the wetland is not destroyed?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Part D: Key informants on the causes and effects of wetland degradation.
1. Name……………………………………………………………………………………
Responsibility…………………………………………………………………………..
2. When did wetland degradation in Rubaga parish begin?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. According to you what were/are the cause of wetland degradation?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What are the socio – economic effects that have resulted from wetland degradation?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. What suggestions can you give to stop further degradation of the wetland?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Appendix 2
- 54 -
Appendix 3
- 55 -
Appendix 4
