Come together, right now, over what? An analysis of the processes of democratization and participatory governance of water and sanitation services in Dodowa, Ghana

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LUCSUS Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies

Come together, right now, over what? An analysis of the processes of democratization and participatory governance of water and sanitation services in Dodowa, Ghana

Shona Jenkins

Master Thesis Series in Environmental Studies and Sustainability Science, No 2016:018

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Lund University International Master’s Programme in Environmental Studies and Sustainability Science

(30hp/credits)

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Cometogether,rightnow,overwhat?

AnanalysisoftheprocessesofdemocratizationandparticipatorygovernanceofwaterandsanitationservicesinDodowa,Ghana

ShonaJenkins

13,520words

AthesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsofLundUniversityInternationalMaster’sProgrammeinEnvironmentalStudiesandSustainability

ScienceSubmittedMay16,2016

Supervisor:MaryamNastar,PhD,LUCSUS,LundUniversity

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BlankPage

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Abstract

Deliveringessentialservicestoburgeoningperi-urbancitiesintheSub-Saharawillonlybecomeanincreasingchallenge,asthepopulationinthisregionisexpectedtodoubleby2050.Findingeffectivegovernancearrangements,institutionalsettingsandbuildingparticipatoryarenasthatgiveagreatervoicetocitizensandfostergreaterresponsivenessfromdemocraticauthoritiesisadelicateendeavour,fraughtwithdifficulttrade-offs.Criticalpoliticalecologyprovidesanalyticalchannels to investigate the interplay betweenwater and sanitationmanagement, power andknowledge.An investigationof theprocessofdecentralizationandparticipatorygovernanceofwaterandsanitationservicesatthelocallevelwasconductedintheperi-urbancityofDodowa,Ghana.Thesuburbsincludedinthiscasestudycomprisedoftwosuburbswithanestablishedcommunitywater and sanitation committee (WATSAN) and four suburbs with no such committee. Aqualitativeinvestigationviasemi-structuredinterviews,informaldiscussionsandnarrativewalks,usingmixedsamplingmethodsrevealedaverycomplexpicture.Analysis was conducted based on a framework elaborated from a literature review ofdecentralization,participatorygovernanceandpoliticalecologytheory.Myresultshaveshownthat institutionalized localdemocracy inDodowahas createdparticipatory spaceswitha verynarrowmandate and limited capacity to evolve and adapt to changing local needs.WATSANcommittees have failed to foster an inclusive participatory arena and provide a louder localpolitical voice around locally defined priorities. Grassroots-derived participatory arenas are apromising alternative for strengthening local political voice, but more resources, power anddiscretionneedtobeaffordedtolocalgovernmentsinorderforthemtobecomemoreresponsiveto citizen voices. A more detailed discussion around the context-specific barriers todemocratizationandhowgrassrootscivicengagementcanbefosteredisincludedthroughoutthepagesofthisthesis.Keywords:Participatorygovernance,democratization,water&sanitation,Ghana

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TableofContentsListoffigures............................................................................................vAcknowledgments..................................................................................vii1.Introduction..........................................................................................11.1WateraccessinSSA...................................................................................................................11.2Participatorygovernanceanddecentralization-inclusivegovernance...21.3ResearchObjective....................................................................................................................31.4Researchquestions...................................................................................................................4

2.Background/Settingthescene.............................................................52.1Approachestowaterprovision..........................................................................................52.2DecentralizationasdemocratizationinGhana........................................................72.3ComingtogetheraroundWater-Movingfromurbantoperi-urbancommunitywaterboards(fromAccratoDodowa)....................................................11

3.TheoreticalFramework.......................................................................123.1Participatorygovernance:Representativedemocracyordeliberativedemocracy–amixofboth...........................................................................................................123.2PoliticalEcology.......................................................................................................................13

4.Methodology......................................................................................164.1ResearchDesign.......................................................................................................................164.2ResearchStrategy...................................................................................................................164.3DataCollectionMethods.....................................................................................................174.3.1SiteSelection......................................................................................................................174.3.2Interviews............................................................................................................................194.3.3Secondarydatasources...............................................................................................20

4.4Limitations..................................................................................................................................204.5Ethics................................................................................................................................................21

5.Findings..............................................................................................225.1DataAnalysis.............................................................................................................................225.2Actorsinparticipatorygovernance..............................................................................225.2.1ThemultipleactorsinvolvedinwaterandsanitationgovernanceinDodowa.............................................................................................................................................22

5.3Democratizationandresponsiveness(politicalvoice)....................................235.4Transparent,justandaccountabledemocraticprocess..................................265.4.1Transparentgovernance.............................................................................................265.4.2Justgovernance................................................................................................................275.4.2Accountablegovernance–Theissueofsanitation.....................................29

6.Discussion...........................................................................................336.1Impedingfactorstodemocratization-Structural,institutionalorpolicybarrierstodemocratization.....................................................................................................336.1.2Adevelopmentpolicytoenergizelatentcommunityengagement?.....336.1.3Knowledge,democratization&power.................................................................36

6.2Futuredevelopmentpriorities.......................................................................................376.3WATSANvs.Grassroots.......................................................................................................38

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6.3.1Instancesofcommunityorganizationatthegrassrootslevel................396.3.2Thepotentialofagrassrootsmovementaroundwaterandsanitation...............................................................................................................................................................40

6.4Developmentasexpandingcapabilities....................................................................406.4.1Sen’sdevelopment–developingcapabilities.....................................................40

7.Concludingremarks............................................................................437.1Recommendationforfurtherresearch:..............................................................................44

8.ReferencesforFigures........................................................................45

9.ReferenceList.....................................................................................45AppendixI..............................................................................................52AppendixII.............................................................................................53AppendixIII............................................................................................55AppendixIV............................................................................................57AppendixV.............................................................................................58Loosestructureforcommunitysemi-structuredinterviews................................58

ListoffiguresFigure1MapofGhana&WesternAfrica.Source:

http://www.ezilon.com/maps/images/africa/political-map-of-Ghana.gif....................7Figure2MapofSouth-EasternGhana.RedstarindicateslocationofDodowa.Source:

http://www.world-guides.com/images/ghana/ghana_accra_map.jpg..........................8Figure3SourceofwaterforotherdomesticpurposesinurbanpopulationinShai-

Osudoku.Source:GhanaStatisticalService,2014.................................................................9Figure4SourceofdrinkingwaterinurbanpopulationinShai-OsudokuDistrict.Source:

GhanaStatisticalService,2014.....................................................................................................9Figure5Public,privateandcivilsocietyactorsinthewaterandsanitationsectorin

Ghana,whichcanallbeinfluencedbyfundingfromforeignaidandNGOs.GWCLisjointlyrunasapublic-privatepartnership(PPP).Source:FieldWork,2016.............23

Figure6ExampleofaKVIP.PVCpipingventsthelatrinepittoreducesmellandflies...26Figure7Johari’sWindow–The4quadrantsofknowledgewithexamplesfromDodowa.

Figureadaptedfrom:Mefalopulos&Kamlongera,2004.................................................37ListofTablesTable1Listofsuburbsinvestigatedandtraditionalcommunities(asteriskindicatescommunities

withaWATSANgroupestablished)......................................................................................18Table2Institutionalactorsinvestigatedorganizedbydatacollectionmethod...........................18Table3SanitationcoverageestimatesinGhanabetween1990-2015.........................................30Table4DrinkingwateraccessinGhanabetween1990-2015......................................................30Table5Summaryofbarrierstoeffectivelyimplementingcommunityownershipand

managementinDodowa......................................................................................................35Table6Evidenceofgrassrootsinitiativesorganizedaroundacommunalcause.........................57

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AbbreviationsCBA Community-basedorganizationCOM Communityowned&managedDA DistrictAssemblyGAR GreaterAccraRegionSOD Shai-OsudokuDistrictWASH Water,Sanitation&HygieneWATSAN Water&SanitationCommittee

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AcknowledgmentsTheysayyouneverwalkaloneinlife.Personalachievementsshouldofcoursebecelebrated,buttheyarenevertrulyourown.Closeattentiontoproperreferencingisatthecoreoftheacademicwritingprocess.IfeellikeIwanttocelebratemycompletionofthismaster’sandmythesis,butthatIshouldreferenceownershipofthisprocessto(EveryoneinmyLife,1988-2016).Imuststartwithmyfamily.Therearetwomantrasforlifethatmyparentshaveimpartedonme,whichcontinuetohavealastingeffectonhowIchoosetoleadmylife.Myfatherbelievesthathavingagoodsenseofhumourandlight-heartednessisatthecoreofsurvivinglife,soIalwaystrytorememberhiswords:‘Relax,Shona,it’sjustajoke’.Laughwheneverpossible.Mymotherhasimpartedhersensitiveemotionalrepertoiretoherchildren.Nevershyawayfromexpressingyouremotions. InScottishdialect,tocry isto‘greet’.Myfatheralwayssaysthat ‘You’re likeaChristmascard,you’realwaysgreetin’”Smile,cry,lovewheneverpossible.Tomysisters.Youbringcomforttomyexistence.Maytimeandspaceneverdullourconnectionandmaythejoyofouroccasionalreunionscontinuetocarrymethroughourphysicalseparation.TomyflatmateshereinLund,TimandDennis.Youhavebroughtjoyandlaughterintotheselastfewmonthsofindependentworkonmythesis.Wehaveheldeachotherupandmovedbeyondthestress,rathergracefully,withlaughterandepicculinaryadventuresinoursharedkitchenandourlate-nightkitchenpartieswithfriends.Danke.ToDavidinMontreal.YouconnectedmewithyourfamilyandfriendsinAccraandwentoutofyourway to ensure thatmy arrival to Ghanawas smooth andworry-free.Merci. To George,FrancisandGabrielinDodowa.Yourencouragementandguidancethroughoutmyfieldworkwasinvaluable.YouopenedmyeyestothecomplexissuesfacingGhanaiansocietytoday.Medaasi.ToNiiandStephaninDodowa.YoutookthetimetotravelwithmesoIcouldlearnmoreaboutthehistoryofGhanaandexperiencethebeautyanddiversityofyourcountry.Medaasi.Last,butnotleast,toalltheresearchpartnersintheT-GroUPresearchprojectandtomythesissupervisor,Maryam,Iameternallygratefulforyoursupportoverthecourseofmyresearch.Itisdeepgratitudeoffriendship,familyandtheblindgenerosityofstrangersandhopeforthefuturethathasguidedmy journeytonewshoresandbackagain.As Imoveonfrombeinganindebtedstudent(hopefully)andexperiencewhatitfeels liketohaveapositivebankbalance,mayIneverforgetthefoundationsofthegoodlifethatbroughtmetothispoint.Deepsocietalchangeisneededtomovetowardssustainability.Are-evaluationofourvaluesystemsmoreinlinewithmydefinitionofthegoodlifewillgoalongwayinchangingbehavior.ShonaJenkinsMay14,2016Lund,Sweden

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1.Introduction1.1WateraccessinSSA

Availabilityandaccessibilityofgroundwaterresourcesareinextricablylinkedtopovertyreduction

andtheimprovementoflivelihoodsinruralareasandtoalesserextenttomoreurbanareas.The

criticalimportanceofsustainablewatermanagementanddevelopmentpoliciesandstrategiesin

AfricaislargelyduetothefactthatalthoughthecontinentofAfricaoccupies20%oftheglobal

landmass,only10%oftheglobe’srenewablefreshwaterresourcesarefoundthere(VanKoppen,

2003).Keeping inmindthis fundamental resource limitation,a focusonthedevelopmentand

managementofgroundwaterresourcesandsanitationfacilitiesbecomescrucialforSub-Saharan

Africa,as thecitizensof this regionhavethe lowestaccess todrinkingsuppliesandsanitation

services in theworld and the continent is seeing rapid and uncontrolled urbanization, which

stressesalreadyinadequatewaterandsanitationservices(Braune&Xu,2010).Groundwaterhas

manyadvantagesoversurfacewater:(1)Itisoflowerriskofcontaminationwithdisease-causing

bacteriaandviruses(2)Itismorefiscallyappropriateforsmallandscatteredruralcommunities

thandevelopingpipedsourcesofwater (3) It cansupporturbanandperi-urbandwellerswith

unreliableaccesstopipedwater(Kortatsi,1994).

Peri-urbangovernanceisanemergingareaofinterest,asgrowingcitiesontheperipheryofurban

centers have characteristics of both rural and urban areas. This creates fuzzy jurisdictional

territoryforgovernmentdepartmentsandagenciesservingurbanandruralareas,respectively

(Kurian&McCarney,2010,p.5).Forexample,intheperi-urbancityofDodowaontheout-skirts

ofAccra,Ghana, theurbanwaterauthorityand the ruralwaterauthoritymust collaborate to

meetthewaterandsanitationneedsinthisarea(CWSA,n.d.).

In an effort to expand urban water and sanitation services to the periphery, policy and

institutional responses have attempted to treat the peri-urban citizen as both a consumer of

water and sanitation services and as a benefactor of basicwater and sanitation public goods

(Allen, Dávila, & Hofmann, 2006; Van Koppen, 2003). The inherent tension betweenmarket-

oriented(i.e.consumerpaysapproach)andsupply-basedapproaches(e.g.humanrighttowater

and sanitation approach or sustainable livelihoods approach) (Harvey & Reed, 2007) in the

provision ofwater and sanitation serviceswill continue to test governance strategies in Sub-

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SaharanAfrica,astheregion’spopulationisexpectedtodoubleby2050(PopulationReference

Bureau,2013).Duetothewidespreadoccurrenceofgovernmentsunabletofulfilltheirmandates

andthefailureofthemarkettoprovidewaterandsanitationtoall(Dongieretal.,2003,p.304),

thegovernanceofwaterandsanitationservicesinthedevelopingworldhasbeentransformedto

includemorelocalactorsintheplanning,decision-makingandownershipof‘their’development

(Botes & van Rensburg, 2000; Dongier et al., 2003, p. 303). Development now unfolds in a

governance arena, which includes local actors, government, private sector and donor parties

(Botes & van Rensburg, 2000; Dongier et al., 2003, pp. 303–304). Water and sanitation

developmentpolicyandprojectsnowhavetheambitiousaimofsatisfyinginfrastructuralneeds

and human development aims (Ekane, Nykvist, Kjellén, Noel, &Weitz, 2014), by creating an

environmentwherea‘dignified’andsustainablelivelihoodiswithinreachofAll(Krantz,2001).

1.2Participatorygovernanceanddecentralization-inclusivegovernance

It is important to note that the inclusion of the poor and underserved in various steps in

developmentpolicyandprojectshasbeenmetwithcriticismandthatthemeritsandmechanics

of participation and decentralization are poorly understood. Botes and van Rensburg (2000)

expressthiscriticismverysuccinctly,“communityparticipationindevelopmentisadvocatedfor

various noble reasons and is often rhetorical and permeated with lofty sentiments” (p. 41).

Bardhan(2002)alsoexpressesthattheunderstandingofthecausesandeffectsofdecentralized

governance is verymuch still in its infancy, “separating decentralization from its political and

economiccauses,sothatdecentralizationisnotjustaproxyforanill-definedbroadpackageof

socialandeconomicreforms,isadelicatetask”(p.203).

Lastly,itisimportanttodistinguishtheemergenceofnewarenasofparticipationviainstitutional

arrangementandtop-downdevelopmentstrategiesfromparticipatoryarenasgeneratedbymore

‘organic’ community associationalism and social mobilization. Civic engagement from the

grassrootslevelhasbeenseentoenergizebroadercivicengagementintheUnitedStates,aswell

asinthedevelopingworld(e.g.DeTocqueville,2002;Gaventa&Barrett,2012).Further,Ostrom

(1995) cautions that an over-emphasis on investment in hard infrastructure without careful

considerationofthepluralityofinterestsatplayinthesocialenvironmentcancauseacollapseof

communal agreement of terms of action around a particular resource. This is not to say that

formal support fromand involvement of government and institutions cannot be helpful for a

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participatoryproject,butthatasoundassessmentofthecostsandbenefitsofengagementof

individualstowardsacommongoalneedstobeconductedpriortoconstructionofacommunity

ownedandmanagedboreholeorpublictoiletfacility,forexample.

Within themain veins of literature described above, it is important to acknowledge that the

motivation for participatory governance is derived from empirical origins, but is fraughtwith

normative assumptions, mainly that participatory is better than centralized governance and

importantlythat,giventheopportunity,communitiesarereadytoexpandtheircivicvoiceand

localgovernmentsarereadytobecomemoreresponsive(Cornwell&Coelho,2007,p.5).Butin

theabsenceofawidearrayofsuccessfulparticipatorygovernancesuccessstories in theperi-

urbancontext,improvingthequalityandeffectivenessofparticipatoryarenasshouldbecomea

focalpriorityforallactorsinvolvedinperi-urbangovernance(pp.24–25).

1.3ResearchObjective

Thisthesisendeavourstopaintapictureofthecomplexnatureofdecentralizedgovernancein

providingwhathavetypicallybeenthoughtofaspublicgoods,waterandsanitation,inthecase

ofDodowa,Ghana.Byconductinglargelyqualitativeresearch,Ihopetosituatemyselfatthe

interfaceoftheinfluenceofhistory,culture,politicsandeconomicsastheyimpactgroundwater

accessandqualityandaccessanduseofimprovedsanitationfacilities.Groundedintheoriesof

governanceanddevelopmentandanalysedviaapoliticalecologylens,thisthesiswillcontribute

tothecase-basedrepertoireoftransdisciplinaryresearchwithinthefieldofsustainability

sciences.Case-basedresearchisessentialtoassesshowcurrentapproachestoprovidingwater

accessandsanitationsservicestothepoor,forexample,areactuallydeliveringmeasurable

outcomes.Case-basedresearchinthisinstancealsoactsasanarenainwhichtheresearchercan

‘throwtheoryatrealityandseewhatsticks’andhopefullyprove,elaborateoradapttheoryto

improvewaterandsanitationdevelopmentinaparticularcontext.

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1.4Researchquestions

1. HowisdemocratizationbeingtranslatedinDodowa?

I. Whoaretheactorsinvolvedinthisprocess?

II. Inwhatwaysisthedemocraticprocesstransparent,justandresponsive?

III. Inwhatwaysdolocalcommunitymembershavealoudervoice?

2. WhatareimpedingfactorstodemocratizationinDodowa?

I. What are the structural, institutional or policy aspects that impede

democratizationinDodowa?

II. InwhatwaysisaccesstoknowledgeimpedingdemocratizationinDodowa?

3. Howhasdevelopmentaddressedcommunityprioritiesinthepast?Whatshouldbethe

focusoffuturedevelopmentinitiativesincommunitiesinDodowa?

I. HowwouldaWATSANcommitteeoracommunitydevelopmentgroupdeveloped

fromthegrassrootslevelofferabetteralternativetothegovernment-mediated

WASTANgroups?

II. How is the conceptof communityownedandmanageddevelopmentprojects

perceivedbythewidercommunity?

III. Have any of the communities studied successfully implemented a community

project,asaresultofagrassrootsorganization?

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2.Background/Settingthescene

2.1Approachestowaterprovision

The 2006 Human Development Report urged the international community to broaden their

understanding of the freshwater crisis facing humanity today. The freshwater crisis is multi-

faceted and shouldn’t solely be understood as a physical scarcity problem (Watkins, 2006).

Increasing pressure caused by quickly rising demand coupled with the spatial and temporal

variability of freshwater in, for example, Sub-Saharan Africa limits sustainable freshwater

availability(VanKoppen,2003).Freshwatermustalsobeunderstoodasapolitical‘entity’.Flawed

freshwatermanagement policies play out to exacerbate limitingwater access factors such as

poverty,inequalityandunequalpowerrelations(Watkins,2006).Innovationinwatergovernance

will be essential to steer the societies of the Sub-Sahara away from a critical water scarcity

situationandfosteranenvironmentwhichmakesdignifiedlivelihoodswithinreachforeventhe

mostmarginalized(Falkenmarketal.,2007;Swyngedouw,2005;Watkins,2006).

ExtendingWASH improvements toa region like theSub-Sahara lays thebuildingblocks forall

members of society to reach their full human potential and is inextricably linked with the

philosophy of sustainable development, as is reflected in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable

Development(UnitedNations,2015).Thedevelopmentofsoundhygienepracticescoupledwith

accesstocleanwaterandimprovedsanitationis linkedwithsignificantreductionsinmortality

andmorbiditycausedbydiarrhealdiseasesandothermicrobialdiseasesandinfections(Bartram

& Cairncross, 2010; Fewtrell et al., 2016). However, developing WASH practices and

infrastructures has far-reaching benefits beyond improvedhealth outcomes.Dignity, equality,

andmoregenerally,improvedlivelihoodsmakewater,sanitationandhygienethefoundationsof

health(Bartram&Cairncross,2010)aswellaseconomicandsocialdevelopment(Fewtrelletal.,

2016;UnitedNations,2015).

However,improvementstoaccesstosafedrinkingwaterhasnotkeptpacewithimprovements

in sanitation, which led to more ambitious targets for SDG Goal 6 in the 2030 Agenda for

SustainableDevelopment (UNWater, n.d.), althoughdifferent benchmarks are used to assess

both(Cumming,Elliott,Overbo,&Bartram,2014).Inaninterviewin2013,theexecutivedirector

ofWaterAidinSwedendiscussedthechallengeofbridgingthegapbetweenwaterandsanitation

improvements.Simplyput,dealingwithsolidhumanwastejustisn’tas‘sexy’aswateranditnever

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will be (Lei Ravelo, 2013),whichmay also impact donor funding formore appealing projects

(Harvey,2011).Shelaterreiteratedthispositioninaself-authoredarticleinTheGuardian.Those

workinginpublichealth,inthewaterandsanitationsector,governments,NGOsandcommunity

membersneedtobecomemorecollaborativeandcreativetodeliverontheglobalcommitment

toSDGGoal6(Chatterjee-Martinsen,2014).Thisisverymuchinlinewiththeexpandinglistof

actors now included in any ‘governance’ arena for sustainabledevelopment (Kemp, Parto,&

Gibson, 2005), in transdisciplinary scientific research (Polk, 2014) and urban (Ruiz, Dobbie, &

Brown,2015)andcommunity(Harvey&Reed,2007)watermanagement.

There are many historical socio-political reasons that have led to the current position of

governmenttoplacetheonusoncommunitiestoactivelyparticipateinthemanagementandup-

keep of water and sanitation facilities in informal urban settlements, peri-urban and rural

communities. The dominant development approach in the Global South is participatory

development(Watkins,2006).Itistobeunderstoodthatthismodeofdevelopmentisinherently

betterthanalternatives,asthepreviousrationalesfordevelopmentfailureinAfrica,stateand

marketfailure,havebeenabandoned.Afailureofgovernanceisnowbelievedtobeattheroot

of poordevelopment inAfrica,wheremore inclusive governance is believed tobe the key to

developmentsuccess(Bakker,Kooy,Shofiani,&Martijn,2008).Theinclusionofthebeneficiaries

ofdevelopmentisfundamentaltoensuringthattheirprioritiesarecentral,thatthosecommonly

lefttothemarginsofsocietyareincludedinandarealsorecipientsofthefruitsofparticipatory

projects.ItisthepositionoftheGovernmentofGhanathatthisapproachtowaterandsanitation

serviceprovisioncanfulfillthepromiseofsustainabledevelopmentinthecountry(Community

Water&SanitationAgency,n.d.;MinistryofEnvironmentScienceandTechnology,2012).

It ishelpful toclarifyhowthegovernancetermsreferredtoupto thispointareconnected. If

governancehasfailedAfrica,thenparticipatorygovernanceisthesolution.Whatthisthecallsfor

isadeepeningofdemocracythroughtwomechanisms,decentralizationandtheinclusionofthe

beneficiariesofdevelopmentintheirowngovernance.Andaswillbediscussedthroughoutthis

thesis,thisshouldleadtomoreinclusivedecision-makingandplanning,whichtakestheformof

communityownedandmanagedwaterandsanitationservicesinDodowa.

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2.2DecentralizationasdemocratizationinGhana

GhanaissituatedontheWesterncoastofAfricaandisborderdbythenationsofCôte-d’Ivoire,

Togo andBurkina Faso.

The capital of Ghana is

Accra, which is located

on the coast in the

Greater Accra Region

(GAR)(seeFigure1).

The phenomenon of

rapid urbanization in

Africa really started to

take place in the post-

colonialera. Itwas first

seen as a positive leap

forward, as cities were

seen to be the centers

of economic

development.However,

as the scale of

urbanization grew, it

wasviewedasaburden

to Africain states, as

significant economic development proved elusive. Urban centers began to heavily tax water,

sanitation and electricity infrastructure, as they grew in size and in population, with urban

plannersunabletokeeppace(Mabogunje,1990).ThishasbeenthecaseinGhana.Accraisquickly

expanding and previously small villages and towns on the urban fringe are quickly becoming

connectedtothecapitalcity(Doan&Oduro,2012).

Ten administrative districts form theGAR.Dodowa is the capital of the Shai-OsudokuDistrict

(SOD),locatedslightlynorth-eastofAccra(seeFigure2,p.8).

Figure1MapofGhana&WesternAfrica.Source:http://www.ezilon.com/maps/images/africa/political-map-of-Ghana.gif

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District Assemblies (DA) in peri-urban Ghana have had to take on the responsibility of city

planning,butduetoinefficientcapacity,inadequatefundsatthelocalgovernmentlevel,planning

hastakentheformofupkeepingexistinginfrastructureandbuildings(Yeboah&Obeng-Odoom,

2010).Asaresult,aperi-urbancitylikeDodowaexpands

withverylittleplanningenforcementfromtheDA.

Planningbecomes further complicatedby ahybrid land

tenuresystem,whichlegallyrecognizesbothmodernand

traditional forms of land ownership. Traditional land

ownershiprecognizescommunalrightstolandrootedin

royal families, clans or lineages of cultural groups in

Ghana(Gough&Yankson,2000).Thispresentsabarrier

todevelopingwaterand sanitation services inDodowa,

whichwillbeaddressedinthisthesis.

The Shai-Osudoku District remains largely rural, where agriculture still forms the basis of

economicactivityintheDistrict.DuetoitsproximitytoAccra,anditsadministrativeimportance

in the district, economic activities in Dodowa have diversified, wherein, far less households

engageinagricultureascomparedtotheruraltownsandvillagesinShai-Osudoku.Mostofthe

working-age population is employed in the private informal sector (non-tax paying

entrepreneurs),whereserviceandsalesfollowedbycraftandrelatedtradesformthebasisofthis

sector(GhanaStatisticalService,2014).Thehighrateofemploymentintheinformalsectorhas

obviousimportantimplicationsfortaxcollectionatthedistrictlevel.Figures3and4(p.9)show

thesignificanceofpipe-born(GWCL)waterusefordrinkingandotherdomesticpurposesinurban

Shai-Osudoku.However,groundwaterisstillanimportantsourceofwaterforbothpurposes.

“The African city remains today a human agglomeration with no clear set of criteria to help its

identificationasa sociallydistinct entity...What colonialismproduced inmostpartsofAfrica,and

especiallyinitscities,wasasyncretizedsocietycaughtbetweenitstraditionalpre-capitalistrootsand

acapitalist-orientedcolonialeconomy”(Mabogunje,1990,pp.121–122).

Figure2MapofSouth-EasternGhana.RedstarindicateslocationofDodowa.Source:http://www.world-guides.com/images/ghana/ghana_accra_map.jpg

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Therearetwo linguistictraditions inthisareaofGhana,mainlyGaandDangme.Althoughthe

officiallanguageofGhanaisEnglish,inShai-Osudoku,spokenEnglishvarieslargelyaccordingto

age(GhanaStatisticalService,2014).

2.2.1ThemultipleactorsinvolvedinwaterandsanitationgovernanceinDodowaDecentralization can be

understood in three facets: 1)

Institutional decentralization

(horizontal and vertical) 2)

Power decentralization 3) Fiscal

decentralization (Crawford,

2008;Yeboah&Obeng-Odoom,

2010).InthecaseofGhana,the

move towards a decentralized

governmentoccurredinthelate

80s. The post-colonial political

history of Ghana was turbulent

and by the early 1980s, a long-

standing military government

had facilitated the political and

economicdemiseofthecountry.

The severe economic downturn

inAfricaatthestartofthe1980s

threatenedthelegitimacyofthe

government, which led to the

acceptance of the terms of the

IMFandWorldBank’sEconomicRecoveryProgramandtheprocessofdecentralizationstartedto

unfoldbefore theendof thedecade (Hyden&Bratton,1992,p.121).The initial focusof the

governmentoneconomic liberalizationcreateddisastrous socialandeconomic inequalities. In

response to critical social unrest, a renewed focus on governance saw the decentralization

Figure3SourceofwaterforotherdomesticpurposesinurbanpopulationinShai-Osudoku.Source:GhanaStatisticalService,2014

Figure4SourceofdrinkingwaterinurbanpopulationinShai-OsudokuDistrict.Source:GhanaStatisticalService,2014

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processtakeplacein1988withlocalelectionsandtheformationofDistrictAssemblies(DAs)to

act as the hub of local governance (p. 135) and as a political signal to the citizens that the

governmentwasgivingback“powertothepeople”(Olowu&Wunsch,2004,p.127).

Over the years, the government structure has grown and the proliferation of coordinating

agencieshasseentheadministrativeoverheadofgovernancesky-rocket(p.64),leadingsometo

questionifdecentralizationhastrulygivenpowerbacktothepeople,asthereareverylittlefiscal

andhumanresourcesavailablefordevelopmentprojectsatthelocallevel(p.133).Further,the

Ghanaian state has maintained strong centralized control over decisions and governance

processes occurring at the local level (p. 153),which again begs thequestionwhether or not

powerhas trulybeengivenback to thepeople.Theprocessofdemocratizationhasalsobeen

complicated by the legacy of traditional community governance through chieftaincy, which

demonstratesthat“democracyisunlikelytosufficeasapoliticalorintellectualroadmap[tosolve

thedevelopmentchallengesintheGhanaiancontext]”(p.79).Abroaderunderstandingbasedon

apluralityofdisciplineswillbenecessarytodeliverondevelopmentpromisestothepeople,in

the presence of aweak local government, public fragmentation and disengagement (p. 149).

Roughlyfifteenyearsafterdecentralization,theGhanaianpeoplearestill“waitingforpopulist

spectaclestobereplacedwiththestructuresandsubstanceofdemocracy”(Hyden&Bratton,

1992,p.137).

ItshouldbenotedthattheGhanaiangovernancestructureanddynamicisparticular,asisevery

state-societyrelationship.Movingforwardthroughthisthesis,itisimportanttokeepinmindthe

broaderhistoricalandpoliticalcontextwithinwhich localgovernanceisunfolding. It isnotmy

intent to focus on themacro-context of governance, as an analysis of this nature can offer a

deeper understanding of and offer recommendations for how government institutions and

bureaucratic processes, policies and international donor relationships affect the local level.

However,Iseethisasinappropriateformypurposesasafocusonmacro-leveldoesn’tpermitthe

analysisofindividualexperiencesoftheverypeoplethatthegovernancemachineryshouldserve.

My intent here is to investigate the day-to-day struggle for water and sanitation and the

achievementofa‘satisfactory’livelihoodinoneparticulararea,wherebyofferingasnapshotof

local drudgery and civic mobilization around development issues. The success of local

participatorygovernancemechanismslargelydependsonachievingabalancebetweenshortand

11

long-term goals (Cornwell & Coelho, 2007, p. 24). I am taking a clear normative stance that

democratizinglocaldevelopmentprocessescanachievepositivechange,butthepoliticalecology

lens will be necessary to analyze which changes are occurring in which actors and in whose

interest(p.24).

2.3ComingtogetheraroundWater-Movingfromurbantoperi-urbancommunity

waterboards(fromAccratoDodowa)

My entry point into research on community water management in Ghana started with an

investigation into localparticipation incommunitywaterboards in themoreurbancontextof

Accra (Morinville&Harris,2014).Fromhere,a literaturereviewof the findings fromresearch

conductedonLocalWaterBoards(LWBs)inAccrawasconductedtoprovideastartingpointon

the potential benefits, disadvantages and areas for improvement in involving communities in

waterresourcesmanagement.

Overall,involvementinLWBsvaries;theeffectivenessinsupportingmorefairandjustaccessto

watervariesandknowledgeoftheroleofLWBsvariesdependingonthecommunityinquestion

(Harris&Morinville,2013;Morinville&Harris,2014;Peloso&Morinville,2014).Mostimportantly

powerrelationswereidentifiedasamajorbarriertogreaterintegrationofcommunitymembers

in water governance. Consideration of the power dynamic within communities, between

communitiesandNGOs,thelocalgovernmentandinformalbodiescouldexplainwhythesuccess

ofLWBsinAccravariedsomuch(Ameyaw&Chan,2013;Peloso&Morinville,2014;Saravanan,

McDonald,&Mollinga,2009).

BasedonthemixedsuccessofLWBsinAccra,IwantedtoinvestigatehowcommunityWATSAN

committeesinthetheperi-urbancontextofDodowafunction,whotheyincludeandhowthey

contributetomoreinclusivegovernanceoutcomes.Dodowaisintheearlystagesofurbanization

andthuspresentsaninterestingcaseonhowcommunitywatergovernancefunctionsanddelivers

benefitsforacommunity-in-transition.

12

3.TheoreticalFramework

3.1Participatorygovernance:Representativedemocracyordeliberativedemocracy–a

mixofboth

Contemporarydemocratic systemsareneitherpurely representative,nordeliberativeand the

essenceofdemocracyisdebatedbypoliticalparties(andvestedinterestgroups)anddeliberative

publicopinion.Tounderstandwhythepopularityofparticipatorygovernancehasemergedasa

globalmovement,abriefsummaryofthereasoningbehindargumentsforandagainstamore

representative democratic system is necessary, as well as insights into the basic theoretical

understanding of both. The powerful institution of representation can be thought of as a

pragmaticmeansofunifyingaterritory(Alonso,Keane,&Merkel,2011,p.29)orthemeansby

whichaterritoryisunified(p.31).Itallowsforapluralityofviewsthroughpopularelectionsand

is thus legitimized through the act of voting and the mutual understanding that individual

interestscanbeexpressedasageneralpoliticalwillthatcanbedefendedbyarepresentative.

RepresentationmediatestherelationshipbetweensocietyandtheState.Democracyisachieved

basedonthekeyexistenceofanactiveandfreecivilsocietyandthattheelectedrepresentative

isobligedtodefendthegeneralpoliticalwill(p.40).

Thissystemaffordscitizenspowertodeliberate,butexcludesthemfromtheforumofdecision-

making (p. 25). The Rousseauian understanding that politicalwill cannot be represented, but

political judgement can leads to the exploration of thewide degree of freedom that elected

officialsaregiventoactonsociety’sbehalf(p.26).Canrepresentativedemocracykeepattune

withthegeneralpoliticalwillbeyondthecriticalmomentofelectionsorshouldrepresentative

democracybeviewedasaprocessunfoldinginacomplexinstitutionalstructure?

As the institutional structures of contemporary democratic governments have expanded and

developedintohybridformsofgovernmentandastheWesternworldhasshedacriticaleyeon

democracy in thedevelopingworld, somekeyattributes thatactasametricagainstwhich to

measure ‘good’ governance have been discussed in the literature.Mechanisms for achieving

greateraccountabilitytocitizensandresponsiveness,inparticulartocitizen’sdevelopmentneeds

can be understood through Hirschman’s theory of Exit and Voice, respectively (1978).

Transparency of conduct and government operations and decisions & inclusiveness of

13

marginalizedgroupsindecision-makingandpolicyformulation(Ackerman,2004;Bardhan,2002;

Gaventa&Barrett,2012)andco-governanceofbasicservices(Crawford,2008;P.A.Harvey&

Reed,2007;Speer,2012)arewidespreadconceptsinparticipatorygovernanceanddevelopment

literature.Thefollowingfourmainaspectsofgovernancewillbescrutinizedinthisthesis:

• Accountability (e.g. ‘Exit’ - regular and fair elections; economic development;

developmentofpublicandculturalgoods)

• Responsiveness(e.g.‘Voice’-decentralization;localinstitutionalsupport,regularpublic

deliberations)

• Transparency (e.g. Publically available budgets & accounts; free media; political

watchdogs;independentagenciesperformingchecksandbalances)

• Inclusiveness (e.g. participatory decision-making; pro-poor policies; gender- conscious

policies;co-governanceofbasicservice)

Thesemetricswillbe important tokeep inmindas thecaseof localgovernanceofwaterand

sanitationservicesispresentedanditseffectivenessinvestigated.Theywillactasanexploratory

tooltoassessthequalityofnewarenasofparticipationingovernance.Whatisimportanttokeep

inmindisthatwhileparticipatoryarenasmaycometobeasaresultofgovernmentdirectionor

as a grassroots initiative, the quality and effectiveness of these newdemocratic spaces are a

mutuallyconstitutivebalancebetweencivicmobilizationandstateresponsiveness(Cornwell&

Coelho,2007). Thus, thepush for civicmobilization should come from the topandbottomof

society. Further, a deepening of democratic spaces surrounding the delivery of shared public

goodscanactasacatalystforstrengtheninglocalsocialcapitalandenergizingcivicmobilization

(Olowu&Wunsch,2004,p.269).

3.2PoliticalEcology

“Whenparticipatoryapproachesdonotengagewitheveryday

powerdynamics—eitheramongcitizens,orbetweencitizensandthestate—theybecome

technicalroutinesorsimplyadiscourseappliedwithoutcommitmenttopoliticalchange”

(O’Reilly&Dhanju,2012,p.627).

14

ThefieldofpoliticalecologyhasevolvedfromBlaikieandBrookfield’spioneeringworkinLand

DegradationandSocietywheretheyreframedaseeminglynaturalproblemanddescribedhow

society,resourcesandpowerareinconstantinterplaywitheachotherandthesepillarscanbe

used to analyze and frame human-environment tensions (Blaikie & Brookfield, 1987, p. 17).

Political ecology reveals the political and ecological interests that not only frame how we

approachsocio-environmentalproblems,butmayalsostructuretheresponsestotheseproblems

(Neumann, 2005, p. 2),whichmeans that historical aswell as political economic context can

(re)producethesamehuman-environmenttensions(p.6).Thus,theinfluenceof‘place’becomes

significant inpoliticalecology,since localenvironmentalproblemsshapelocalpoliticsandvice

versa(p.3).Placeisimportant,yethuman-environmentproblemstakeplaceinasystemsframe,

whereinter-relatedactors,institutionsacrossandbetweenscalesproduceresourceconflictsand

mismanagement (Andersson, Brogaard, & Olsson, 2011; Swyngedouw, 2005), where strong

marketforcescausetheincreasedmaterialityofnature(Bakker,2003),leadingsociallyconscious

governance innovations tobe ineffective (Swyngedouw,2005). Since the80s,avarietyof foci

haveemergedundertheumbrellatheoryofpoliticalecology,rangingfrom‘feminist’,‘thirdworld’

to ‘urban’politicalecology (p.5).The fieldofpoliticalecologyhasevolved fromcontributions

fromavarietyofdisciplines,suchasculturalanthropologyandgeography(p.15)andfromshifts

inepistemologicalphilosophies,fromsocialconstructivisttopoststructuralist(p.7).Thismakes

thetheoryrichandcomplex,butit istheveryreasonthatithasalsodrawncriticismforbeing

overlycomplexandunbalanced(p.10).Walkerhasinvestigatedthesequestionsmorethoroughly

inhisprobingintothequestionsofwhereisthepolicy(Walker,2006),politics(Walker,2007),and

ecology(Walker,2005)inpoliticalecology?

In the context ofwater resourcesmanagement in the peri-urban environs of Accra, a critical

politicalecologylensprovidesanentrypointtoanalyseandinterpretthepowerrelationsthat

contextualize relationships between water & sanitation service users, managers and the

institutionalbodies thatoversee this sector.Thispower imbalancecancreateunequalaccess,

allocationandaffectwaterusagestrategies.Thecirculationofwaterwithintheenvironmentover

spaceand timemustbeunderstoodnotonlyasanaturalphenomenon,butalsoasa socially

enactedphenomenon(Bakker,2003).Theaimofpoliticalecology,especially inthedeveloping

nationcontext,istoexposeandofferpathwaystoalternativelivelihoodsinanon-goingchanging

environment(Bryant,1998;Robbins,2012,p.13).

15

Theachievementofparticipatorywaterresourcesandsanitationmanagementcanbeviewedas

aclassic‘wickedproblem’,typicalofcontemporarysustainabilitychallenges.Theintegrationof

stakeholder views, knowledge types (Bryant, 1998; Jeffrey, 2006) and counter-narratives and

discourses (Bryant, 1998;Walker, 2006) tomediate competing demands forwater usage and

rightsisinherentlyasocialexercise(Jeffrey,2006;Walker,2006).Withagreaterproblem-solving

focus and consideration of the complexity of social-ecological systems (Jerneck et al., 2010),

politicalecologyasatheorylendsitselftosustainabilityresearch.

Political ecological analysis and Amartya Sen’s approach to development go hand in hand.

Empoweringandfreeingpeoplefromstructuralsuppressionisessentialforthemtoeffectively

weigh the costs and benefits of collective action. This will be discussed further down in the

discussion section. Sen’s capabilities approach will be discussed further on in the discussion

chapter.

16

4.Methodology

4.1ResearchDesign

Inapproachingtheresearchareaofthisthesisoncommunitywatermanagement,Iwasinspired

by the knowledge gap in understanding why community water management has had more

successinruralcontexts,buthasbeenlesssuccessfullyadaptedtolargercommunities inperi-

urban and urban milieus (Doe & Khan, 2004). Further, published literature of successful

participatorygovernancehasfocusedonlimitedcases(e.g.PortoAlegreparticipatorybudgeting),

whichhasonlyfiniteapplicationstodifferentcontexts(Speer,2012).Thusanexpansionofcase

studiesinparticipatorygovernance,especiallywithinthewaterandsanitationsectoriscrucialto

deliveringonglobalcommitmentsandabetterunderstandingofpossiblekeystobeneficialactor

configurations,institutionsandparticipatoryprocesses.

4.2ResearchStrategy

TheresearchforthisthesiswasconductedincollaborationwiththeT-GroUPResearchProject(T-

GroUP)inDodowa.T-GroUPfocusesondevelopinggroundwaterresourcesinSub-SaharanAfrica

andenhancingcommunitymanagementofthisresource.

Overthecourseofmy6-weekfieldworkphase,Iwasabletovisitsixadministrativesuburbsin

Dodowaandtwelvetraditionalcommunities,conductingatotalof73interviewswithcommunity

members. The administrative boundaries don’t always reflect the traditional community

boundaries,as is thecase in thesuburbsofApperkonandMatetse.Thepost-colonial formof

customary rule through chieftaincy and of Ga and Dangme traditions contextualizes the

qualitativedatathatIcollectedviasemi-structuredinterviews,informaldiscussionsandnarrative

walks.Mymixedmethodapproachprovidedmetheopportunitytospeakwithrespondentsof

variousagesandsexes,socio-economic,religiousandethnicbackgrounds,whichagainprovided

yetanothercontextualizinglayertothequalitativedata.

Considerationofthesecontextualizingfactorscouldnotbeignoredduringthedatacollectionor

analysisphaseofmyresearch.Complexsocio-environmentalrelationscannotbedistilleddown

to solely quantitative data. In order to fully capture and describe the reality of water and

sanitationgovernanceinDodowa,Ichosetorelylargelyonqualitativedatacollection.Iwanted

tounderstandfromthepointofviewofcommunitymembershowtheyperceiveparticipatory

17

waterandsanitationgovernanceandwhatkindsofbarriersandsolutionsdotheyseeandhow

theyseethemselvesascontributingtogovernance.Inordertoelicitmeaningfulresponses,Ifelt

Ineededtodeveloparapportwiththecommunitymembersbeforetheywouldfeelcomfortable

discussing these issues. In theend, Iwasable to collect richmicro-scaledata,whichnotonly

contributestodescribingandunderstandingtheoverallwatergovernancesituationinperi-urban

Dodowa,but italsorevealsparticulardifferenceswithinandbetweenthevarioussuburbsand

traditionalcommunities.Lastly, Ikeptaresearchlogeverydayofmyfieldwork.Here,Iwould

take note of interesting quotes and behaviours and social queues that, again, add depth to

understanding the interview responses. The loose structure for my community interviews is

includedinAppendixV.

PriortomydepartureonmymaidenvoyagetoAfrica,Isimplycouldn’thavepreparedmyselffor

thefirstfewbewilderingdaysofmystayinAccra.However,aftercompleting82semi-structured

interviewsandnumerousnarrativewalks(withcommunitymembers,governmentofficials,water

utilitycompanyofficialsandactiveNGOs)(seeTable1&2,p.18)andcountlessotherinformal

conversations with locals, I feel poised to offer a critical investigation into decentralized

communitygovernanceinDodowa.

4.3DataCollectionMethods

4.3.1SiteSelection

TheselectioncriteriaofthefocussuburbsinDodowathatwouldformthestudyareawasbased

on a few key points. My work on community management of water resources in Dodowa

complementedpreviousworkconductedundertheT-GroUP.Thus,Iselectedsuburbsthathad

notbeenthefocusofcommunitywatermanagementresearchinthepast.Thesuburbswerealso

selectedbasedonthefollowingtwopoints:

1. Selectedsuburbsshouldbelocatedinthemoredenselypopulated,typically‘peri-urban’

regionofDodowa(therearemoreruralvillagesontheoutskirtsofDodowa)

2. KnowledgeofsuburbswhichalreadyhaveaWATSANgroupestablishedwaslimited,thus,

time-permittingandasknowledgeofWATSANgrouplocationsbecameavailable,asmany

suburbsaspossiblewouldbecovered

18

The six suburbs selected included Apperkon, Zongo, Bletum, Djabletey, Salem & Matetse.

Followingselectionofthefocussuburbsofthestudy,wethenneededtogatherinformationfrom

T-GroUPprojectinvestigatorsandlocalsonthetraditionalcommunitieswithineachsuburb,so

that interviewdata couldbegatheredaccording to thedifferent traditional communities (see

Table1).

Table1Listofsuburbsinvestigatedandtraditionalcommunities(asteriskindicatescommunitieswithaWATSANgroupestablished)

Suburb Traditionalcommunities Men Women1. Apperkon Apet)Kopey

VotiKpegloKopeyMagbagyaAdamteyKopey

3 3 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 3

2. Zongo Zongo(translatesto‘Muslimsettlement’)

4 3

3. Bletum* Bletum* 2 4

4. Djabletey Djabletey 2 4

5. Matetse Apetechi*KponkpoMatetse

2 4 4 2 3 3

6. Salem Salem 3 3TOTAL 12 34 39

Source:FieldWork,2016

Table2Institutionalactorsinvestigatedorganizedbydatacollectionmethod

Actor Title Datacollectionmethod SexWaterResourcesCommission

WaterQualitySpecialist Semi-structuredinterview Female

GWCL Districthead–DodowaDistrict

Semi-structuredinterview Male

CWSA ExtensionServicesSpecialist

Semi-structuredinterview Female

Electedassemblymember AkokuanorElectoralAreaAssemblyman


Electedassemblymember ApperkonElectoralAreaAssemblyman


Electedassemblymember WedokumElectoralAreaAssemblywoman

Semi-structuredinterview Female

Electedassemblymember OdumseElectoralArea Semi-structuredinterview MaleWaterAid(NGO) ProgrammeManager–

South&ProgrammeOfficers

Semi-structuredinterview Male&Female

ProNET(NGO) Director Semi-structuredinterview Male

19

WaterresourcesCommission

Waterextractionpermits

Narrativewalk Male

GWCL DodowaBoosterStation Narrativewalk MaleShai-OsudokuDA HeadofWorks NarrativeWalk Male

Source:FieldWork,20164.3.2Interviews

My partners at T-GroUP arranged to have a research assistant and a local driver on hand to

provide translationservicesandknowledgeof thecommunityboundarieswithineachsuburb.

Together,wewouldfirstvisiteachsuburbandwalktheboundariesofthesub-communitiestoget

anideaofthesizeandlayoutofeachcommunity.Basedonthesizeandlayoutofeachcommunity,

intervieweeswererandomlyselected,whileensuringrepresentationfromtheperipheralareasof

thecommunity,aswellasthecenter.Wealsotriedtoequallytargetadiversesetofrespondents,

menandwomenacrossarangeofages.Sixopen-endedinterviewsof30-45minutesinlength

wereconductedineachcommunity.

Guidingquestionswerepreparedtoensuresomeorganizationalcontinuitytothesemi-structured

interviews. A typical interview began with questions regarding the water context in each

communityandaskedwhatare thepriorityprojects for improvementordevelopment.As the

interviews progressed, the interviewee was prompted to describe the community structure,

activegroupsinthecommunityandhowtheyinteractedwithformalandinformalauthoritiesin

thecommunityandforwhatpurposes.Themaingoalofthesecondphaseoftheinterviewwas

togainanunderstandingofhowtheintervieweesawthemselvesasacontributortocommunity

developmentprojects(e.g.groundwaterdevelopment).Thesecondphaseoftheinterviewalso

attempted to describe where the perceived burden of responsibility lies with regards to

communitydevelopment,especiallyforgroundwaterandimprovedsanitationprojects.

Thelastphaseoftheinterviewwasabouttheroleofauthoritiesinthecommunities.Inanattempt

tounderstandtherolesofthetraditionalleadership(chiefandhiscabinet)andtheroleofthe

local government (the assemblymember) in the community, I inquired about the types of

problemsorconcerns thatwouldgenerallybebrought to theattentionofeitherauthority. In

ordertoteaseoutanydiscrepancybetweenwhatintervieweessaidandwhattheyhaveactually

done, I tried inquiringabouttheprevioustimethe intervieweehadbroughtan issuetoeither

20

authority.Ithenprobedintowhichauthoritiesareinvolvedincommunitydevelopmentprojects,

waterandsanitationandotherwise.

Detailed notes were taken for interviews that were translated from Ga and Dangme.Where

permissionwasgranted,interviewsconductedinEnglishwererecorded,otherwisedetailednotes

weretaken.

To complement the community interviews, we also conducted interviews with two

representatives from GWCL, four assemblymen/women, two active NGOs focusing onWASH

development in the Shai-Osudoku district, one representative from the CWSA and two

representatives fromtheWRC (SeeTable2,p.18).Guidingquestionswereprepared for semi-

structuredinterviewswithassemblymen/women,CWSA&theNGOs.TheinterviewswithGWCL

andtheWRCweremoreinformal.

4.3.3Secondarydatasources

Throughoutthisresearchprocess,IreviewedthemostrecentcensusreportfortheShai-Osudoku

districtandvariousreportsissuedbytheGhanaiangovernmentanddonorgroupstogainabetter

understanding of the context in Dodowa. For example, statistics on English language skills,

educationlevels,ratesofaccesstopotablewaterandimprovedsanitationwereimportantdata

to keep in mind throughout all phases of the research to help in interpreting and analyzing

interviewresponses.

4.4Limitations

Wetriedtoselectanequalnumberofmaleandfemaleintervieweesineachcommunity,butthis

was not always possible. Itwas difficult to findmen to interview at times, sincemost of our

interviews were conducted during working hours. The prepared guiding questions offered a

consistentdegreeofstructuretoeachinterview.Semi-structuredinterviewsprovidethepotential

to collect information in greater detail and depth, as compared to other interviewmethods.

However,thedepthanddetailofresponsesvariesdependingonthenatureoftheinterviewee

andhowmuchinformationtheyarewillingtodivulge.Thischallengewasalsointensifieddueto

language and cultural barriers,which affectedhow comfortable interviewees felt in providing

informationtoarelativestranger.

21

We attempted on many occasions to organize an interview with the Shai-Osudoku district

assemblyofficeronthewaterandsanitationteam,butshewasnotwillingtomeetwithus.She

could have provided valuable information on WATSAN group development and community

engagementinWASHdevelopmentprojectsintheDodowaarea.

4.5Ethics

When I approached potential interviewees to take part inmy research, I was very careful to

explaintothemwhoIwas,whereIcamefromandthepurposesofmyresearch.Inparticular,I

madesuretobetransparentthatIcouldoffernocompensationfortheirtime.Imadesureto

allowtimeforthemtoaskmeanyquestions.Idecided,priortoconductingmyfieldwork,thatI

wouldmaintainanonymityofmysubjectsandIwassuretoletthemknowthis.

22

5.Findings

5.1DataAnalysis

Basedon the results frommy fieldwork, the literature reviewofdemocratizationandpolitical

ecology, I developed an analytical framework (See Appendix I) which guided coding of the

interviews.Basedonthisanalysis,Iwasabletoteaseoutthefollowingfindings.

5.2Actorsinparticipatorygovernance

5.2.1ThemultipleactorsinvolvedinwaterandsanitationgovernanceinDodowa

Dodowa, likeanyperi-urbancity finds itself ina jurisdictionalgreyareawhen it comes to the

institutions involved in water governance. The GhanaWater Company Limited (GWCL) is the

urbanwaterproviderandtheCommunityWaterandSanitationAgency(CWSA)ischargedwith

providingwaterandsanitationtoruralandsmalltowns(CommunityWater&SanitationAgency,

n.d.;Whitfield,2006).BothbodiesareactiveinDodowa,asthereisatleastoneaccesspointfor

GWCLwater(standpipe,tap)inmostcommunitiesinperi-urbanDodowa.Figure5(p.23)offers

asimplifiedvisualizationofthewatergovernancestructureinGhana,indicatingtheactorsinthe

public,privateandcivilsocietyandtheover-archinginfluenceofNGOsandforeignaid.Forthe

purposes of the scope of this paper, not all relevant governmentministries and agencies are

describedinthefigure.Foreignaidisanimportantfactorinwatergovernance.Inparticular,the

WorldBank/IMFhasplayedasignificantroleinover-seeingthedecentralizationprocessinGhana,

aswellasmediatingtheintroductionofprivatesectorinvolvementinthewatersector(Agyenim

&Gupta,2010;Whitfield,2006).NGOsplayasignificantroleinfinancingandsupportingwater

andsanitationprojectsatvariouslevelsofsociety(national,regional,local)andscales.TheCWSA

reliesontheinvolvementoftheprivatesectortoconductgeohydrologicalsurveys,digboreholes

andconductcommunityengagement,mobilizationandeducationforallWATSANprojects.Atthe

district level, the DA also has a water and sanitation team, which is tasked with supporting

WATSANcommunitiesandcarry-outthedistrictlevelWASHplan(FieldWork,2016).

23

Figure5Public,privateandcivilsocietyactorsinthewaterandsanitationsectorinGhana,whichcanallbeinfluencedbyfundingfromforeignaidandNGOs.GWCLisjointlyrunasapublic-privatepartnership(PPP).Source:FieldWork,2016.

5.3Democratizationandresponsiveness(politicalvoice)

In general, most community members conceive of the of the assemblymember and MP as

authorities that should solve major problems in the community, but many feel as though

approachingtheassemblymemberwiththeirproblemswillbeinvain,sotheyeitherchooseto

keeptheirproblemstothemselvesortheyaddresstheirconcernstotheassemblymemberorMP,

while admitting that their problemsare rarely resolved (SeeAppendix II, Table2).Otherwise,

pressingcommunityissuesaresometimesdiscussedininformalgroupdiscussions,butmostfeel

powerlesstosolvetheproblemofalackofpublictoilets,forexample,withouthelpfromoutside

thecommunity(fromassemblymembers,DAorNGO),especiallyfinancialhelp.

Itseemsthateverydayproblems,issuesofcrime,marriagesandfuneralsfallundertheauspiceof

the traditional leadership. The role of the traditional leadership seems to be more of what

Westernwelfaresystemswouldrefertoasasocialworker(FieldWork,2016).Historically,dueto

the shift in religious beliefs away from traditional spiritualism to Christianity throughout

“Thearenasinwhichpeopleperceivetheirinterestsandjudgewhethertheycanexpress

themarenotneutral.Participationmaytakeplaceforawholerangeofunfreereasons”

(White,1996).

24

colonization and the introduction of an independent government following colonization, the

influenceofchiefshasdiminished(Gough,1999).Waterandsanitationdevelopmentandbroader

developmentissuessuchasemployment,ontheotherhand,fallundertheauspiceofthedistrict

assemblymemberandlocalgovernment(Fieldwork,2016).

Thatbeingsaid,whentheassemblymember,MPorDAwantstoholdacommunitymeetingor

makeanannouncement,thechiefisinvolvedtocallthemeetingandtoplayanadvisoryroleas

tothethe issues inhiscommunityandthe individualsthatcanbecalledupontohelpforany

particularproject.Thetraditionalgong-gong(atraditionalbellusedtogatherthecommunityfor

ameetingwiththechief)isusedtocallanimportantmeetingwiththechiefandassemblymember

orMP.Otherwise,thecalltomeetisannouncedviatheinformationcenterormobileinformation

vanoveraloud-speaker(FieldWork,2016).

It should be noted that not all pressing development issues in Dodowa have remained

unaddressed(e.g.electrification,wellconstruction).Traditionalleadersandthelocalgovernment

tendtoshowgreaterpresenceduringelectioncampaigns,whenfundinghasbeensourcedfora

particular development project or due to particular personal dedication to leadership and

engagementfromthepartofthetraditionalleaderorgovernmentauthority.

Forexample,most interviewees inApet)Kopeymentioned the improvedelectrificationat the

mainmarketplaceinDodowa.Thecommunitysuccessfullylobbiedwiththeassemblymanand

TextBox1.ChieftaincyandtraditionalleadershipinDodowa

Insomecommunities,thecommunitychiefhasdiedandthecommunityiswaitingforanewchief

tobeappointed.Thatbeingsaid,notallcommunitieshaveachief.Whenthechiefdies,thereis

aninterimperiodtodecideontheappointmentofanewchief,whichwouldbedonebyprominent

traditional leaders inthecommunity(eldersandroyalfamily).ThechiefinApet)Kopey,Kpeglo

KopeyandSalemhasdiedandnoknewchiefhasbeenappointed.ThechiefinApetechiisveryold,

soanelderhasbeenappointed tostand inhisplace temporally. In the Zongocommunity, the

particular leaders thatare important for theMuslim communityare the Imamand the Imam’s

assistant.It isunclearfromthefindingshowlosingachiefinacommunityaffectswillingnessto

participate,butitremovesacommunicationlinebetweencommunitymembersandanauthority

figure,wherebynegativelyimpactingpoliticalvoice.

25

chieftomovethisprojectalong.Theassemblymanhelpedorganizeamushroomfarminggroup

inVotiaftercomplaintsaboutunemployment.Thereareon-goingpublictoiletprojectsinApet)

Kopey, Kponkpo, Djabletey, Bletum and the neighbouring community to Salem (Manya).

However,intervieweesfromMagbagyaandApet)Kopeyexplicitlyexpressedthattheresolution

ofproblemsthatareelevatedfromthecommunitytothelocalgovernmentorchiefcandepend

ontheeffectivenessoftheseauthorities.Inparticular,anintervieweefromMagbagyaexplained

that the previousMP had not been helpful, but that the currentMP is helpful in supporting

schooling,youthandemployment.

Thosethathaveapersonalconnectiontoauthoritiesalsoexpressedmorecomfortinapproaching

andpraisefortraditionalleadersandlocalauthorities.Forexample,oneintervieweefromVoti,

whenaskedwhat communitymemberswhodon’t have a closepersonal connectionwith the

assemblymandowhentheyhaveaproblem,sheresponded,“theyjustkeepquietbythemselves”

(Interview2,Voti,February10,2016).Further,inspeakingwiththeyouthleaderinApet)Kopey,

hehadalotofpraisefortheassemblymanandwasproudtosaythattheassemblymanwasfrom

this part of Apperkon and proudly pointed out the new public toilet project, whichwas also

awarded to this community inApperkon (Interview3,Apet)Kopey, February26, 2016). Thus,

thereisacertaindegreeofclientelismatplayinDodowa,meaningthatresidentswithpersonal

tiestotraditionalleadersandthelocalgovernmentspeakmorehighlyoftheauthoritiesandfeel

asthoughtheirconcernsarepoliticallyrepresented.

Interviewees praised the assemblymember in communities, where a public project was

underway, but simultaneously stated that overall the local government is unresponsive and

unsupportive in communities the vast majority of the time. In an interview in the Salem

community, an interviewee explained how the community feels paralyzed to take on any

initiativeswhentheassemblymandoesnotcallthecommunitytogether.

“He is supposed to be the assemblyman, he has to initiate any moves for [community

meetings]…Wedon’thaveapublictoiletaroundhere.Ifyougotopeople’sfarmsaroundhere,

youseefecesallaround.Andhe’snotcoming.Heissupposedtocome,callameeting.Andthen

you have issues, you discuss about problems in the community. And he’s not coming, so

everybody’ssittingdownlookingathim”(Interview5,Salem,February18,2016).

26

5.4Transparent,justandaccountabledemocraticprocess

5.4.1Transparentgovernance

Withregardstothe issueofsanitation,public toiletsprojectsarenotbroughttocommunities

basedsolelyonaneedsbasis.Landownershavethepowertoselectthelocationoftheallotment

onwhichtobuildapublictoilet.InaninterviewwiththeassemblymanofApperkon,heexplained

thecontextsurroundingthesuddensurgeinfundingforpublictoiletsinDodowa.Inconnection

toWorld Toilet Day, the government in conjunctionwith NGOsworking in theWASH sector

organized to bring funding and materials for the construction of KVIPs (Kumasi Ventilated

ImprovedPit)(SeeFigure

6) to communities in

Dodowa. He then

explained how a family

that has been living in

the area for 30 years

neededtobebroughton

board to address the

issuetothelandowners

of the Apperkon area,

whoresideoutsideofthe

community.

“Quickly,weneededtomoveforland.Soaccordingto[thisfamily],they’vebeenintheareafor

over30yearsascare-takers.Ineededtoorganizeataxiforthemtogoandseetheactualland

ownersoftheland,sowecangetaportionofit.Ibelievedthatthefacilitycouldbebroughtto

thearea.So I [consultedthefamily]andthentheywenttotheownersand[the landowners]

finallyagreedthattheywillcomedownandthengiveaportion,soatleastwecanhavetheproject

inthearea”(ApperkonAssemblymaninterview,February12,2016).

ItisimportanttonotethatthelocationofthelandselectedforthepublictoiletisintheApet)

KopeycommunityofApperkon,which justsohappenstoalsobethecommunity inwhichthe

assemblyman spent his childhood (Interview 5, February 29, 2016). This suggests that the

Figure6ExampleofaKVIP.PVCpipingventsthelatrinepittoreducesmellandflies.

27

assemblyman has political sway to guide and influence the deliberative process with the

‘community care-takers’ and the land owners to select an area of land within his preferred

community,basedsomewhatonpatronagethenpureneedforsanitation.

5.4.2Justgovernance

Interviewees identified key governance processes and outcomes that demonstrate that

communitygovernanceinDodowaisunjust(seeAppendixIII).Firstly,thereisageneralsensethat

women feel excluded from deliberations, decision-making and leadership roles within the

community.Severalwomenspokeaboutfeelingexcludedfromdeliberationsanddecision-making

inthecommunity.Forexample,agroupofwomeninKpegloKopey,whenaskediftheycouldsee

themselvesbeinginvolvedinaWATSANcommittee,respondedthattheysimplycouldn’tinclude

themselvesinsuchacommittee.AnotherwomanfromtheBletumcommunityexplicitlystated

thatwomenarenotseenasdecision-makers.Sheclarifiedthatitisnotthatwomencannotplay

a contributing role in a community project, but the men will decide how the women can

contribute.

Ininstanceswherewomenareengagedinthecommunity,suchasthewomenontheWATSAN

committeeinApetechi,theyfeelthatiftheyweretoreachouttothecommunitytoorganizea

WASHeducationcommunitymeeting,onlywomenwouldattend.Thiswouldsuggestthatwomen

arenotseenaslegitimateleaders.Infact,intheentiredistrictofShai-Osudoku,outof21elected

assemblymembers, only 2 women were elected in the 2015 district level elections (Electoral

Commission of Ghana, n.d.). That being said, when the assemblywoman of the Wedokum

electoralarea(wheretheMatestesuburbislocated)wasaskedwhyshethinksagreaterdiversity

of community members don’t approach her, she stated, “I feel like maybe I’m too high or

something. It’s not everybody who comes to me” (Wedokum Assemblywoman interview,

February18,2016).Thus,electedofficials,maleorfemale,stillcarryacertaindegreeofprestige

andpower.

Several interviewees complained about unemployment or underemployment in Dodowa,

especiallyyoungmen.Thisislinkedtocommunitymember’sabilitytopaythetariffsforGWCL

water.WhilemanyintervieweesrankedtherelativeimportanceofthecostofGWCLwaterlower

thanconsistentaccessordistancetoaccesspoint,manyintervieweesmentionedtherecenthike

28

inGWCLtariffs,indicatingthatthefinancialburdenofGWCLwaterisimportantforcommunity

membersinDodowa.Thefinancialburdenofwaterisexacerbatedbythefactthatmostofthe

groundwaterinDodowaissaline,whichmakesitunsuitableforwashingclothes(difficulttolather

soap),whichforcescommunitymemberstopurchase(treated)GWCLwaterforthispurpose.

Women from the Magbagya and Djabletey communities emphasized that the current water

governancesysteminDodowacatersmoretothosewhohaveahouseholdconnectiontoGWCL

waterandarefinanciallyabletoshoulderthetariffs.Therealityisthatthesecommunitieswill

likelyseeverylittleextensionoftheGWCLwaternetwork,asemphasizedbyaProgramManager

ofWaterAid,“thetruthisthatthere’snowayGWCLisgoingtoextendthoselines”(WaterAid

interview, March 3, 2016), which only heightens the importance of groundwater access in

Dodowa.

PerhapsthemoststrikinginjusticeatplayinDodowaistheissueoftherighttoleadership.As

described in section 5.4.2, numerous interviewees mentioned how abandoned they felt by

traditional leaders and local government. It would appear that once the assemblymember is

elected,forexample,itwouldbeinappropriateforothercommunitymemberstotakeinitiative

without the support of the assemblymember.An interviewee fromSalemexpressed this very

clearly,“Ifyouaren'tanofficialrepresentativeofthepeople,ifyoutookinitiative,youwouldbe

callednamesbecauseyouaretryingtotakesomeone's job” (Interview5,Salem,February18,

2016).Thepowertoleadisconsolidatedwithinthepurviewoftheelectedassemblymember.This

consolidationofpowerisfurtherexemplifiedbythethenumerousintervieweeswho,ontheone

hand,expressdiscontentwiththecommunityleadership,andontheother,stillnominatethese

sameineffectiveleaderstoleadapotentialcommunitydevelopmentcommittee,likeaWATSAN

committee.OneintervieweefromtheZongocommunitycapturedthisdualityrathersuccinctly:

“[Therearea lotofpolitics inthearea.]“Wouldbenice if Isaidthe Imamorassemblyman.[I

would prefer if a committeewere appointed from someone from the outside]” (Interview 1,

Zongo,February11,2016).

Thus,thepoliticsoftherelationshipbetweencommunitymembersand leadershipcandictate

who is included in a communitydevelopment committee. Further, linesof authoritybetween

29

communitymembersandleadersarereinforced,notnecessarilybyeffectiveleadership,butby

perhapssocio-cultural-politicalnormsthatdrawtheselinesinthefirstplace(FieldWork,2016).

5.4.2Accountablegovernance–Theissueofsanitation

In many ways, the accountability of the democratic process in Dodowa is linked to just and

transparentgovernanceandgovernancethatexpandslocalpoliticalvoice.Thelackofa‘placeof

convenience’ in the peri-urban communities of Dodowa is mentioned by almost every

interviewee.Piecingtogethersnippetsofinterviewresponsesontheissueoftoiletshelpedpaint

averycomplexpictureofthepoliticizationofperi-urbansanitation.Threeinterestingmainpoints

wereraised:

1. Public-householdtoiletdebate

2. Thecaseoftheprivately-builtpublictoiletsinApetechi

3. Governmentinvolvementinlandacquisitionforpublictoilets

5.4.2.1Public-householdtoiletdebatePeri-urban Dodowa is largely dependent on public toilets, however, there is an insufficient

capacityofexistingfacilitiestomeetthedemandsofthecurrentpopulation.Usersmustpayfor

publictoilets,whichwasmentionedbyafewintervieweesasbeingaburden,especiallyforthe

elderly or those sick with diarrhea (FieldWork, 2016). However, simply expanding the hard-

infrastructurecapacityofpublictoiletfacilitiesincommunitiesisnottheonlysolution.

Planning policy in Ghana requires that new houses have a toilet facility and encourages

behavioural change to drive household investment in latrine construction. This policy shift

resultedfromafailedgovernmentpolicy,whichofferedpartialsubsidiestohouseholdswhohad

beguninvestinginahouseholdtoiletfacility.Thebeneficiariesofthispolicywerenotthosemost

dependentonpublicorsharedtoiletfacilitiesandinsomecases,grantedsubsidieswerenoteven

used to complete a household toilet project. Current government policy involves no formal

household subsidies, but is centered around behavioural change towards sanitation (CWSA

interview,March2,2016).Infact,indatacollectedbytheJointMonitoringProgrammeforWater

SupplyandSanitation(JointMonitoringProgramme[JMP],2015)onimprovementsinwaterand

sanitation access between 1990-2015, based on urban and rural country-level data inGhana,

30

Ghana is heavily reliant on shared sanitation facilities and access to improved sanitation lags

behindwateraccessinbothurbanandruralareas(seeTable3,4).Thiscomplementsobservations

fromDodowainthatthedevelopmentprojectsofdrinkingwateraccess(andwaterusedforother

domesticpurposes)andaccesstoimprovedsanitationarenotgivenequalfocusandsuggeststhat

thebarrierstomakinggainsinsanitationaccessaregreaterthanthatforwateraccess.

Table3SanitationcoverageestimatesinGhanabetween1990-2015

Ghana

Sanitationcoverageestimates

Urban(%) Rural(%) Total(%)

1990 2015 1990 2015 1990 2015

Improvedfacilities 13 20 4 9 7 15Sharedfacilities 46 73 20 45 29 60Otherunimproved 31 0 47 12 42 6Opendefecation 10 7 29 34 22 19Source:JMP,2015

Table4DrinkingwateraccessinGhanabetween1990-2015

GhanaDrinkingwatercoverageestimates

Urban(%) Rural(%) Total(%)

1990 2015 1990 2015 1990 2015

Pipedontopremises 41 32 2 3 16 19Otherimprovedsource 43 61 37 81 40 70Otherunimproved 8 7 11 8 9 7Surfacewater 8 0 50 8 35 4Source:JMP,2015

31

5.4.2.2Thecaseofprivately-builtpublictoiletsinApetechi

Most intervieweesinApetchispokeaboutanewprivately-builtpublictoiletfacility inApetchi,

which was now the only public facility available for this community (Field Work, 2016). We

specifically asked around the community to speak with the owners of this new facility to

investigatewhathadmotivatedtheconstructionofnotonlyabucketflushtoiletfacility,butalso

thediggingofaboreholetosupplythewaterforthefacility.Theowner’swifetookthetimeto

speakwithus.Shewasveryhesitanttospeakwithus,sinceherhusbandbadbeenapproached

many times by the district assembly to properly register the public toilet facilitywith theDA

(Interview3, February 16, 2016). TheDAmost likely took an interest in this issue due to the

sharingofrevenuesbetweenpublictoiletmanagersandDAs.However,thispoliticalmovewas

viewed by the owners as unfair, as they had privately invested their own money in the

constructionofthefacility.Thistypeofpoliticallymotivatedgovernmentharassmentcoulddeter

any future privately funded public toilet construction. It should be noted that Apetechi

communitymemberseitherdidnotbelievethatthecostforusingthesepublictoiletswasunfair

or that itwas anyhigher than typical government financedpublic toilet facilities (FieldWork,

2016).Thus,thereisnotonlyalackoftransparencyinpublic-privatepartnershipsforsanitation,

but also the policy surrounding this arrangementwould tend to preclude alternative funding

arrangements,whichcouldextendmoresanitationaccesstocommunitiesinDodowa.

5.4.2.3GovernmentinvolvementinlandacquisitionforpublictoiletsAs demonstrated throughout this section, the vast majority of interviewees expect the local

governmenttosolvetheirpracticalproblems,likethatoflackofimprovedsanitation.Anelected

unitcommitteememberintheKpegloKopeycommunityexplainedthatthecurrentMPhadtried

TextBox2.ThePoliticsofPublicToilets

Current government policy has contracted out management and maintenance of public toilet

facilities to ‘local businesses’.However, the process of awarding these contracts has not been

transparent.Publictoiletcontractsarealucrativebusinessesasurbanandperi-urbanresidents

are so heavily dependent on this formof sanitation access. Theprofits frompublic toilets are

sharedwiththelocaldistrictassembly.Oftenthelocalbusinessesthatholdapublictoiletcontract

havebeenawardedthemasaformofpatronagefromlocalgovernment(Crook&Ayee,2006;

Osumanuetal.,2010).

32

to propose a new public-private arrangement to bringmore public toilets to communities in

Dodowa.Hisproposedarrangementwouldhaveprivate landownersoffer landonwhich, the

government would construct a public toilet facility. Those that offered the land and the

maintainerswouldreceiveanannualcompensation.However,nooneofferedlandforfearthat

people wouldn’t feel obliged to pay for use of public toilets, since the government was less

involvedintheproject(FieldWork,2016).Itwouldappearthattwoissuesareatplayhere.Firstly,

insecureorunclearlandownershipisadisincentivetoofferingland,sincemuchofthelandin

Apperkonisownedbyafamilyresidingoutsidethisarea.Secondly,thelocalgovernmentdoes

nothaveastronghistoryofaccountabilityinDodowa,soitisdoubtfulthatannualcompensation

wouldnecessarilybedelivered.Onthesurface,theMPsinitiativeseemslikeagoodidea,butuntil

land rights are secured and greater trust is earned from practicing accountable governance,

communitiesinDodowaarenotverylikelytocomeonboardforsuchaproject.

33

6.Discussion

6.1Impedingfactorstodemocratization-Structural,institutionalorpolicybarriersto

democratization

6.1.2Adevelopmentpolicytoenergizelatentcommunityengagement?Both the CWSA and WaterAid emphasized that the approach to water and sanitation

developmentinaperi-urbancitylikeDodowaiscommunityownershipandmanagement(seetext

Box4)anddevelopmentfromwithinorendogenouscommunitydevelopment(seeTextbox3,p.

39).Thisstyleofcommunitydevelopmentisdependentongarneringcommunityengagement,

but, this is an up-hill battle against thewidely-held expectation that the local government or

GWCLshouldbemoreinvolvedintheprovisionofwaterandsanitationservices.However,various

othercomplexdynamicsatplayinperi-urbancommunitiesmakethisapproachfarlesssuccessful,

ascompared to ruralcommunities (seeTable5 forasummaryofallbarriers to implementing

COMinDodowa,p.35).“Thecloserthecommunitygetstourban,themoredifficultitgets.In

peri-urbanareas,thedynamicbeginstochange”(WaterAidinterview,March3,2016).Ifonlythe

keytotranslatingendogenouscommunitydevelopmentisfound,itpromisesto“[empower]the

peopletofight,toleadortakeinitiativesabouthowtheycanbettertheWASHsituation(WaterAid

interview,March3,2016).

TextBox3.EndogenousCommunityDevelopmentApproach

“Developmentthatcomesfromwithin.Soyougointoacommunityandyoumakethe

people realize that [they] have the resources [they] need, whether it’s human or

capital…[they]havesomethingthat[they]canusetostartbeforemaybeoutsidehelpwill

come”(WaterAidinterview,March3,2016).

TextBox4.CommunityownershipandManagement

“Underrural[andsmall town]watersupply,theprinciple is communityownershipand

management…so thecommunityparticipates in theplanning, theconstructionand the

post-constructionphasesoftheproject”(CWSAinterview,March2,2016).

34

Keepingmindall of thesebarriers, community sensitization toWASH issues,mobilization and

engagementaroundtheconceptofownershipandmanagementthroughtheestablishmentof

WATSANcommitteesisstillbeingpushedasthebestwaythatWASHservicescanbeextendedto

communities in Dodowa (Field Work, 2016). Because underlying the government policy

advocatingforthisstyleofdevelopmentisacripplinglackoffundswithwhichtocarry-outthe

extensionofanyWASHservices,for“ifthereisnofunding,thereisnothingthat[thegovernment]

cando”(CWSAinterview,March2,2016).

ThefinitenatureofWASHprojectfundingnegativelyimpactslong-termsupporttocommunities

that are supposed to continue to operate and manage a borehole, for example, under

participatorycommunitygovernanceprocesses.Nodetectablesocialgainswereobservedinthe

study of Bletum and Apetechi. Albeit, that those residing closest to the borehole seemed to

benefitperhapsmoreoutofconvenience.Astheboreholesandpumpsinbothcommunitieshave

yettobreak-down,itremainstobeseenifmoneycollectedasinsurancehasbeenproperlysafe-

guarded for this purpose and if the community can independently source spare parts and a

technician (FieldWork,2016).Harvey&Reed (2007)questionwhetherornotparticipation in

watermanagementissustainable.Theyagreethatparticipationinwaterprovisionisinextricably

linkedtosustainability,butemphasizenumerousbarrierstoestablishingownershipandshared

interestsaroundawatersource.What ifparticipatorycommunitymanagement isn’tpossible?

Explorationofsmaller-scalecommunityownedandmanagedWASHinfrastructuresmaybemore

sustainableandsuitableinsomeinstances.Thesamelineofargumentationwouldapplytotoilet

facilities.

35

Table5SummaryofbarrierstoeffectivelyimplementingcommunityownershipandmanagementinDodowa

Barrieridentified

ExamplesfromDodowa

Nativevs.new-comer

“Therewillbepeoplethosewhoareindigenouswhoarereallynativetothatplace.Andtheywouldfeelthattheplaceistheirown.Theyfeelmoreownershipthantheothers”(WaterAidinterview,March3,2016).

Landownervs.renter

IfyoutaketheareaofApperkon,thesecommunitiesarehighlyreliantonpublictoilets,butareacutelyunder-served.Landownerswhoresideoutsidethecommunitylargelydecidewhereapublictoiletshouldbebuilt.

Patronage ManyintervieweesinDodowafeeldisconnectedfromtheassemblymembersandlocalchiefs.Thefewintervieweesthathadacloserrelationshipwiththeseleaderstendedtobespeakmorepositivelyoftheircontributiontotheircommunities.

Partypolitics “Weshoulddesistfrompartypoliticsandstickwithdevelopmentalpolitics.Becausewhenwearecenteredwithpartypolitics,webelieveinwhichparty’sbillingtheproject?Whichparty’sleadingtheproject,butnotwhoisbringingthedevelopment...Andthatisachallengeandahindrancetous”(Akokuanorassemblymaninterview,February18,2015).

Legitimacyofnewformsofleadership

InBletumandApetechi,theWATSANcommitteeshadfailedtoreachouttothewidercommunitytoengagetheminthemanagementoftheborehole,engagetheminWASHeducationmeetingsandsharetheknowledgefromtheWATSANreferencebook.IftheycalledaWATSANmeeting,onlywomenwouldcome.

Capacity “…iftheyexerciseusintryingtoaccessourproblemsandhowtheycanfixitforus,itwillhelpusalot,buttheydon’tdothat”(Interview2,KpegloKopey,February10,2016).

Genderedexclusion

Mostwomenfeelparticularlyunder-representedandexcludedfromdeliberatinganddecision-making.TheveryreasonthattheWATSANcommitteesaremostlywomenhastodowithapolicydirectivefromtheCWSA.

Exclusivegroups

Manycommunitiesmentionedmaleyouthgroupsthatwereactiveinthecommunityandafewcommunitiesmentionedvariousothergroupsthatoffersupportforoccasionalsocialevents.Thebenefitsofgroupactivitiesarelargelyreservedformembersonly.

Apathy Manyintervieweesexpresseddisillusionmentwithgovernanceduetounaccountability,unresponsivenessandanoverallgovernancesystemwhichsilencesthepoliticalvoiceofthosemostinneed.


36

6.1.3Knowledge,democratization&powerLackof knowledgebetweenactorsat all levelsof governance is an issue inDodowa,which is

reinforced by power distances as has been discussed throughout this thesis. Enhancing

communicationbetweenall actors is essential tobetterunderstand the causes andeffectsof

ineffective,unjustandcorruptdevelopmentpracticesinthewaterandsanitationsector.Johari’s

Window(seeFigure7,p.37)canhelpidentifyentrypointsintowhatquestionsshouldbeasked

toactorsbasedonwhatisknownandunknown(Mefalopulos&Kamlongera,2004).Thiswilllead

toabetterunderstandingofdifferentperceptions,understandingsandoutlookonwhatcouldbe

abettergovernancearrangementorpolicy.

Participationcanreducethediscretionoflocalgovernmentstoisolatedecision-makingprocesses

and also dictate the type of information that is shared with citizens and the regularity of

communitymeetings(Speer,2012).Generatingsalientknowledgebasedonwhatgovernments

know, thepolicies thatare inplaceandhowtheyareenforced;whatcommunities identifyas

priorities, how policies resonate with their priorities and how these two knowledge sources

interactisimportant.

Therearepower structures inplace thatmaintain knowledgediscordsbetweenactors,which

havebeenpresentedthroughoutthisthesis.Johari’sWindowasananalyticaltoolhelpstoidentify

differentknowledgeholdersandtherelationshipbetweenactors(seeFigure7,p.37).APolitical

ecologylenscanhelprevealtheincentivesanddisincentivesforenhancingknowledgetransfer

andcommunication in thewaterandsanitationsector (e.g.Bakker,Kooy,Shofiani,&Martijn,

2008). In a just, transparent, responsive governance system that celebrates active political

participation,openknowledge(salientknowledge)shouldbedominant.Speer(2012)andHarvey

&Reed(2007)summarizesfurtherparticipatorygovernancereformsthatcanenhanceknowledge

sharingandcontributetoparticipatorygovernancethatdeliversthepromiseofhandingpower

backtothepeople.Thesereformshavehaddifferentgovernanceoutcomes,dependingonthe

casestudied:

• Participatorybudgeting

• Participatoryplanning

37

• Participatoryoversightingovernmentspendinginlinewithpriorities

But,thefinancialhealthoflocalgovernmentsstillplaysasignificantroleintheeffectivenessof

these participatory processes, eluding to the solution that devolution of central government

resources and control must also accompany decentralization of the institutional structure of

government(Francis&James,2003;Olowu&Wunsch,2004;Speer,2012).

OpenKnowledge

Whatweknow&whattheyknow

⇒ Saliency–e.g.localgovernmentand

communitiesagreethatlackofpublic

andhouseholdtoiletsisadevelopment

priority(FieldWork,2016).

Theirhiddenknowledge

Whattheyknow&whatwedonotknow

⇒ Discord–e.g.thesuppressionofpolitical

voiceincommunitieslimitseffectiveness

ofparticipatoryarenastojustly

communicatecommunityneedsand

prioritiestoleaders(FieldWork,2016).

Ourhiddenknowledge

Whatweknow&theydonotknow

⇒ Discord–e.g.Thepluralityofactorsand

lackofover-sightandcoordination

withinthewaterandsanitationsector

obfuscatesacommongoalandprocess

towardsachievingmoreeffective

participation(FieldWork,2016).

Blindness

Whatwedonotknowandtheydonotknow⇒ Unknown-Thereisalackofknowledge

onsuitableinstitutionalarrangements,

policiesandincentivestructurestobest

energizelatentparticipation.

Participationmayneithersufficenorbe

requiredtoachievemoreresponsive

governance,butmayoffergainsofsocial

equalityandjustice(Speer,2012).The

dominantparadigmofparticipatory

governancethroughCOMschemes

foreclosesexplorationofperhapsmore

suitablegovernanceinterventionscales

(e.g.household)(Harvey&Reed,2007).

Figure7Johari’sWindow–The4quadrantsofknowledgewithexamplesfromDodowa.Figureadaptedfrom:Mefalopulos&Kamlongera,2004.

6.2Futuredevelopmentpriorities

Power imbalances in development initiatives are hugely important for exploring why some

communitymembersfeelexcludedfromgovernanceandwhoisviewedasalegitimateauthority.

PriortotheCOMagendabeingpushedinDodowa,developmentwouldhavebeenbasedonthe

classic hardware-centric approach and government would have taken on the management

burdenofpublictoilets,forexample.Infact,itisnotthatlongagothatpublicpitlatrineswere

38

freeinGhana,priortothemid1980s(Osumanu,Abdul-Rahim,Songsore,&Mulenga,2010).Table

3(p.30)showstheimprovementinratesofaccesstosharedsanitationfacilitiesincreasedfrom

46to73percentinurbanareasandfrom20to45percentinruralareas.Itwouldappearthat

sanitationpolicysince1990hasprioritizedsharedorpublictoiletfacilities,drivingadeeperwedge

between(oftenricher)householdswithaccesstoahouseholdfacilityandthosewhomustdepend

on facilities thataredirty,haveanunder-capacityandoffera far-lessdignifiedway to relieve

oneself(JMP,2015a).

Ifthistrendcontinues,inequalitiesbetweenrichandpoorwillpersistandgrowinDodowaand

thesanitationcrisiscouldreachacriticalpoint,wheregroundwaterqualitybeginstobecritically

impacted by contamination from open defecation. Due to the importance of groundwater in

supplyingdomesticwaterandinsomecasesactingastheprimarydrinkingsource,contaminated

groundwatercouldcausedevastatingpublichealthconsequencesdowntheroad. Inanycase,

futuredevelopmentpathwaysinDodowamustbringsanitationdevelopmentuptoparwithwater

accessdevelopment.

6.3WATSANvs.Grassroots

WATSANcommitteesas thedominantway for communities to ‘avail’ themselves to theCOM

developmentstrategyarefraughtwithproblems.Thereisnoempiricalevidenceavailablethat

has shown that creation of newparticipatory arenas is a smooth process; this takes time for

communitymemberstoestablishnewrulesofthegame,asOstromwouldsay (Dongieretal.,

2003;Ostrom,1995).Further,on-goingsupportisparamountifnewparticipatoryspacesareto

persist,beeffectiveindelivering‘better’governancethanpreviousalternativesandcounteract

existingpowerstructuresthattendtosilencelocalvoicesandprotectthestatusquo.Whathas

unfoldedinDodowaisnotunique,asmostperi-urbanandurbanCOMdevelopmentprojectshave

failedinmanyaspects.WhattheCOMdevelopmentapproachhasnotbeenabletoovercomeis

that, inmanyways, to achieve successwould require amyriadof positive contextual factors:

strong,compassionateleadershipbeyondcurrentlinesofauthority,aculturalshiftinaccepting

theroleoftheengagedcitizenandthedevelopmentoftrustingovernanceagain.Theveryidea

of COM projects is rather romantic, but is it actually feasible? Is it more sustainable than

grassrootsalternatives?

39

6.3.1Instancesofcommunityorganizationatthegrassrootslevel

There is some evidence that community members in Dodowa can come together around a

common priority. Various grassroots collective action has been organized around community

projects inDodowa(SeeAppendix IV).Ofnote isagroupof landlordsthatcametogether ina

cornerofthecommunityinApetechitoraisemoneytoinstallelectricitypoles,sotheelectricity

companycanconnectthecommunitytothegrid.Theintervieweethatmentionedthisgroupalso

saidthehedoesnottakepartwhentheymeetbecauseheonlyrentsahouseinthearea,thushe

wouldn’t invest in such a project (Interview 6, February 19, 2016). Again, the issue of land

ownershipisraisedasabarriertocommunityengagement.

With regards to water, the communities of Voti and Djabletey both organized to build a

communitywellandorganizecommunityfundraisingforwhenthewellneedsdiggingout.With

regardstosanitation,onewomanexplainedhowanelderlywomaninaneighbouringcommunity

hadsuccessfullybroughttogetheragroupofpeopletobuildapublictoilet(Interview2,February

10, 2016). Similarly, another interviewee commented that if an individual in Apetechi could

constructapublictoiletfacility,thenthegovernmentshouldalsobeabletodoit(Interview3,

February16,2016).Thisshowsthatnoteveryoneinacommunitymayseethevalueinengaging

aroundtheissueofsanitationbecausetheyexpectthistobecarriedoutbythegovernment,but

grassrootssanitationprovisionhasbeensuccessfulandmaybeapromisingalternativetotop-

downdirectedparticipatory governance. Top-downmediatedWASHparticipatory governance

policysuggeststhatcommunitiesare incapableofself-organizationaroundcollectiveactionto

sustainacommonpoolresource,even inthefaceofmanyexamplestothecontrary(Ostrom,

1990). For example, communities in peri-urban Dar es Saalam have successfully rallied and

becomekey governanceplayers indevelopingwater infrastructure in theunder-served fringe

areasofthecapitalcity(Kyessi,2005).

Itmaybepossibletoover-comecommunitydivisions,asoneintervieweeinKpegloKopeyclearly

stated“Aroundthisarea,perse,wearenotcooperative”(Interview1,February10,2016),which

wasalsoechoedbyanintervieweeinApet)Kopey,“Atthemomentwearenotunited.”Thesame

interviewee then concluded that “…reconciliation can come…and thenwe go aheadwith our

40

development" (Interview 6, February 29, 2016). This suggests that barriers to sustained self-

organizationcanbeover-comeinsomecases.

6.3.2Thepotentialofagrassrootsmovementaroundwaterandsanitation

Grassroots initiatives should not be over-looked as an alternative to COM development.

Grassrootsorganizations canplayan important role in sustainingandexpandinggroundwater

access.Grassrootsinitiativesareformedaroundacross-cuttingissuethataffectsmostresidents,

thusthe issueofwaterandsanitationwouldbefertilegroundonwhichagrassroots initiative

could grow (Dongier et al., 2003;Mitlin, 2008). Exclusive groups exist in the communities in

Dodowa.Amajorstepinscalingupthesecommunity-basedorganizations(CBOs)wouldbeifthey

begantocollaborateandestablishnetworksoforganizationsalongsharedissues(Dongieretal.,

2003).Thiscanbeencouragedbylocal leaders,NGOsorinstitutionalsupport.Heighteningthe

presenceandactivityofnetworksofCBOscanawaken latentcivicengagementandoffernew

avenuesofknowledgesharing (Gaventa&Barrett,2012) Importantly,communitymembers in

Dodowaidentifieddevelopmentprioritiesbeyondwaterandsanitation.Civicmobilizationshould

befreetomobilizeorganicallyandnotsolelyaroundtheissuesofwaterandsanitation.

Forgrassroots initiatives tobesuccessful,access to resourcesneeds tobesecuredwithinand

beyond the community. Knowledge in navigating complex bureaucracies and playing a more

directroleinsourcingandgeneratingcommunalfundswouldbreakdependenceonclassiclines

ofauthority(Gaventa&Barrett,2012;Mitlin,2008).Thegreatestcontributionthatactorsfrom

beyond thecommunitycouldgivewouldbe toallowcommunitymembers tounderstandand

accesstheskills,resourcesandknowledgethatresideinanycommunity(Ostrom,1990,p.27).

This would lead tomore effective ability to navigate the politics of community development

(Mitlin,2008).

6.4Developmentasexpandingcapabilities

6.4.1Sen’sdevelopment–developingcapabilities

Sen’s pioneering explorationof the root causes of famine shifted attention away frompurely

macro-economic causes. Sen’s ideasmarked the realization that theWorld Bank/IMF-style of

prescriptiveandrigiddevelopmentthroughstructuraladjustmentprogramsandfreemarketsof

41

the 70’s and 80’swas failing because it vastly over-simplified the root causes of poverty and

inequality(Fukuda-Parr,2003;Lamb,Varettoni,&Shen,2005).

The influence of Sen’s development approach has permeated much of the international

developmentphilosophicalfoundationsinthepost-structuraladjustmentera,butneitherlocal

economicdevelopmentalonenorlocalself-reliancealonehaveproventobeviableavenuesfor

achievingwidespreaddignifiedlivelihoods(Binns&Nel,1999;Gasper,2002).Sen’scapabilities

approachtodevelopmentbuildsfromanunderstandingthattheconceptofhumanwell-beingis

multi-facetedanditcanbebuilt-upfromexpandinghumancapabilities,whichleadto‘desirable

functionings’orimprovedlivelihoods(Bakkeretal.,2008).

Thecaseofpoororunequalwaterandsanitationaccess,cannotonlybeexplainedbythephysical

lack of water and sanitation infrastructure, but also by the interplay of social, economic and

politicalfactorsthatplayouttolimitaccesstowaterandsanitationinfrastructure(Bakkeretal.,

2008;Forsyth,2003,p.197).

Sen’s development is useful in approaching the complex nature of poverty and resource

inequalities, forexample,but it isnotprescriptive(Fukuda-Parr,2003).Astowhatwillexpand

capabilitiesatacertainplaceandpointintimeisdependentonthatverycontext,butSen’sideals

canactasaguidingforce(Robeyns,2003).

Buildingparticipatoryinstitutionsortriggeringgrassrootssocialmobilizationaroundwaterand

sanitation services, if successful, can lead to expanded human capabilities, wherein it is

understood that access to safe drinking water and improved sanitation is necessary to fully

participate in public life (Bakker, 2003). It can also be understood from Sen’s development

philosophythatsocialjusticecannotbeseparatedfromanydevelopmentissue(Nussbaum,2003)

andfurther,thatpreviousdevelopmentparadigmscenteredaroundstructuraladjustmentsand

neoliberalism have failed to produce more socially just development (Binns & Nel, 1999;

Whitfield,2006).

42

Importantly,forthepurposesofparticipatorygovernanceanalysis,understandingthatfullhuman

potentialcanbemetwhenpeopleareabletoaccesstheirfullsetofcapabilitiesandbasedon

this,becomemorefreetowaythecostsandbenefitsofcollectiveagency(Robeyns,2005).

Forgreatercommunityinvolvementinwaterandsanitationgovernance,whetherintheformof

COM or a grassroots initiative, development should be understood as expanding human

capabilities.Timespentaccessingwater,moneyspentpayingfortreatedwaterandtheindignity

andhealth implicationsofnoplaceofconveniencesuppresshumanpotential topursueother

livelihoodactivities.

Ifhumanbeingsaretoharnesstheirfullcapabilityset,thenbuildingcapacitiesforprogressive

leadershipandthepracticeofresponsive,transparent,justandaccountablegovernanceinother

sectorsbeyondwaterandsanitationwillre-buildtrustingovernanceprocesses.Thisbiggeststep

that the failed decentralized democracies of the Sub-Sahara could do to improve governance

wouldbetodecentralizebudgetcontrols,whilestillprovidingtransparencychecks,sothatlocal

governmentscanactuallyimplementandenforcepolicieseffectivelyandshowcommunitiesthat

governancehasnotfailedinAfrica.

AsDodowa continues to ‘deagrarianize’ andbecomemoredependenton cheap food imports

(Bryceson,2002),animportantaspectofexpandingcapabilitiescouldbetodevelopcommunity

micro-financeschemesthathelpcommunitymembersaccesshardcashtocarry-outhousehold

waterandsanitationprojectsanddevelopsmalllocalenterprises(Green,Kirkpatrick,&Murinde,

2006). Lessening dependence on government to provide or to finance water and sanitation

services isnecessaryforhouseholds,especially,toseeit intheirownbest interestto invest in

improvedsanitation.

43

7.Concludingremarks“Whenthepastno longer illuminatesthefuture,thespiritwalks indarkness”(deTocqueville,

1840)

What this thesis has shown is that participation in communal development projects rarely

happensonitsown.LocalgovernmentsandNGOsshouldnotbeviewedastheperpetratorsof

‘bad’ development projects. For it remains to be seen whether or not the participatory

developmentapproachwillbemorefruitfulthanpreviousmodesofdevelopmentinperi-urban

Ghana.Thereareamultitudeofprinciples (e.g. inclusive,pro-poor)and toolboxes (e.g.CWSA

sector guidelines) and styles (e.g. COM) of participatory development, but how they are

implemented, the actors involved and the measurable benefits differ from community to

community.Criticalreflectiononparticipatoryapproachestowaterandsanitationdevelopment

intheperi-urbancontextisnecessarytobetterunderstandthepitfallsandtrade-offsinvolvedin

this approach. Without this, participatory development is a shot in the dark. Community

managementandnormsweremuchstrongerintraditionalGhanaiansociety,buthistory,politics

andthedrivetowardsmodernityhasre-shapedtheroleoftraditionalcultureinatypicalperi-

urbancommunityinDodowa.

Neo-liberalismhascreptin,buthasn’tfullytakenafoothold.Ithasnotfullytransformedminds

toconsidereconomicrationalizationoverthesocialnormspromotingcommunalaction(Cleaver,

1999). Inthissense,there isstillhopeforparticipatorydevelopmenttosucceed,buton-going

supportfromgovernment,NGOsandtheprivatesectorincapacitybuildingwillbeessentialfor

WATSAN committees or CBOs to expand their mandate, include the wider community in

deliberations and potential future projects. Governments and traditional authorities must

becomebetteradvisorsandsupportersoftheprojectofparticipationintheircommunities.

Thereisnoroadmapfordevelopment,sustainableorotherwise.Communitiesshouldnotbesilos

fromoneanother.Benefitsandtechniquesfordeliveringmorewaterandsanitationtothewider

communityshouldbeshared.Communitymembersshouldfeeltheyhavetherighttodemand

resources,whichcouldbeknowledge,finances,managerialortechnicalexpertise.

44

Basedonthenumberofcommunitiesincludedinthisstudy,Icansaythatthetheunderstanding

ofcommunityuponwhichtheideaofcommunityownershipandmanagementisbased,isthatof

oneness; suggesting that people are more similar along spatial boundaries defined by city

suburbs.Yetwithineachcommunityliesdifferenttraditionalcommunitiesandculturaltraditions

thatcelebrateancestralconnectiontolands,whichmayliefarbeyondthelimitsofDodowa.The

blind assumption that there is a universal understanding of ‘community’may be yet another

contributingfactortounsuccessfulcommunitybasedprojects(Jewkes&Murcott,1996;Wayland

&Crowder,2002).

Lastly, itmust be acknowledged that the individualsworking inNGOs and government that I

interviewedarenottoblame.Theyconducttheirworkwithinasocio-politicalstructurethatis

againstthem.Evengiventhemostnobleofpersonalintentions,theirworkmaystillbeviewedas

failingtheverypeopletheygenuinelywanttohelp.

7.1Recommendationforfurtherresearch:

Numerous barriers to implementing COMdevelopment projectswere identified in this study.

Future research could investigate the relative importance or significance of these barriers in

restrictingparticipatoryspaces.

WillingnesstoparticipateincommunalprojectsvariesthroughoutthecommunitiesofDodowa.

Futureresearchcouldinvestigatetowhatdegreedocommunitymembersneedtoparticipatefor

awaterandsanitationCOMprojecttobesustainable?

45

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AppendixITable1.ResearchQuestionsandAnalyticalFramework

ResearchQuestion Themesandsub-themes1&2 Structure,institutional&policyaspects

a. Landownershipasitimpedesdevelopmentorresolutionof

communityconflicts

b. Socialhierarchy(steepdivisions)

c. Responsivenessofleaderstolocalpriorities

d. Institutionalsupport(human,financial,resources,encouragement,

motivation)

1&2 Knowledge

a. Takingstockoflocalskills(e.g.masonry,physicallabour,

leadership,etc.)

b. KnowledgeofWATSAN

c. Knowledgesharingofdevelopmentprojects

d. Knowledgeofnavigatinglocalbureaucracy

3 Engagement

a. Perceptionofcommunityownedandmanageddevelopment

b. Participation–asaconsumer

c. Participation–asamanagerordecision-maker

d. Communitymobilizationaroundacause

1&3 Emancipationofmarginalized

a. Supportsystemforleastadvantaged

b. Genderequality

3 Localneeds

a. Importanceofgroundwaterinmeetingwaterneeds

b. Questionablequalityofgroundwater

c. Seasonalfluctuationsingroundwateravailability

d. Developmentprioritiesasindicatedbylocals

3 Development

a. Pastsuccessfulcommunitydevelopmentprojects

b. Publicvs.Privatetoilet


53

AppendixIITable2(un)Responsivenessofleaderstolocalpriorities

Suburb Traditional

Community

Responsivenessofleaders

Apperkon Apet)Kopey Theleaderssuccessfullybroughtelectrificationtothemarket

square.Butthepublictoiletprojectismovingalongslowlyand

thereisn'tanyinformationastowhentheconstructionwillbe

completedortheparticulargroupthatshouldbeinvolved.One

intervieweefeltthat,whiletheassemblymanandMPshouldsolve

theirproblem,theydon't.

Voti Assemblymanishelpfulatorganizingyouthtohelpwithsmall

projectsandkeepingcommunityclean.Butbeyondthelow-

hangingfruits,nosuccessfulcommunitydevelopmentprojects

havebeenundertaken.TheDAhastoldthemthatanewpublic

toiletwillbeconstructednear-by,butit’sunclearwhenthiswill

start.

KpegloKopey Assemblymanhaslargelybeenabsentsinceelectioncampaign,but

Mabel(opinionleader)triesherbesttosupportminorproblems

thatthecommunitymayhave.

Magbagya Electedofficialswerepresentduringtheelectioncampaign,but

thiscommunityfeelslikethecurrentassemblymanandMPare

ineffective.However,oneintervieweementionedthatitdepends

ontheelectedofficialhowhelpfultheyare.

AdamteyKopey Halftheintervieweesexpressedtendencytodealwithown

problems

Theotherhalfexpressedhavingelevatedproblemsto

assemblyman,butwithnoresult.

Zongo Zongo MuslimintervieweesspeakabouttheImamandassemblyman

beinghelpful.But,theonlynon-Muslimintervieweementioned

thatChristianresidentsaremarginalizedinthecommunityandare

notincludedincommunitymeetingswithprominentleaders,for

example,whichareconductedinArabic.Theassemblymandoes

hisbest,buthasn’tbeenabletotackleapublictoiletprojectdue

tolackofavailablefunds.

Bletum Bletum Everyonespokeaboutthepublictoiletprojectthatthe

assemblymanorganized,butonlythefoundationhadbeenlaid

anditwasn'tclearwhenitwouldbefinished.Likelyapolitical

maneuver.

Djabletey Djabletey Threeyearsago,moneywasraisedinthecommunitytodiga

borehole,buttheprojectfailed.Aprominentelderinthe

communityalsoorganizedtodigacommunitywell.

Assemblywomanhasrecentlycalledameetingtodiscussanew

publictoiletproject.Beyondthis,leadersareoftenapproached,

butpeoplefeelliketheirconcernsaren'ttakenseriouslyoracted

upon.

Matetse Apetechi MostpeoplewereawareoftheboreholebuiltbytheDA(where

theWATSANcommitteeiscentered).However,thepublictoilets

54

herewereprivatelyconstructedwithouthelpfromlocal

authorities.

Kponkpo Itseemsthatresponsivenessoflocalleadersislow.The

assemblywomanseemedtohaveonlybeenaroundduringthe

electioncampaignandwhiletheotherleadersareapproachable,

whenproblemsaresharedwiththechief,forexample,theyaren't

resolved.Althoughrecently,theassemblywomanannouncedthat

thecommunitymustfindlandforanewpublictoiletproject,but

thishasnotprogressedyet.

Matetse Mostintervieweesmentionthatalthoughthereistheodd

communitymeetingwithleaders,mostfeelmorecompelledto

sortouttheirownproblemsorfeeluncomfortableapproaching

theassemblymemberalone.Forexample,agroupofyoungboys

mentionedthatwhentheyfeeltheywanttoapproachthe

assemblywomanwithanissue,theyprefertogoasagroup.

Anotherintervieweestatedthattheyoutharen'ttakenasseriously

astheelders.

Salem Salem Assemblymanseemstobequiteabsentfromthecommunity,but

hehasbroughtapublictoiletprojecttotheneighbouring

communitynextdoor(Manya).Hehasnotaddressedanyother

issues,likerefusedumportheroadorofferedsupportfor

communitywelfare.


55

AppendixIIITable3.Examplesofinterviewresponseson(un)justgovernance

Community Docommunitymembersfeel

includedingovernanceor

feeltheyshareinthe

benefitsofgovernance

outcomes?

Significanceof

commentforjust

governance

Whatis

identifiedas

unjust?

KpegloKopey

Whenwomenhavea

problem,theysolveit

themselves.

Youngwomenfeelthatthey

couldn'tincludethemselves

inacommitteethatwould

workonwaterand

sanitation.

Womenfeel

disempoweredto

participatein

governance,specifically

whenitcomesto

playingacentralrolein

deliberatingand

decision-making

Exclusionof

womenfrom

deliberation&

decision-

making

Bletum

Womenaren’tdecision-

makers;theycanbeinvolved

incommunallabourfor

SanitationDay.

Womeninthecommunity

don’thavecommunal

meetingstotalkabout

developmentissues.

Womenfeel

disempoweredto

participatein

governance,specifically

whenitcomesto

playingacentralrolein

deliberatingand

decision-making

Exclusionof

womenfrom

deliberation&

decision-

making

Bletum Districtcouncilmeetswith

widowsandorphanstohelp

supportthemandfromtime-

to-time,offerfinancial

support,butwhenshemeets

withherfriends,theytalk

aboutthepromisesofthe

assemblywomanandMPthat

haven’tcometrue.

Supporttokey

marginalizedgroupsis

providedfromtime-to-

time.But,ingeneral,

womenfeeltheirviews

aren’tpolitically

represented.

Exclusionof

womenfrom

political

priorities(in

general)

Apetechi

Onlythewomenwouldmeet

ifDAwaterandsanitation

representativecalleda

meetingforwaterand

sanitationeducation.

Ifthewomenofthe

WATSANcommitteetry

toreachouttothe

communitytoexpand

theroleofthe

committeeto

educationand

sensitizationtoWASH

issues,womenwould

bemoreresponsive.

Womenarenot

seenas

legitimate

leaders

Magbagya

Dependsontheelected

leaders.Forex.,previousMP

onlythoughtabouthimself.

ThecurrentMPelectisvery

helpfulinhelpingwith

schooling,youthand

employment

Unemploymentor

under-employmentisa

significantissue.Some

leaderstakethisissue

onasapolitical

priority.

Employment

56

Magbagya

Cangotoassemblymanwith

aproblemandhewillpassit

ontotheMP,butthenyou

neverhearback.Rathersolve

problemsonown.

"Thosepeoplenothavingany

pipeintheirhouses,Ithinkit

isverystressful"

Localgovernmentare

notaddressing

communitymembers

thataremorereliant

ongroundwateror

strugglewithpayingfor

GWCLwater.

GWCLwater

tariffs

Djabletey

Whenpersonsellingwateris

poor,can'tmanagemoneyto

paybill–it’snotthatpeople

don'twantaccesstoGWCL,

it'sthataccountabilityand

creditworthinessisamajor

barriertopaybillonregular

basis

Manypublicstandpipes

havebeen

disconnecteddueto

unpaidmonthlybills

andthelackofcredit

worthywatervendors.

Thisagainre-enforces

theimportanceof

groundwaterin

Dodowa.

GWCLwater

tariffs

Salem

“Ifyouaren'tanofficial

representativeofthepeople,

ifyoutookinitiative,you

wouldbecallednames

becauseyouaretryingto

takesomeone'sjob”

Therighttoleadis

consolidatedinto

traditionalleadership

andformallocal

governmentofficials.

Socio-cultural-political

normsmayguiderights

toleadership.

Therightto

leadership

Zongo

[Therearealotofpoliticsin

thearea.]“WouldbeniceifI

saidtheImamor

assemblyman.”[Iwould

preferifcommitteewere

appointedfromsomeone

fromtheoutside]

Communitymembers

mayfeelpressuredto

nominatetraditional

leadersandlocal

governmentofficialsto

fromacommunity

development

committee,butthey

mayhavemore

effectiveindividualsin

mindthatcouldoffer

moreengaged

governance.

Effective

leadershipvs.

rightto

leadership


57

AppendixIVTable6Evidenceofgrassrootsinitiativesorganizedaroundacommunalcause

Community Grassrootsorganizationaroundacommon

priority

Apetechi Electrificationgroup:agroupwasformedofthe

landlordsinaparticularsectionofApetechito

organizecontributingfundstoinstallelectricity

polessotheelectricitycompanywouldcometo

installelectricitylines.Twounofficialleadersare

spear-headingthisproject.

Apet)Kopey Youthleaderorganizesmeninthecommunityfor

socialactivities,forsmallcommunitycleaning

projects

TheApet)Kopeyyouthgroupalsohelpedthe

assemblymanfindthevoluntarylabourgroupto

helpbuildthepublictoilet.

TheMagbagyayouthgroupalsohelpswith

diggingoutthewellwhenit’sblocked.

Kponkpoyouthgroupwasrecentlyinvolvedin

collectingmoneyforaboreholeproject,butwhen

theboreholewasdug,therewasnowater.

Voti,Djabletey Communityconstructionanddiggingoutof

blockedwellonaasneeded-basis

Magbagya Onewomanspokeaboutanelderlywomanwho

hadpassedawaythathadbroughtagroup

togetherintheneighbouringcommunityof

Oboomtoconstructapublictoilet.

Bletum Groupofmenvolunteeredlabourtodigthe

foundationofthepublictoiletproject.


58

AppendixVLoosestructureforcommunitysemi-structuredinterviews

1. Waterinthecommunity

a. Isaccesstowateraprimaryconcern?

b. Ifnot,doesitbecomeaprimaryconcerninthedryseason(oratacertaintime

ofyear?

c. Haveyoueverdiscussedstrategiestoreducewaterstresswithsomeoneorwith

agroupofpeople?Who?Whathasbeentheresult?

2. Doyoucontrolaccesstoaprivatewatersource(well,standpipe,borehole)?

a. Doeseveryonepaytousethewater?Whoisexemptfrompaying?

b. Howmuchdoyouchargetoothers?

3. Wheredoyougetyourwaterfrom(WAstandpipe,GWCLstandpipe,watertanker,

sachet)

a. Doesthischangedependingontheseason?

b. Docommunitymembersidentifyahighpresenceorvarietyofwater

managers/vendorsinthecommunity?

4. Whatistheleadingconcernwithregardstowateraccess?

a. Psychological(stresssurroundingaccesstowater),

b. Social(poorsocialstandingorlimitedsocialconnectionstokeyindividualsor

groupsaffectingwateraccess)

c. Economic(cost)

d. Politicalconcerns(feelexcludedfromcommunityinitiativestoimprovewater

accessorlimitwaterstress)

WATSAN

• WhatistheperceivedroleorfunctionoftheirWATSANorcommunitywaterboard?

• WhatarethecontextsinwhichaWATSANhassuccessfullyimprovedaccesstoor

improvedwatermanagementinthecommunity?

• HowdoWATSANgroupscommunicate/interactwiththecommunityorcollaborate

betweencommunities?

• HasaccesstowaterimprovedsincetheformationoftheWATSAN?Explain.

• Who/whatgroupwouldyouappointasakeypersontoformaWATSANgroupinyour

community?

5. Whatkindsofnetworks/groupsexistinthecommunity?

a. Howdoyoumeetpeopleinyourcommunity?(Atchurch,school,sports,

neighbours)

b. Doyougathertogetherforsocialmeetings(inconnectionto,butoutsideof

church,forexample)?

c. Whodoyougottoforhelpifyouhaveaproblem?(Beyondanimmediatefamily

member)?Why?

59

d. Whatisthedominantformofinformationsharing(wordofmouth,internet,

phone,newspaper)

6. Docertaingroups/networksplayasupportiveroleinthecommunity?

a. Doesyourchurch,forexample,supportacertaincauseonbehalfofyour

community?

i. Doyourememberhowthegroupdecidedtosupportthiscause?(Group

decision?Certainindividualorgroupofpeopledecided?)-Historical

context

b. Hasanygroupchampionedawatercause?(Accesstoborehole,standpipe,well

orconcerningwaterquality)

7. Doyouinteractwiththosethatare(formally/informally)inchargeinyourcommunity?

a. Doyou/haveyoueverhaddiscussionswithyourdistrictassemblymenor

communitychief?Aboutwhat?

i. Ifnot,whoprimarilyhasregulardiscussionswiththem?

b. Whoelseholdsauthoritywithinthecommunity?

i. Why/howdotheyholdthisauthority?

ii. Doyouhaveregulardiscussions/interactionwiththem?

c. Wouldyou/haveyouspokentoanauthorityinthecommunityaboutanissue

surroundingaccesstowaterorpoorwaterquality?

i. Ifnot,whodoyouspeaktoaboutwaterconcerns?Why?

Government & Nonprofit

Come together, right now, over what? An analysis of the processes of democratization and participatory governance of water and sanitation services in Dodowa, Ghana