Foreign exchange management

1:

FOREIGN EXCHANGE MANAGEMENTKARISHMA SIROHI

IMS KUK

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KARISHMA [email protected] Page2

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UNIT 1

FOREIGN EXCHANGE

Every nation has its own currency and a single currency is not acceptable in all the countries. When the trading is done at international level, a mechanism is needed to make proper arrangement for the settlements of commitments of both the parties. As rupees are not an international means of exchange so foreign exchange market or mechanism is needed to deal with currencies of other nations, in order to make the international business transactions dynamic.

Meaning of Foreign Exchange

Foreign Exchange refers to foreign currencies possessed by a country for making payments to other countries. It may be defined as exchange of money or credit in one country for money or credit in another. It covers methods of payment, rules and regulations of payment and the institutions facilitating such payments. Foreign exchange is the activity/process by which currency of one country gets converted into the currency of other country.

Definition

According to FERA 1973, now FEMA 1999,

"Foreign Exchange means foreign currency and includes:

(a) (i) All deposits, credits and balances payable in any foreign currency.(ii) The drafts, traveler's cheques, letters of credits and bills of exchange expressed or drawn in Indian currency but payable in any foreign currency.

(b) All instruments payable at the option of the drawee or the holders thereof or any other party there to either in Indian currency or in foreign currency partly in one and partly in other.

This is clear from the above definition that the foreign exchange market is the market where foreign currencies are bought and sold. In other words foreign exchange market is a system facilitating mechanism through which one country's currencies can be exchanged for the currencies of another country.

Foreign exchange market

A foreign exchange market refers to buying foreign currencies with domestic currencies and selling foreign currencies for domestic currencies. Thus it is a market in which the claims to foreign moneys are bought and sold for domestic currency. Exporters sell foreign currencies for domestic currencies and importers buy foreign currencies with domestic currencies.


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The genesis Foreign Exchange (FE) market can be traced to the need for foreign currencies arising from:

International Trade. Foreign Investment. Lending to and borrowing from foreigners

In order to maintain the equilibrium in the FE market, the monetary authority concerned country normally intervenes/steps in to bring out the desired balance by:

Variation in the exchange rate Changes in official reserve Both

Every firm operating in international environment faces problems with foreign exchange i.e., the exchange of foreign currency into domestic and vice-versa. Generally firm's foreign operations earn income denominated in some foreign currency, however shareholder expect payment in domestic currency and therefore the firm must convert foreign currency into domestic currency.

Foreign exchange market doesn’t denote the physical place. It is informal over the counter market and electronically linked network of big banks, foreign broker or dealer, whose function is to bring buyers and sellers together. The trading in foreign exchange market is usually done 24 hours a day by telephone, display monetary, telex and fax machines and satellite called SWIFT (Society for World Wide Interbank Financial Telecommunication), system. Each participatory bank separate foreign exchange trading room and mostly transaction based on verbal communication because the documentation is done later on.

Although the foreign exchange market is global, the market features in each country are influenced by the local regulatory framework. Therefore, foreign exchange market is the means by which payments are made across national boundaries, jurisdictions and currencies, it is also the market in which one currency is exchanged for other and hence sets the price for the currency it terms of the another.

Definition

According to Ellsworth, "A Foreign Exchange Market comprises of all those institutions and individuals who buy and sell foreign exchange which may be defined as foreign money or any liquid claim on foreign money".

Foreign Exchange transactions result in inflow & outflow of foreign exchange.


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Features of Foreign Exchange Market

Following are the features of the foreign exchange market:

1. Global market: Foreign exchange market is a global market. It means foreign exchange buyer and seller world wide exist. It is the largest market in the world.

2. Over the counter market: The market does not denote a particular place where currencies are transacted. Rather it is an over the counter market. It consists of trading desks at major agencies dealing in foreign exchange throughout the world, which are connected by telephones, telex and

3. Around the clock market: Foreign exchange market is a round the clock market meaning that the transactions can take place any time within 24 hours of the day. The markets are situated throughout the different time zones of the globe in such a way that one market is closing the other is beginning its operations.

4. Currency traded: in this market only currency are traded.5. Dynamic: it is dynamic because of continuous trading. 6. Normative: in this market principles of economics are applied.7. No geographical boundaries: It is virtual network of big banks through latest

technologies.8. Variety of participants: ranging from individual customer to central monetary authority

of the country.9. By and large unregulated market: because it is regulated by demand and supply only.10. Most liquid market: transactions are made speedily.11. System: Foreign exchange market is a system. It is a system of private banks, financial

banks, foreign exchange dealers and central bank through which individual, business and government trade foreign exchange.

12. Informal arrangement: among the banks and brokers.13. Wholesale and retail segment: the wholesale segment of the market, where the dealing

take place among the banks. The retail segment refers to the dealings take place between banks and their customers.

14. Major trading centers: Tokyo, Singapore, New York etc. are major trading centers.15. Largest market: it is largest and biggest financial market in the world.16. Major currencies: US $, Japanese Yen, Deutche Mark, Swiss Franc.


FEATURES1. Global Market2. Over the Counter Market3. Around the clock market4. Currencies traded5. Dynamic6. Normative7. No geographical boundaries8. Variety of participants9. By and large unregulated market10. Most liquid market11. System12. Informal arrangements13. Wholesale and retail segment14. Major trading centers15. Largest market

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17. Indian Forex market is very small as compared to global. Turnover of $5-10 bn/day.18. The retail segment is situated at a large number of places. They can be considered not as

foreign exchange markets, but as the countries of such market.19. The leading foreign exchange market is in India is Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi.20. The policy of RBI has been to decentralize exchange operations and develop broader

based exchange markets.21. As a result of the effort of RBI Cochin, Bangalore, Ahmadabad, Goa has emerged as new

exchange centers in India.

Functions of Foreign exchange market

The Foreign Exchange Market performs the following functions:

1. Transfer Of Purchasing Power The basic function of the foreign exchange market is to facilitate the conversion of one currency into another i.e. payment between exporters and importers. eg. Indian rupee is converted into U.S. dollar and vice-versa. In performing the transfer function variety of credit instruments are used such as telegraphic transfers, bank drafts and foreign bills. Telegraphic transfer is the quickest method of transferring the purchasing power.

2. Credit FunctionThe foreign exchange market also provides credit to both national and international, to promote foreign trade. It is necessary as sometimes, the international payments get delayed for 60 days or 90 days. Obviously, when foreign bills of exchange are used in international payments, a credit for about 3 months, till their maturity, is required. eg. Mr. A can get his bill discounted with a foreign exchange bank in New York and this bank will transfer the bill to its correspondent in India for collection of money from Mr. B after the stipulated time.

3. Hedging FunctionA third function of foreign exchange market is to hedge foreign exchange risks. By hedging, we mean covering of a foreign exchange risk arising out of the changes in exchange rates. Under this function the foreign exchange market tries to protect the interest of the persons dealing in the market from any unforeseen changes in exchange rate. The exchange rates under free market can go up and down, this can either bring gains or losses to concerned parties. Hedging guards the interest of both exporters as well as importers, against any changes in exchange rate. Hedging can be


FUNCTIONS

Transfer of purchasing

power

Provision of Credit

Minimizing FE risk

PARTICIPAN

TS

Central Banks

Speculators

Arbitrageur

Business Firm

General Public

Authorised Dealers

Financial Institutions

Exchange Brokers

Hedgers

Category (A) 100-Royal Bank of London-Abu Dhabi Bank-Axis BankCategory (B) 110-Channai-Cochin-Kolkata-New Delhi-Patna

Category (C) 09-IDBIRXIMICICI

AD'S

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done either by means of a spot exchange market or a forward exchange market involving a forward contract.

Participants in Foreign Exchange Market

The main participants in foreign exchange markets are

1. Authorized Dealers: are those persons who have license from the RBI to deal in foreign exchange. There are 84 authorized banks. Public has to conduct the foreign transaction through AD’s. AD’s

formed an organization called FEDAI (Foreign Exchange Dealers Association of India).

Following are the categories of the AD’s:

2. Financial Institutions: such as IDBI, ICICI, IFCI etc. They are Authorized dealers also.3. Exchange Brokers: who are specialists in matching supply and demands of banks and

who work for a commission. They facilitate deals between banks. In the absence of a broker, banks have to contract each other for quests.


FEM Structure

RETAIL

Full Fledged Money Changers

(P&S)

Restricted Money Changer (P)

WHOLESALE

Interbank (Direct and Indirect)

SpotForward

Derivativ

e

Central Bank

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4. Central banks: like RBI in India, intervene in order to maintain or to influence the exchange rate of their currency within a certain range and also to execute the orders of govt. The currencies traded by RBI on its own behalf or on the behalf of the govt.

5. Hedgers: are interested in reducing transferring the risk. Hedging is done to make the outcome more certain, but it does not necessarily, improve the outcome.

6. Speculators: wish to take risk and advantage of position in the market. They buy and sell the currency when they expect movement in the exchange rate in particular direction. They bet for the price up or down. They are market makers.

7. Arbitrageurs: They take advantages of exchange rate differential arbitrage involves locking in a riskless profits by entering simultaneously into transactions into two or more markets. Arbitrageurs buy currency at lower rate from one market and sell at higher rate in another market, the varying rate are the source of their income.

8. Business firm/corporate: The business houses, international investors, MNC’s may operate in the market to meet their genuine trade or investment requirements.

9. Commercial Banks: They buy and sell currencies for their clients.

Structure of Foreign Exchange Market

This diagram shows the structure:


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1. Retail Foreign exchange market:It refers to the dealings take place between the banks and their customers or the brokers and their customers.

(a) Full fledged money changers: can undertake both purchase and sale transaction with the public.

(b) Restricted money changers: can only purchase foreign currency from the foreign tourists.

2. Wholesale Foreign exchange market:It refers to the market where the dealings take place among the banks.

(a) Interbank: major banks trade in currencies held in different currency dominated bank currency, i.e. these transfer bank deposits from seller’s to buyer’s accounts. In this market only the head office and regional office of the major commercial banks is the market maker. Through correspondent relationships with banks in other countries, major banks have ready access to foreign currencies.

Direct: banks quote buying and selling directly to each other and all participating banks are market maker. It is also known as decentralized open-bid, double auction market.

Indirect: In this broker is involved for the dealings.

In this market transactions are settled by clearing houses.

i. Spot Market: refers to the class of foreign exchange transactions which requires the immediate delivery or exchange of currencies on the spot. The exchange rate in this market is known as the spot rate (e).

ii. Forward Market: is an agreement between two parties, requiring the delivery at some specified future date of a specified amount of foreign currency by one of the parties, against payments in domestic currency be the other party, at the price agreed upon in the contract.

iii. Derivatives:are the contracts between the parties in which the value of underlying widely held and easily marketable security is derived between the parties. The underlying assets can be agricultural and other physical


FE Quatations

Quoting Types

Two Way

QuotesSpot

Cross Rate

Quoting Method

Direct

Buy at

low

Sell at

high

Indirect

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commodities, currencies, short term and long term financial instruments, intangible things like price index.

(b) Central Bank: Both political and economic considerations move governments to intervene in the forex market. Government intervention may be designed either to stabilize an exchange rate or to move it to a new level.

Foreign Exchange Quotation

Quotation is amount of a currency necessary to buy or sell a unit of another currency. The various exchange rate are regularly quoted in newspapers and periodicals.

The foreign exchange quote published daily in the financial papers for major currencies.

Foreign exchange rates are quoted either for immediate delivery (spot rate) or for delivery on a future date (forward rate). In practice, delivery in spot market is made two days later. (t+2)

The method and types of quoting are explained in the diagram---


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1. Quoting Types:These are as follows:

a) Two Way Quote: A forex dealer usually quotes a two way price for a given currencies. Banks are the dealer in this. The price at which the dealer is buying (Bid Price) and the price in which dealer is selling (Offer Price or Ask Price) of the currency. When the bid quote is lower than the ask quote, the bank is buying and selling the currency in the denominator of the quote. When the bid quote is higher than the ask quote, the bank is buying and selling the currency in the numerator of the quote.

It is standard practice to divide the amount of the spread by the ask price, that is,

Percentage spread =

Ask - BidAsk

×100

b) Spot:The FE rates are quoted either for immediate deliveries i.e., spot rate or future date. In practice delivery in spot market is made generally 2 days later considering t+2 formulas.

c) Cross Rate (Chain Rule): It is price of any foreign currency other than the home currency. Most tables of exchange rate quotations express currencies relative to the dollar, but in some instances, a firm will be concerned about the exchange rate between two non-dollar currencies. For example, if a Canadian firm needs Mexican pesos to buy Mexican goods, it wants to know the Mexican peso value relative to the Canadian dollar. The type of rate desired here is known as a cross exchange rate, because it reflects the amount of one foreign currency per unit of another foreign currency. Cross exchange rates can be easily determined with the use of foreign exchange quotations.

2. Quoting Methods: These are two methods for determining quotes in the FEM-a) Direct Quote: A direct quotes gives the home currency price of a certain quantity

of foreign currency, usually one unit. In other worlds price of one unit of foreign currency quoted in terms of home country's currency is known as direct quote. If India quotes the exchange ratebetween the rupee and US dollar directly, the quotation will be written as


CONVERTIBLE

CURRENCIES

FULLY CONVERTI

BLE

PARTLY CONVERTI

BLE

NON CONVERTI

BLE

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(Buy at low and Sell at high)Rs. 45/ US $.

b) Indirect Quotes: In case of indirect quoting, the value of one unit of home currency is presented in term of foreign currency. In other worlds price of one unit of home currency quoted in terms of foreign currency is known as indirect quote. If India adopts indirect quote, the banks in India will quote the exchange rate as(Buy at high and Sell at low)US $ 0.022/ Rs.

Currency Convertibility

It refers to the convertibility of the domestic currency to the foreign (International) currency. The rate at which the currency is converted is known as exchange rate. Convertible currency means those currencies which are convertible freely without the permission of the administration.

The report on Fuller Capital Account Convertibility (FCAC) defines convertibility as, the freedom to convert local financial assets into foreign financial assets and vice versa.

Convertible currencies are defined as currencies that are readily bought, sold, and converted without the need for permission from a Central Bank or government entity.

Types of Convertible Currencies:

1. Fully convertible currencies: those currencies where there is no restrictions for the convertibility.

2. Partly convertible currencies: those currencies where there is restrictions and control over the convertibility.

3. Non convertible currencies: are those currencies which are not converted into the any other currency.

Pre conditions for currency convertibility:

§ Appropriate exchange rate system.

§ Adequate level of international liquidity.

§ Sound macro-economic policies, including the elimination of any monetary overhang.

§ An environment in which the agent have the both, the incentive and the ability to

respond to market price.


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Convertibility of Rupee

Rupee convertibility is the system to convert any amount of rupee into the currency of any other country.Rupee convertibility means the system where any amount of rupee can be converted into any other currency without any question asked about the purpose for which the foreign exchange is to be used.The need to convert domestic currency into foreign currency or to convert foreign currency into domestic currency arises for two reasons:

1. Current Account Convertibility: Current AC refers to the payments and transfers for current international transactions. Current transactions means to purchase foreign goods and services without any restrictions.Current account convertibility refers to freedom in respect of payments and transfers for current international transactions. In other words, if Indians are allowed to buy only foreign goods and services but restrictions remain on the purchase of assets abroad, it is only current account convertibility. As of now, convertibility of the rupee into foreign currencies is almost wholly free for current account i.e. in case of transactions such as trade, travel and tourism, education abroad etc.The Government of India introduced a system of Partial Rupee Convertibility (PCR) (Current Account Convertibility) on February 29,1992 as part of the Fiscal Budget for 1992-93. PCR is designed to provide a powerful boost to export as well as to achieve as efficient import substitution. It is designed to reduce the scope for bureaucratic controls, which contribute to delays and inefficiency. Government liberalized the flow of foreign exchange to include items like amount of foreign currency that can be procured for purpose like travel abroad, studying abroad, engaging the service of foreign consultants etc. What it means that people are allowed to have access to foreign currency for buying a whole range of consumables products and services. These relaxations coincided with the liberalization on the industry and commerce front which is why we have Honda City cars, Mars chocolate and Bacardi in India.

§ Components:

Goods-* General merchandise.* Goods for processing* Goods for repair. Etc.

Services-* Travel * Medical* Education* Business services* Personal, cultural services.* Govt. services


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* Computer and information services etc…. Income-

* Compensation to employees* Investment (short term) etc.

Current transfers-* Govt. loans etc.

2. Capital Account Convertibility: Capital account is made up of both the short term and long term capital transactions. CAC means the freedom to convert the domestic financial asset to the foreign financial assets.The concept of Capital Account Convertibility was coined by RBI and CAC is now almost synonymous with the SS Tarapore Committee.capital account is made up of both the short-term and long-term capital transactions. The Capital Transaction may be Capital outflow or capital inflow. Capital account convertibility (CAC) or a floating exchange rate means the freedom to convert local financial assets into foreign financial assets and vice versa at market determined rates of exchange. This means that capital account convertibility allows anyone to freely move from local currency into foreign currency and back.convertibility on the capital account is usually introduced after a certain period of introducing the Current account convertibility. The most important effect of introducing the capital account convertibility is that it encourages the inflow of the foreign capital, because under certain conditions, the foreign investors are enabled to repatriate their investments, wherever they want. But the risk is that it may accelerate the flight of the capital from the country if things are unfavorable. For example, an Indian can sell property here and take the Capital outside. This is why, it is generally introduced after experimenting with the convertibility on current account. CAC refers to the removal of restraints on international flows on a country's capital account, enabling full currency convertibility and opening of the financial system

UNIT 2

EXCHANGE RATE

Exchange rate is the rate at which one currency can be exchanged for another. Transactions in exchange market are carried out at what are termed as exchange rates. In other words, exchange rate is the price of one country’s currency in terms of other country’s currency. Alternatively exchange rate is the rate at which the currencies are transacted or traded i.e. called exchange rate or rate of exchange. In foreign exchange market two types of exchange rate operations take place. They are spot exchange rate and forward exchange rate.


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1. Spot Exchange Rate:When foreign exchange is bought and sold for immediate delivery, it is called spot exchange. It refers to a day or two in which two currencies are involved. The basic principle of spot exchange rate is that it can be analyzed like any other price with the help of demand and supply forces. The exchange rate of dollar is determined by intersection of demand for and supply of dollars in foreign exchange. The Remand for dollar is derived from country’s demand for imports which are paid in dollars and supply is derived from country’s exports which are sold in dollars. The exchange rate determined by market forces would change as these forces change in market. The primary price makers buy (Bid) or sell (ask) the currencies in the market and the rates continuously change in a free market depending on demand and supply. The primary dealer (bank) quotes two-way rates i.e., buy and sell rate.

(Bid) Buy Rate 1 US $ = ` 45.50

(Ask) Sell Rate 1 US $ = ` 45.75

The bank is ready to buy 1 US $ at Rs. 45.50 and sell at Rs. 45,75. The difference of Rs.0.25 is the profit margin of dealer.

2. Forward Exchange Rate: Here foreign exchange is bought or sold for future delivery i.e., for the period of 30, 60 or 90 days: There are transactions for 180 and 360 days also. Thus, forward market deals in contract for future delivery. The price for such transactions is fixed at the time of contract; it is called a forward rate. Forward exchange rate differs from spot exchange rate as the former may either be at a premium or discount. If the forward rate is above the present spot rate, the foreign exchange rate is said to be at a premium. If the forward rate is below the present spot rate, the foreign exchange rate is said to be at a discount. Thus foreign exchange rate may be at forward premium or at forward discount.For E.g. an Indian importer may enter into an agreement to purchase US $ 10,000 sixty days from today at 1 US $ = Rs. 48. No amount is paid at the time of agreement, except for usual security margin money of about 10% of the total amount. 60 days form today, the importer will get 10,000 US $ in exchange for Rs. 4,80,000 irrespective of the Spot exchange rate prevailing on that date.

Exchange Rate Determination Theories:

It is influenced by many factors relative to the reference countries whose currencies are involved. Different advocates have presented different opinion or approaches/theories determination of exchange rate between currencies from time to time.

1. Mint Par Theory 2. Purchasing Power Parity Theory 3. Balance of Payment Theory


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4. Portfolio Theory

1. Mint Par Theory:Concept:The rate of exchange between the gold standard countries is determined on a weight to weight basis of the gold countries of their currencies. In other words, the exchange rate is determined by the gold equivalents of the currencies involved. The mint par is an expression of the ratio of weights of gold's used for the coinage of the currencies.Explanation: This theory is associated with the working of the international gold standard. Under this system, the currency in use was made of gold or was convertible into gold at a fixed rate. The value of the currency unit was defined in terms of certain weight of gold, that is, so many grains of gold to the rupee, the dollar, the pound, etc. The central bank of the country was always ready to buy and sell gold at the specified price. The rate at which the standard money of the country was convertible into gold was called the mint price of gold.Example: If the gold content of Indian rupee is 5 grains of standard purity and the US$ is 40 grains of standard purity, the rate of exchange will be determined asRupee 1 = 5 grains$1 = 40 grains$1 = 8 rupee (49/5)Rupee 1 = 0.0125 $ (5/40)

2. Purchasing Power Parity Theory:Concept:This theory holds that the rate of exchange between two currencies depends upon their relative purchasing power in the countries concern.Theory propounded by Dr. Gustav Cassel (1918)There are two versions of Purchasing Power Parity theory:

a) Absolute Version of the PPP theory.b) Relative Version of the PPP theory.a) Absolute Version of the PPP theory: The PPP theory suggests that at any point

of time, the rate of exchange between two currencies is determined by their purchasing power. If e is the exchange rate and PA and PB are the purchasing power of the currencies in the two countries, A and B, the equation can be written ase = PA/PBExample: if one bag of sugar cost rupee 500 in India and $ 50 in USA, the rate of exchange between these two currencies will be-$50 = Rs 500$1 = Rs 10


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Limitations: However this version of the theory holds good, if the same commodities are included in the same proportion in the domestic market basket and the world market basket. Since it is normally not so, the theory faces a serious limitation. Moreover, it does not cover non-traded goods and services, where the transactions cost is significant.

b) Relative Version of the PPP theory: In view of the above limitation, another version of this theory has evolved, which is known as the relative version of the PPP theory. The relative version of PPP theory states that the exchange rate between the currencies of the two countries should be a constant multiple of the general price indices prevailing in two countries. In other words, percentage change in the exchange rates should equal the percentage change in the ratio of price indices in the two countries.Example: The price index in India and the USA for a particular year was 100 and at that time rate of exchange was US$ 1 = Rs 8. Subsequently the price index in India increased to 150 points which means purchasing power of the Rs as reduced to that extent. In this case the new rate of exchange between Rs and $ will be—$ 1 = Rs 8×150/100 = 12 Rs.If there is simultaneous increase in USA also up to 200 points in this case the combined effect will be---$1 = Rs 8 × 150/100×100/200 = Rs 6This theory states that inflation rate affects the exchange rate between the countries. Inflation Home Currency Value Exchange Value Conclusion:Merits: PPP theory holds good if:

§ Changes in the economy originate from the monetary sector.

§ There is no structural change in the economy, such as changes in tariff and

in technology.

Demerits: PPP theory does not hold good in following situations:

§ The assumptions of this theory do no necessarily hold good in real

life.

§ There are other factors such as interest rates, governmental

interference and soon that influence the exchange rate.3. Balance of Payment Theory:

Concept:This theory states that the rate of exchange is determined by the demand and supply for the currency in foreign exchange market.


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BOP approach states that an increase in domestic price level over the foreign price level makes foreign goods cheaper.Explanation:There will be two conditions:

§ When BoP is at deficits- It indicates that the supply of foreign exchange is less

than demands.

§ When BOP is at surplus- It indicates that the supply of foreign exchange is more

than demands.

It indicates that the supply of foreign exchange is in excuse of its demands. Therefore, in relation to domestic currency will fall alternatively the price of home currency will rise. This theory is also called demand and supply of foreign exchange theory.

Merits:

§ It is an improvement of other theories as it consider factor influencing BOP.

§ This theory also suggest that unfavorable BOP position can be corrected by

marginal adjustment in the exchange rates i.e. the devaluation or evaluation.4. Portfolio Theory:

Concept:This theory argues that exchange rate is determined by the portfolio decision of all investors. Exchange rate between freely traded currencies are influenced more by capital flows than by trade flows. The theory emphasized that risk factors and current account imbalance may have an important rate to play in exchange rate development. It says that interest rate reduction affects investments, output and prices and that will ultimate affect rate of exchange or exchange rate.

Exchange Rate System

There are two types of exchange rate system:

1. Fixed exchange rate system: Fixed exchange rates refer to the system under the gold standard where the rate of exchange tends to stabilize around the mint par value. Any large variation of the rate of exchange from the mint par value would entail flow of gold into or from the country. This would have the effect of bringing the exchange rate back to the mint par value. In the present day situation where gold standard no longer exists, fixed rates of exchange refer to maintenance of external value of the currency at a


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predetermined level. Whenever the exchange rate differs from this level it is corrected through official intervention. There may be two situations:

a) When exports greater than imports: If the exports of the country exceed imports, the demand for the local currency in the exchange market will This will raise the value of the currency to the market.

b) When imports greater than exports: If the country is facing balance of payments deficits due to higher imports, it would have the effect of increase in supply of local currency in the foreign and the central bank may have to intervene by buying local currency at higher price.

Under fixed rates, the compulsion to devalue the currency may be postponed or avoided by mopping up additional reserves. One such way is exchange of currency reserves between the central banks of countries.

a) When demand of foreign currency is greater than supply ( Demand > Supply):When demand of foreign currency is more than supply, then central bank maintains the exchange rate by increasing the foreign currency in market. In this way supply of foreign currency will increases and there will be equality between demand & supply.

Excess Demand Sale of foreign Currency by Central Bank.Results: In case of demand more than supply price of foreign currency in terms of domestic currency would be costly. Thus Central Bank supply foreign currency in market.

b) When Supply of foreign currency is greater than Demand ( Supply > Demand):When Supply of foreign currency is more than demand, then central bank maintains the exchange rate by purchase of foreign currency or creates the demand of foreign currency in market through. In this way supply of foreign currency will decrease and there will be equality between demand & Supply


Q1Q Y

D

D1S

S1

Rs/ US$

Rs/ US$

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Excess supply Purchase of foreign currency by central bank.Results: In case of supply more than demand price of foreign currency in terms of domestic currency would be cheaper. Central bank maintains the foreign currency in market through.Conclusion:Demand >Supply ------------- Sale of foreign currency.Supply > Demand ------------ purchase of foreign currency.

Merits:

§ Avoid forex risk to some extent.

Demerits:

§ Long run/term foreign capital may not be attracted.

§ Due to LPG most of the economic prefer flexible ERS.

§ It increase the chances of deficit BOT.

§ Long term planning may be failure because adjustments are not made timely.

2. Flexible Exchange Rate System:It is also called free/floating and unregulated exchange rate system. Under this system the exchange rate is determined by the equality of market demand for and supply of currencies generated on trade, investment hedging, arbitrageurs and speculative accounts. Simply the exchange rate is determined by the market forces. The exchange rate are free to fluctuate according to the changes in demand and supply forces with no restrictions on buying and selling of foreign currencies in the foreign exchange market. Under the system if the supply of forex is greater than the demand, the exchange rate is determined that lower rate and vice-versa.


Q1Q Y

D

D1S

S1

D2

S2

S1

D1

E

E1

X

Rs/US$

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In a floating-rate system, it is the market forces that determine the exchange rate between two currencies. In floating exchange Rate system the central bank does not control demand or supply of foreign currency. Thus the central bank has to show or provide order line in the movement of exchange rate. There are two situations:

a) Crawling Peg: In this situation central bank fix the upper limit & lower limit of exchange rate. The exchange rate will lie between these two limits.

Upper Limit Lower Limit

This can be explained with diagram:

b) Over shooting peg : Under this condition exchange rate can over the upper limit

and below the lower

c) Hybrid Exchange Rate System: It is

a combination of fixed and flexible

exchange rate, this system changes par

values of currency by small amount at

frequent specified intervals. Unlike the

earlier uniform system under either the

gold standard or Breton Woods,

today's exchange rate system fits

into no tidy mold. Without anyone's

having planned it, the world has

moved to a hybrid exchange rate system. The major features are as follows:

§ A few countries allow their currencies to float freely, as the United States

has for some periods in the last two decades. In this approach country

allows markets to determine its currency's value and it rarely intervenes.

§ Some major countries have managed but flexible exchange rates. Today

this group includes Canada, Japan, and more recently Britain. Under this


S1D1

D2

S2

Q Q1 Q2

O Y

Demand for and Supply of US$

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system a country will buy or sell its currency to reduce the day-to-day

volatility of currency fluctuations.

§ Many countries particularly small ones change their currencies to a

major currency or to a basket of currencies. Some countries join together

in a currency bloc in order to stabilize exchange rates among themselves

while allowing their currencies to move flexibly relative to those of the

rest of the world.

§ In addition almost all countries tend to intervene either when markets

become disorderly or when exchange rates seem far out of line with the

fundamentals that is with exchange rates that are appropriate for existing

price levels and trade flows

Merits:

§ Promotion of international trade.

§ Promotion of international investment.

§ Facilities of long range planning.

§ Development of currency areas.

§ Simple to operate.

§ Less expenditure.

Demerits:

§ Market mechanism may fail to bring about appropriate exchange rate.

§ It may increase exchange risk, bread uncertainty impede international trade and capital

movement.

§ A reduction in exchange rate may lead to vicious circle of inflation.

§ Increase in speculation.

Which is better??????

Neither of the system in there extreme form is not good. Both have their merits and demerits and considering these there is a need for managed or administered flexible exchange rate system. The system prevalent under IMF in many countries is a managed float in which exchange rates of major currencies are floating but subject to exchange control regulations to keep the exchange


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rate movement within limits. The system needs large forex reserves in order to manage the exchange rate.

In India we have LERMS (Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System) and amended LERMS for the determination of exchange rate in our country.

Factors affecting Exchange Rate:

The most important factor influencing the exchange rate is:

1. Balance of Payments: Balance of Payments position of a country is a definite indicator of the demand and supply of foreign exchange. There are two situations:-(i) If a country is having a favorable balance of payments position it implies that

there is more supply of foreign exchange and therefore foreign currencies will tend to be cheaper.

(ii) If balance of payments position is unfavorable, it indicates that there is more demand for foreign exchange and this will result in price of foreign currency.

2. Strength of the Economy : The relative strength of the economy also has an effect on the demand and supply of foreign currencies. If an economy is growing at a faster rate it is generally expected to have a better performance on balance of trade.

3. Fiscal Policy:The fiscal policy followed by government has an impact on the economy of the country which in turn affects the exchange rates. If the government follows an expansionary policy by having low interest rates, it will fuel the engine of economic growth and as discussed earlier, it will lead to better trade performance.

4. Monetary Policy: The monetary policy is a very effective toll for controlling money supply, and is used particularly for keeping a tab on the inflationary pressures in the economy. The main objective of the monetary policy of any economy is to maintain the money supply in the economy at a level which will ensure price stability, full employment and growth in the economy.

5. Interest Rate: High interest rates make the speculative capital move between countries and this affects the exchange rate. If interest rates of domestic currency are raised this will result in more demand for domestic currency and more supply of the foreign currency thus, making the latter cheaper.

6. Political Factors:If a change is expected in the government on account of elections ,the exchange rates may be affected. However, whether the currency of the country concerned will become stronger or weaker will depend upon expected policies to be pursued by the new govt. which is likely to take over.

7. Exchange Control: Exchange control is generally aimed at disallowing free movement of capital flows and it therefore affects the exchange rates. Sometimes countries exercise control through exchange rate mechanism by keeping the price of their currency at an artificial level.


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8. Central Bank Intervention:Buying or selling of foreign currency in the market by the central bank with a view to increase the supply or demand, thereby affecting the exchange rate is known as 'Intervention'. If a central bank is of the opinion that local currency. It will increase the demand for foreign currency and the rates of foreign currency.

9. Speculation: In the foreign exchange market dealers taking speculative positions is common. If a few big speculative operators are buying a particular currency in a big way others may follow suit and that currency may strength in the short run. This is popularly known as the 'Bandwagon affect' and this affects exchange rates.

10. Tariff and Non-tariff Barriers: Imports are restricted through tariff and Non-tariff barriers. Tariff means duty levied by the government on imports. When assessed on a per unit basis, tariff is known as specific duty. But when assessed as a percentage of the value of the imported commodity, tariff is called ad valorem duty. When both types of tariff are charged on the same product, it is known as compound duty. Apart from tariff, import is restricted through non tariff barrier.

11. Peace and security in particular industry.12. Productivity of an economy: Increasing productivity in an economy should positively

influence the value of its currency. Its effects are more prominent if the increase is in the traded sector

LERMS (LIBERALISED EXCHANGE RATE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM)

In view of the continuing pace of liberalization policy, the Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System (LERMS) has assumed a special significance in the arena of international financial management. The rupee has already been made fully convertible on current account. The main objective of the Government is to move the rupee finally into the era of full convertibility to boost exports.

Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System", (LERMS for short), introduced with effect from 1.3.1992.

Under the LERMS, Exporters of goods and services and those who are recipients of remittances from abroad could sell the bulk of their foreign exchange receipts at market determined rates. Similarly, those who need to import goods and services or undertake travel abroad could buy foreign exchange to meet such needs, at market determined rates from the authorized dealers, subject to their transactions being eligible under the liberalized exchange control system. By this scheme, partial convertibility of the rupee was introduced. 40% of the foreign exchange received on current account receipts, whether through export of goods or services alone needed to be converted at the official rate, while take remaining 60% was convertible at market determined rates.The imports of materials other than petroleum, oil products, fertilizers, defence and life saving drugs and equipment always had to be effected against market determined rates. All receipts of foreign exchange were required to be surrendered to authorized dealers as was the


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practice hitherto.The rate of exchange for the transactions was to be the free market rate quoted by authorized dealers except for 40% of the proceeds which would be based on the official rate fixed by the Reserve Bank of India. The authorized dealers were required to surrender 40% of their purchases of foreign exchange to the RBI at official rate. The remaining 60% could be retained by them for sale in free market for all permissible transactions. The Exporters were also given a choice to retain a maximum of 15% of the export earnings in foreign exchange itself, which could be utilized by them for their own personal needs.

Basic features of LERMS can be stated as follows:

§ The exchange rate of the rupee will be determined purely on the basis of market forces of demand and supply. It may, therefore, also could be described as “market determination exchange rate system”.

§ All receipts whether on current or capital account and of the balance of payments and whether on government or private account will be converted entirely at the market rate of exchange.

§ NRIs will be permitted to maintain the Residents Foreign Currency Account (RFCA) to which the entire foreign exchange brought in by them will be credited. Moreover, those Indians who get receipts from abroad now can have the benefit of getting the entire foreign currency credit to them at the market rate.

§ Exporters and the recipients of inward remittances are required to surrender the foreign currency received by them to the authorized dealers in foreign currency. However, they are allowed to maintain 15% of the receipts, in foreign currency account with an authorized dealer.

§ There is no obligation on the authorize dealers to sell any portion of their foreign currency receipts directly to the Reserve Bank as was the case so far. They can sell the receipts in the Indian Market to other authorized dealers for any permissible transactions.

§ Foreign currency remittances abroad are subject to the exchange control regulations, of course, it does not mean that the Reserve Bank of India's permission would be required in every case.

§ The intervention currency of the Reserve Bank continues to be US Dollar. It may at its discretion buy and sell US dollars from/to various authorized dealers.

Modified Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System (Modified LERMS)

The process of liberalization continued further and it was decided to make the Rupee fully floating with effect from March 1, 1993. The new arrangement is called Modified Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System or Modified LERMS.


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Salient features are as under:

§ Effective March 1, 1993, all foreign exchange transactions, receipts and payments, both under current and capital accounts of balance of payments are being put through by authorized dealers at market determined exchange rates.

§ Authorized dealers are free to retain the entire foreign exchange surrendered to them for being sold for permissible transactions and are not required to surrender to the Reserve Bank any portion of such receipts.

§ Foreign exchange receipts are to be surrendered to the authorized dealers except in cases where the residents have been permitted by RBI to retain them either with the banks in India or abroad.

§ Reserve Bank of India, under Section 40 of RBI Act, 1934, was obliged to buy and sell foreign exchange to the authorized dealers.

§ Reserve Bank is now required to sell any authorized person at its offices/branches US Dollars for meeting foreign exchange payments at its exchange rates based on the market rate only for such purposes as are approved by the Central Government.

Advantages of the New System :

§ The system seeks to ensure equilibrium between demand and supply with respect to a fairly large subset of external transactions.

§ It has facilitated removal of several trade restrictions and granted relaxation in exchange control (under current account transactions).

§ It is a step towards full convertibility of current account transactions in order to achieve the full benefits of integrating the Indian economy with the world economic system.

§ The incentives to exporters will be higher and more particularly to those whose exports are not highly import intensive. Exporters of agricultural products will find exports attractive.

§ A large number of expatriates, who are hitherto denied any advantages on their remittances to India in line with the earnings of the exporters, are now eligible for market rate for the full amount of remittances being in the nature of capital inflows.

§ This system, coupled with the exchange control relaxation in certain areas, and the abolition of travel tax is expected to make the havala route less tempting.


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§ In this context it needs to be remembered that smaller the gap between the average rate received by the exporters and other earners of foreign exchange and the market rate, the lesser will be the temptation to continue using illegal channels for remittances.

§ In the fiscal area, customs revenue is likely to be higher, other things being the same, to the extent the valuation of imports would be based on the market exchange rate. It is, however, necessary to ensure that the tariff rates together with higher input values do not result in a sharp increase in import costs.

Derivatives:

Derivatives are the contracts between the parties in which the value of underlying widely held and easily marketable security is derived between the parties. The underlying assets can be agricultural and other physical commodities, currencies, short term and long term financial instruments, intangible things like price index.

Currency Forward Contracts:

Forward contracts are customized contracts between two parties for purchase or sale of the currency of foreign at a specified price of specified quantity to be delivered at a specified date in the future.

The parties who have entered to the contract negotiate on quantity, price and period of the contract.

In the forward market, on the contrary, contracts are made to buy and sell currencies for a future delivery, say, after a fortnight, one month, two months, and and so on. The rate of exchange for the transaction is agreed upon on the very day the deal is finalized. In other words, no party can back out of the deal even if changes in the future spot rate are not in his/her favour. The exchange rate for delivery and payment at specified future dates are called forward exchange rates and is denoted by F (.). The major participants in forward market can be categorized:-

§ Arbitrageurs

§ Hedgers

§ Speculators

The maturity period of a forward contract is normally one month, two months, three months, and and so on. But sometimes it is not for the whole month and represents a fraction of a month. A forward contract with a maturity period of 35 days is an example. Naturally, in this case, the value date falls on a date between two whole months. Such a contract is known as broken-date contract.

Forward rates may also contain a premium or discount.


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§ If the forward rate exceeds the existing spot rate, it contains a premium.

§ If the forward rate is less than the existing spot rate, it contains a discount.

Forward contracts can be fixed or option forwards.

In a fixed contract the performance date is pre-fixed whereas performance can be on any day during the period of the contract for option forwards.

Features:

§ It is customized and can be used by any person or institution

§ Price exposure can be hedged upto 100 %

§ No margins are payable

§ No initial cost

§ One to one negotiation leads to tremendous flexibility

§ Forward exchange rate is at par when Forward rate=Spot rate

§ Add premium when forward rate is greater than spot rate.

§ At discount when forward rate is less than spot rate.

§ Forward contracts can be of two types: fixed, range

Limitations:

§ No performance guarantee and his counter party or default risk.

§ Search for suitable counter party is difficult.

§ High penalty cost.

§ Absence of exchange intermediation.

For example:

Situation 1:There is a party A, who is importer. He import the goods from USA worth US$ 1000 for 100 units. He have to make payment of US$ 1000 after 2 months of the dealing. Now the party A needs US$1000 after 2 months and in the present time spot rate in the market is Rs. 60 = US$ 1. And he want to hedge the forex risk.

Situation 2: there is another party B who is seller of currency have the US$ 5000 and he is willing to sell.

Party AImporter US$ 1000/100 units.

Party BSeller of currency


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Payment after 2 monthsE= US$1=Rs.60

Expectation of exchange rate= Rs.65/US$1

Have currency US$ 5000E= US$1=Rs.60

Expectation of exchange rate= 63 incre.58 decre.

In the absence of forward contractParty A will contact to Party B after 2 months and make deal whatever the rate prevail in the

market.Exchange rate may be 63, 58, 60

In the presence of forward contractParty A contact to the party B and negotiate on three things, exchange rate, time of purchase,

quantity of the currency. After negotiation they decide that party A will buy US$ 1000 at the rate of Rs. 63/US$ after 2 months.

Through this the party hedges the forex risk.After 2 months

‘e’=FWR‘e’>FWR‘e’<FWR

UNIT 3

CURRENCY FUTURE


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A Foreign exchange derivative is a financial derivative where the underlying is a particular currency and/or its exchange rate these instruments are used either for currency speculation and arbitrage or for hedging foreign exchange risk.

• Forex/Currency Forwards

• Forex /Currency Swaps

• Forex/Currency Futures

• Forex/Currency Options

NSE was the first exchange to have received an in-principle approval from SEBI for setting up currency derivative segment.

The exchange lunched its currency futures trading platform on 29thAugust, 2008.

Currency futures on USD-INR were introduced for trading and subsequently the Indian rupee was allowed to trade against other currencies such as euro, pound sterling and the Japanese yen.

Currency Options was introduced on October 29, 2010.

Currency Futures

It is a standardized contract between the parties through recognized futures exchange to buy or sell currency of standardized quantity for specified price on a specified future date.

Futures are exchange-traded contracts to sell or buy financial instruments or physical commodities for a future delivery at an agreed price. There is an agreement to buy or sell a specified quantity of financial instrument commodity in a designated future month at a price agreed upon by the buyer and seller.To make trading possible, BSE specifies certain standardized features of the contract.A currency future, also known as FX future, is a futures contract to exchange one currency for another at a specified date in the future at a price (exchange rate) that is fixed on the purchase date. On NSE the price of a future contract is in terms of INR per unit of other currency e.g. US Dollars.Currency future contracts allow investors to hedge against foreign exchange risk. Currency Derivatives are available on four currency pairs viz. US Dollars (USD), Euro (EUR), Great Britain Pound (GBP) and Japanese Yen (JPY). Currency options are currently available on US Dollars.

A currency futures contract is different from a forward contract. The size of a future contract is standardized, involving fixed amount of different currencies. The date of delivery is also fixed, whereas in a forward contract, neither the size of the contract nor the delivery date is fixed. In a future contract, the buyer and the seller agree on:

§ A future delivery date


tr ader contact to his agent

agent contact to the commissi on broker

commissi on broker confirm the tr ade with agent

the agent inform the tr ader about the dealing price, time etc.

final settlement on maturity date

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§ The price to be paid on that future date

§ The quantity of the currency.

Process of Future Contract: When a trader has to enter a currency futures contract, he informs his agent who in turn informs the commission broker at the stock exchange. The commission broker executes the deal for a commission/fee. After the deal is executed, the commission broker confirms the trade with the agent of the trader. The agent informs the principal about the transaction and the future price. The final settlement is made on maturity.Currency futures market refers to organized foreign exchange market where a fixed amount of a currency is exchanged on a fixed maturity date.

Features of future contracts:

1. Size and maturity of the contract2. Use of pits (pit is a place where the currencies are traded)3. Transactions through a clearing house (clearing house is a part of the system with which

traders strike the deal)Clearing house involvement… National Securities Clearing Corporation Ltd. (NSCCL) at NSE and Indian Clearing Corporation Limited (ICCL)

4. Margin money (represents traders deposit with the clearing house for the adjustment of gain/loss)Initial, Maintenance and Variation

5. Marking to the market (involves daily comparison of spot rate with yesterday’s rate up to the maturity for the assessment of loss/gain)

6. Standardized Contract….. Quality, quantity, price, time period, daily price limits etc.7. Through recognized futures exchanges.. Derivatives segment of NSE/BSE8. Trading by member… exchange brokers9. Provide liquidity and reduction to counter party risk10. Better price discovery11. Regulation by … Acts, SEBI, FCRA etc.

Standardized items in future contracts:


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• Quantity of the underlying asset

• The date and month of delivery

• The units of price quotation and minimum change in price

• Location of settlement

Participants in future market:

• Hedgers

• Speculators

• Arbitrageurs

Currency forward vs currency future:

Basis Currency Forwards Currency Futures

Contract Customised Standardized

Regulation By and Large self regulated Exchange/C.H. etc.

Operation Traded directly On exchange

Credit/counterparty risk Exists for parties Exists for C.H.

Liquidity Poor High

Price discovery and Party difficult Better

Marking to Market Not applied Done settlement

Margins Not kept Required by parties

Currency options:

In finance, an option is a derivative financial instrument that specifies a contract between two parties for a future transaction on an asset at a reference price. The buyer of the option gains the right, but not the obligation, to engage in that transaction, while the seller incurs the corresponding obligation to fulfill the transaction. The price of an option derives from the


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difference between the reference price and the value of the underlying asset (commonly a stock, a bond, a currency or a futures contract) plus a premium based on the time remaining until the expiration of the option.

Currency Options Market refersto market for the exchange of currency where the option buyer enjoys the privilege of not exercising the option if the rate is not favorable.It is an agreement whereby the writer (seller/exchange) of the options contract gives the right (but not the obligation) to the buyer of the options contract, to buy or sell specified amount of currency at a strike price on/before the specified date. The buyer of the options contract pays premium to the seller, which is non-refundable.

Features of the Options contract:

§ Parties –Option Buyer and seller

§ Main two types- Call (Right to buy) and Put (Right to sell)

§ Premium- paid by buyer at the time of entering the contract.

§ Strike Price- on which currencies are agreed to be exchanged or predetermined price.

§ Maturity/expiration date

§ Execution –American (exercise of right on any date), European (only on maturity date)

§ Exchange traded and OTC-traded.

Important terminologies:

Option Holder :is the one who buys an option, which can be a call, or a put option. He enjoys the right to buy or sell the underlying asset at a specified price on or before specified time.His upside potential is unlimited while losses are limited to the premium paid by him to the option writer.

Option seller/ writer :is the one who is obligated to buy (in case of put option) or to sell (in case of call option), the underlying asset in case the buyer of the option decides to exercise his option. His profits are limited to the premium received from the buyer while his downside is unlimited.

Option Premium : Premium is the price paid by the buyer to the seller to acquire the right to buy or sell.


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Strike Price or Exercise Price : The strike or exercise price of an option is the specified/ predetermined price of the underlying asset at which the same can be bought or sold if the option buyer exercises his right to buy/ sell on or before the expiration day.

Expiration date : The date on which the option expires is known as the Expiration Date. On the Expiration date, either the option is exercised or it expires worthless.

Exercise Date : The date on which the option is actually exercised is called the Exercise Date.In case of European Options, the exercise date is same as the expiration date while in case of American Options, the options contract may be exercised any day between the purchase of the contract and its expiration date (see European/ American Option). In India, options on "SENSEX®" are European style, whereas options on individual are stocks American style.

Types of Currency Options Market:The options market is of three types:-

1. Listed Currency options market: Listed currency options market is found as a part of stock exchanges. The size and the maturity of the contract are normally fixed. The option buyer or the seller makes the deal with the help of a broker.Exchange-traded options are a class of exchange-traded derivatives. Exchange traded options have standardized contracts, and are settled through a clearing house with fulfillment guaranteed by the credit of the exchange. Since the contracts are standardized, accurate pricing models are often available. Exchange-traded options include:

stock options, commodity options, bond options and other interest rate options stock market index options or, simply, index options and options on futures contracts 2. Over the Counter Option Market: In case of the over-the-counter market, options deals

are finalised with the banks. The size of contract is normally bigger and the banks repackage the size of the contract according to the clients needs.Over-the-counter options (OTC options, also called "dealer options") are traded between two private parties, and are not listed on an exchange. The terms of an OTC option are unrestricted and may be individually tailored to meet any business need. In general, at least one of the counterparties to an OTC option is a well-capitalized institution. Option types commonly traded over the counter include:

interest rate options currency cross rate options, and options on swaps 3. Currency Future Option Market: In the currency futures options market, the options

are marked to market, as in the case of a futures contract.


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Types of options Contracts:Broadlly speaking, there are two types of options:

1. A call option gives the holder (buyer/ one who is long call), the right to buy specified quantity of the underlying asset at the strike price on or before expiration date in case of American option. The seller (one who is short call) however, has the obligation to sell the underlying asset if the buyer of the call option decides to exercise his option to buy.

2. A Put option gives the holder (buyer/ one who is long Put), the right to sell specified quantity of the underlying asset at the strike price on or before an expiry date in case of American option. The seller of the put option (one who is short Put) however, has the obligation to buy the underlying asset at the strike price if the buyer decides to exercise his option to sell.

Execution of option contract:

In case of call option: buying will be done from exchange on or before maturity. In case of put option: selling will be made to the exchange on or before the maturity

date.

Call option Put option

In the money Strike price < e Strike price >eAt the money Strike price =e Strike price = eOut of the money Strike price > e Strike price < e

§ In the money: when it is profitable for the parties to exercise their rights or to complete the contract.

§ At the money: when it is neither profitable nor in loss to exercise their rights.§ Out of the money: when it is not profitable for the parties to exercise their rights.

Future vs options contracts:

Future contracts Option contract Both the buyer and seller are obligated

to buy/sell the underlying asset. Futures Contracts have symmetric risk

profile for both the buyer as well as the seller.

Futures contracts prices are affected mainly by the prices of the underlying asset.

buyer enjoys the right & not the obligation, to buy or sell the underlying asset.

options have asymmetric risk profile. The prices of options are however;

affected by prices of the underlying asset, time remaining for expiry of the contract, interest rate & volatility of the underlying asset.

SWAPS:

Currency Swap: A currency swap is different from the interest -rate swap insofar as it (currency swap) involves two different currencies. This is the reason that the two currencies are exchanged


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in the beginning and again at maturity they are re-exchanged. The exchange of currencies is necessitated by the fact that one counter-party is able to borrow a particular currency at a lower interest rate than the other counter-party.

A swap is an agreement to exchange cashflows at specified future times according to certain specified rules. A swap can also be described as a custom tailored product in which two counterparties agree to exchange a stream of cash flows over an agreed period of time. The agreed amount which determines the cash flow may be exchanged upfront or may not be so exchanged. When it is not exchanged it is referred to as Notional principle.

Example: Suppose firm A can borrow the euro at a fixed rate of 8.0 per cent or the US dollar at a floating rate of one-year LIBOR. Firm B can borrow euro the at a fixed rate of 9.2 per cent and can borrow the US follar at one year LIBOR. If firm B needs the fixed rate euro, it will approach the swap dealer, provided that firm A needs the floating rate US dollar. The swap deal will be conducted in different stages, as follows:

Stage1: In the first stage, firm A borrows euro at 8.0 per cent interest rate. Firm B borrows US dollars at LIBOR.

Stage 2: The two firms exchange the borrowed currencies with the help of the swap dealer. After the exchange firm A will possess US dollars. Firm B will posses euros.

Stage 1 and 2 of Currency Swap:

EURO DEBT MARKET

DOLLAR DEBT MARKET

FIRM A SWAP DEALER FIRM B

Stage 3: Interest payment will flow. Firm A will pay LIBOR on the US dollar that will reach the US dollar market first, through, the swap dealer and then through Firm B. Similarly, firm B will pay a fixed rate interest that will flow to the fixed rate through the swap dealer and through firm A. Firm B will pay a fixed rate of interest to the swap dealer, which will be more than 8.o per


PRINCIPAL

PRINCIPAL

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cent but less than 9.20 per cent. It will be, say, 8.60 per cent. The swap dealer will take its own commission and shall pay to firm A in this case only, say, 8.40 per cent.

Stage 3 :

8%

EURO DEBT MARKET

DOLLAR DEBT MARKET LIBOR


Stage 4 :The two principals are again exchanged between the two counter-parties. Firm A gets back euro and repays them to the lender. Firm B gets back US dollars and repays it to the lender.

Stage 4:

PRINCIPAL EURO DEBT MARKET

DOLLAR DEBT MARKET PRINCIPAL


Features of SWAPS:

§ Exchange of interest payments on some agreed-upon notional amount.

§ No exchange of principal amount


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§ Converts the interest rate on an asset or liability from:

fixed to floating floating to fixed floating to floating

§ A swap is a powerful tool which allows the user to align risk characteristics of assets and

liabilities

§ A swap transaction, is a custom-tailored bilateral agreement

§ two counter-parties agree to exchange specified cash flows at periodic intervals over a

pre-determined life of the swap on a notional amount

§ Features of currency SWAP:

§ A contract between two counterparties.

§ Commitment to an exchange of cashflows over an agreed period

§ One counterparty pays a fixed or floating rate on a principal amount, denominated in one

currency

§ The other counterparty pays a fixed or floating rate on a (different) principal amount,

denominated in another currency

§ At the end of the period, the corresponding principal amounts are exchanged at a pre-

determined FX rate (usually spot FX rate)

§ Exchange Of Principal Takes Place At The Beginning & End Whereas Interest Payments

Takes Place During The Life Of The Swap.

§ Banks Act As Intermediaries To Eliminate Counterparty Risk. Product Available In

India

§ The swap value is sensitive to Forex rates

UNIT 4

FOREIGN EXCHANGE EXPOSURE


Currency Exposure

Accounting Exposure

Transaction Exposure

Translation Exposure

Economic/ Operating Exposure

Contingent Exposure

Competitive/Strategic Exposure

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Introduction:

Foreign exchange risk is the risk that the value of an asset or liability will change because of a change in exchange rates. Because these international obligations span time, foreign exchange risk can arise.

Forex Risk- is the possibility of loss to any individual/business concern due to unanticipated changes in exchange rate.

Forex Exposure- is the extent to which transactions, assets and liabilities of an enterprise are denominated in currencies other than reporting currency of the enterprise itself. The reporting currency is generally the home currency of parent company. The exposure arises because the enterprise denominates transactions in a foreign currency or it operates in a foreign market.

The exposure is measured by the value of assets and liabilities or transactions denominated to foreign currency.

When one talk about foreign exchange exposure, it may be noted that such exposure occurs because of unanticipated change in the exchange rate.

Suppose the spot rate is Rs. 40/US$ and the one month forward rate is Rs. 40.30/US$. This means that the market has already anticipated a depreciation in the value of the rupee vis-à-vis the USDollar by Rs.0.30. if the value of the rupee depreciates to 40.30 per dollar, there would be no foreign exchange exposure inasmuch as this depreciation is anticipated by the market, but if the rupee value depreciates to 40.50 foreign exchange exposure would be said to exist because it is beyond expectation.

Exposure is the extent to which you face foreign exchange risk.

Types of forex exposure:

The diagram shows the two types of forex exposure:

1. Accounting exposure

§Transaction

exposure

§Translation exposure

2. Economic exposure


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§ Contingent exposure

§ Competitive exposure1. Accounting exposure: Accounting exposure is the exchange rate exposure that results

when consolidated financial statements are prepared in a single currency.Accounting exposure can be divided into two parts:

§ Transaction exposure: When business is conducted at international level, receipts and payments are also made in foreign currency. The unanticipated changes in exchange rate between two currencies leads to forex exposure. The un-anticipation due to transaction of currencies, in the form of receivables and payables is referred to transaction exposure. T.E. arises because a receivable or payable is denominated in a foreign currency. T.E. is concerned with how changes in exchange rate affect the home currency value of foreign currency denominated cash flows relating to transactions which have already been entered into. Also called cash flow exposure. Since the gain/loss arises on converting the foreign currency into domestic currency, so it is also called conversion exposure.

Transaction exposure involves changes in the present cash flows, on account of:i. Export and import of commodities on open account:- There are two

situations: If a firm has to make payments for imports in a foreign currency

and the foreign currency appreciates, the firm will have to incure loss in term of its own currency.

Similarly, if an exporter has to receive foreign currency for its export and the foreign currency depreciates, the exporter will have to face loss in terms of its own currency.

ii. Borrowing and lending in a foreign currency:- The borrower of a foreign currency is put to loss if that particular foreign currency appreciates.

iii. Intra-firm flows:- Again, changes in exchange rate laters the value of the intra firm cash flow.

Situations which gives rise to Transaction Exposure:

Conversion of currency at the time of ----

§ Import payables or export receivables denominated in a foreign currency.

§ Repayment of loan or interest payment and vice-versa.

§ Making dividend or royalty payment and vice-versa.


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In every case foreign currency value of the item is fixed, the uncertainty pertains to home currency value.

T.E. usually has short time horizons and operating cash flows are affected.

Management of Transaction Exposure:

1. External strategies/ Techniques: They include the forward market hedge, money market hedge, future market hedge, and the options market hedge.

Forward Market Hedge:- In the forward market hedge, the exporter sells forward, and the importer buys forward, the foreign currency in which the trade is invoiced.For Example:- Suppose an Indian exporter signs a contract for leather export to USA for US$ 1000. The export proceeds are to be received within three months. The exporter fears a drop in the value of the US dollar, which may diminish the export earnings. To avoid diminution, the exporter goes for a three-month forward contract and sells US$ 1000 forward. The spot as well as the forward rate is Rs. 40/US$. If the dollar depreciates to Rs. 39 after three months, the export earnings in the absence of any forward contract would have dminished to Rs. 39000. But since the exporter has already sold forward a similar amount of dollars, the loss occurred due to depreciation of the dollar will be met through the forward contract Selling the dollars on maturity would fetch him Rs. 40000which will be equal to the original export value.

Future Market Hedge:- Hedging in a future market is similar. The only difference is of the procedure, with a view to the varying characteristics of the future market.

Option Market Hedge:- For hedging in the currency options market, the importer buys a call option or sells a put option or performs both the functions at the same time. The exporter buys a put option and sells a call option or performs both the functions at the same time. The exporter buys a put option and sells a call option or performs both the functions simultaneously.

Money Market hedge:- Money market hedge is just taking a money market position to cover future payables or receivables position.


Mgt of T.E.

External strategies/tech.

Forward contract

Future Contract

Option Contract

Money Market Hedge

Internal strategies/ tech.

Exposure Netting

Currency Invoicing

FCA's

Leading and Lagging

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An importer, who is to cover future payables, firstly, borrows local currency; secondly converts the borrowed local currency into the currency of payables; and finally, invests the converted amount for a period matching with the payments to be made for imports.

On the contrary, an exporter hedging receivables, firstly , borrows the currency in which the receivables are denominated; secondly, converts the borrowed currency into local currency and finally invests the converted amount for a maturity coinciding with the receipt of export proceeds.

2. Internal strategies/ Techniques: it includes techniques such as: Exposure netting: It involves offsetting exposures in one currency with

exposures in another currency, where exchange rates are expected to move in such a way that losses (gains) in the first exposed position should be offset by gains (losses) from the second currency exposure.

Receivables>Payables=Net ReceivablesReceivables<Payables=Net Payables

If a company has both receivables and payables in a foreign currency it need not hedge its receivables and payables separately, but do so only for net position.

R=5000/-, P=4000/-, N=1000/- of exposure will be considered.In exposure netting, the entire exposure portfolio matters rather than gain (loss) on any individual monetary unit (currency). The gain in receivables is offset by loss in payables and vice versa. In case of multi-currency transactions, the currencies can be grouped into two-(i) those whose value is likely to appreciate, (ii) those whose value is likely to depreciate. The exposure due to receivables in a currency which is likely to appreciate may be offset by payables in another currency which also likely to appreciate. Alternatively, netting can be done by having near equal amount of receivables in two currencies- one likely to appreciate and other likely to depreciate. Netting assumes importance in the context of cash management in an MNC with a number of subsidiaries and extensive intra-company transactions.

Currency Invoicing: The exchange risk can be avoided or transferred by one party to another, if the transactions are denominated in local (home) currency.This invoicing depends upon the relative bargaining power of parties because in this case other party may suffer. To strike a balance, the transactions may be invoiced partly in home currency and partly in foreign currency or full amount in any third (stable) currency which is accepted to both. Also called Third country’s currency denomination, Partial H.C. denomination or H.C. denomination.

Foreign currency accounts: Exchange risk can be minimised if an account is maintained abroad, in the currency of trade, through which all transactions can be routed. Opening of accounts expressed in foreign currency with authorized


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dealers in India by non-residents/residents require general or special permission of Reserve Bank. Non-resident individuals/entities are permitted to maintain foreign currency accounts/deposits in India under special schemes. Reserve Bank has also granted general permission for opening of foreign currency accounts in India to residents/returning Indians under different schemes.Dual advantage for the trader-Since exports can be paid for imports, the exposure remains for only the net balance. In general conditions, the bank may apply buying rate for exports and selling rate for imports with spread bw the rates towards margin. Thus, the loss of exchange in converting from foreign currency into home currency is avoided.

Leading and lagging: Leads the payment (pay before any change/ preponement)When foreign currency is expected to be depreciated– the exporter would like to receive payments earlier than the normal date.When the foreign currency is expected to be appreciated– the importer would like to pay before normal date.Lag the payment (pay after any change/ postponement)Expectation of appreciation in foreign currency--exporter would delay the receivables. Expectation of foreign currency depreciation– importer will delay the payments.

§ Translation exposure: Also called accounting/balance sheet exposureAn MNC may wish to translate the financial statement of its subsidiaries/ affiliates in its home currency (Parent’s financial statements) in order to compare financial results.Generally, the investors and regulatory bodies wish to know the real financial position of an enterprise as a whole.Translation exposure arises when a parent MNC is required to consolidate a foreign subsidiary’s financial statements with the parent’s own statements, after translating the subsidiary statements from its functional currency into parents’ home currency with the changed exchange rate. Actual conversion of currencies does not take place because the translation of assets, liabilities, profit/loss is done notionally.The translation can be done at different rates-

Historic rate- the exchange rate on the date the assets were purchased or liability was aroused.

Current rate- the rate prevailing on the date of preparation of balance sheet. Average rate- the avg. rate prevailed throughout the year.

Assets and liabilities are not liquidated, so no direct effect on the cash flows.The difference bw exposed assets and exposed liabilities is called Translation Exposure.

If EA>EL=positive/long/asset TE

If EA<EL=negative/short/liability TE


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The translation gain/loss is shown as separate component of shareholder’s equity in Balance-sheet. This G/L does not affect the current earnings but surely future earnings.

Translation G/L is measure by the diff bw the value of Assets/Liabilities at the historic rate and current rate.

T.G/L= A&L at current rate-A&L at historic rate.

Measurement and management of Translation Exposure:

1. Measurement methods: it includes:

§ Current/ non current methods: under this method, current assets and current

liabilities of the subsidiary are translated at current rate or the post-change rate. The fixed assets and long term liabilities are translated at the historical or pre-change rate or at a rate at which they were acquired. In fact, this approach is based on traditional accounting that makes a clear-cut distinction between current and long term items. The magnitude of the exposure is measured by the difference between current assets and current liabilities, that is, the subsidiary’s working capital. The critics of this approach opine that the long term debt which is also exposed to exchange rate change is ignored by this method. As far as the income statement items are concerned, they are translated at the average rate of exchange-the average of the pre-change and the post-change rates. However, there are few income statement items which by virtue of being closely ralated to the non current and long term liabilities are translated at the pre-change rate.

§ Monetary/non monetary method: under this method, the assets and liabilities are

classified as monetary and non monetary. Items that represent a claim to receive, or


Translation Exposure

Measurement Methods Current/ non-current Monetary/ non-monetaryTemporalCurrent Rate

Management MethodsBalance-sheet HedgingExposure NettingLeading and LaggingForward contractTransfer PricingSwaps

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an obligation to pay, a fixed amount of foreign currency such as cash, accounts receivable, accounts payable, etc. come under the monetary group, while the physical assets and liabilities such as fixed assets, inventory and long term investment are treated as non monetary items are translated at historical rate. The translation exposure under this method is measured by the net monetary assets or by the difference between the monetary assets and the monetary liabilities. As far as the income statement items are concerned, they are translated at average rate and those closely related to non monetary assets and liabilities are translated at historical rate.

§ Current rate method: this method is also known as closing rate method. In this

method all items of the income statement and the balance sheet are translated at current rate or the post-change rate. This method is preferred in case of those host countries where the local currency accounts are periodically adjusted for inflation. The translation exposure in this case is simply the net worth of the as stated in local currency. The merit of this method is that the relative proportion of individual balance sheet accounts remains the same and the process of translation does not distort the various balance sheet ratios. But the demerit is that the fixed assets are also translated at current rate and that goes against the principles of accounting.

§ Temporal method: the temporal method uses historical rate for the items that are

stated at historical cost. For example, fixed assets are translated at historical rate but items that are stated at replacement cost, realizable value, market value are translated at current rate. This is done in order to preserve the value of assets and liabilities as shown in the original financial statement.

Summary of translation methods

Exchange rate Current rate method

Current/non current methods

Monetary/non monetary method

Temporal method

Current rate All items Current assets and current liabilities

All liabilities and current assets

except inventory

All liabilities and all current assets

if inventory shown at market

priceHistorical rate All items Fixed assets and

long term liabilities

Inventory and fixed assets

Fixed assets and inventory if not shown at market

priceAverage rate All items Income

statement items except those

related to fixed

Income statement items

except those related to fixed

Income statement items except

those related to fixed assets


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assets assets

2. Management methods: it includes:

§ Balance sheet hedging: It means to bring about a balance bw the EA and EL, so

that net exp becomes zero.In case of ATE= EA>EL

The exp can be made zero by increasing the liability amount in the functional currency (foreign currency) of subsidiary unit without making any change in asset.

In case of LTE= EA<ELBy increasing the amount of assets in subsidiary books.

§ Leading and Lagging-

§ ATE= EA>EL

Delay in payment of liabilities=EL (Lags)Expediting(Hasten) the realisation of assets= EA (Leads)

§ Transfer Pricing-

The price at which goods, assets and liabilities are transferred from parent company to subsidiary or branch or vice versa.

ATE= EA>ELTransfer price of assets can be shown lesser than actual, thus, decrease in amount of assets and net will be zero.

3. Economic exposure: Economic exposure measures the risk that the value of a security or a firm will decline due to an unexpected change in relative foreign exchange rates-Would reduce the value of the security or firm-The most important type of exposure for security investorsMNCs generally not only export/import finished products, but raw materials also. So, whenever there is a change in exchange rate, it will have direct or indirect impact on the cost of product, price of product, sale of product, revenues of firm and overall financial position of the firm and overall financial position of the firm or operations of the firm. So, any unexpected change in exchange rate affecting operations of the firm is called operating exposure. Operating exposure arises when unexpected exchange rate changes make an impact (directly/ indirectly) over the future cash flows/operating cash flows of the co.

§ Contingent- Impact of unanticipated exchange rate changes over the firm’s

revenues, operating costs and operating net flows in the coming future.


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§ Competitive/Strategic- Impact of unanticipated exchange rate change over the

competitiveness of the firm.

It may be due to a) increase in costs, b) inability to service the market in normal way.

Features of economic exposure/ operating exposure:

• Generally a medium/long run aspect

• Total impact of a real exchange rate change on firm’s sales, costs and revenues depends upon the response of consumers, suppliers, competitors and Govt.

• Macro-economic shock

• Exchange rate change affects both future and current cash flows.

• Measurement of EOE is very difficult as it s an impact of various economic factors, like- D&S, Inflation rate, extent of competition etc.

Management of economic exposure:


Management of EOE

Marketing I/ S-Market Selection-Product Strategy-Pricing Strategy

-Promotional Strategy

Production I/S-Product Sourcing-Input Mix

-Plant Location-Raising Productivity

Finance I/S-Balance sheet Hedging-Leading and Lagging

-Parallel Loans-Currency Invoicing

Strategic I/S

-Diversification of operating Base strategy-Diversification of Firm’s financing Strategy

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UNIT 5

International monetary system:

What is International Monetary System:

This term denotes the institutions under which payments are made for transactions that cross national boundaries. In particular, the international monetary system determines how foreign exchange rates are set and how governments can effect exchange rates (Samuelson and Nordhaus, 2005, p.609).

The international monetary system refers to the institutional arrangements that countries adopt to govern exchange rates. The rules and procedures for exchanging national currencies are collectively known as the international monetary system. This system doesn't have a physical presence, like the Federal Reserve System, nor is it as codified as the Social Security system.

They provide means of payment acceptable between buyers and sellers of different nationality, including deferred payment. It addresses to solve the problems relating to international trade.

Liquidity Adjustment Stability

Adjustment : a good system must be able to adjust imbalances in balance of payments quickly and at a relatively lower cost;

Stability and Confidence: the system must be able to keep exchange rates relatively fixed and people must have confidence in the stability of the system;

Liquidity : the system must be able to provide enough reserve assets for a nation to correct its balance of payments deficits without making the nation run into deflation or inflation.

Meaning:

International monetary systems are sets of internationally agreed rules, conventions and supporting institutions, that facilitate international trade, cross border investment and generally there allocation of capital between nation states.


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International monetary system refers to the system prevailing in world foreign exchange markets through which international trade and capital movement are financed and exchange rates are determined.

Central banks, international financial institutions, commercial banks and various types of money market funds — along with open markets for currency and, depending on institutional structure, government bonds — are all part of the international monetary system.

The International Monetary System is part of the institutional framework that binds national economies, such a system permits producers to specialize in those goods for which they have a comparative advantage, and serves to seek profitable investment opportunities on a global basis.

International monetary system is defined as a set of procedures, mechanism, processes, and institutions to establish that rate at which exchange rate is determined in respect to other currency. To understand the complex procedure of international trading practice, it is pertinent to have a look at the historical perspective of the financial and monetary system.

Features

§ Flow of international trade and investment according to comparative advantage.

§ Stability in foreign exchange and should be stable.

§ Promoting Balance of Payments adjustments to prevent disruptions associated with

temporary or chronic imbalances.

§ Providing countries with sufficient liquidity to finance temporary balance of payments

deficits.

§ Should at least try to avoid adding further uncertainty.

§ Allowing member countries to pursue independent monetary and fiscal policies.

Importance of IMSThe importance of the international monetary system was well described by economist - Robert Solomon:-

§ Like the traffic lights in a city, the international monetary system is taken for granted

until it begins to malfunction and to disrupt people’s lives. …

§ A well functioning monetary system will facilitate international trade and investment

and smooth adaptation to change.


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§ A monetary system that functions poorly may not only discourage the development of

trade and investment among nations but subject their economies to disruptive shocks when necessary adjustments to change are prevented or delayed.

(Robert Solomon, The International Monetary System, 1945 – 1981: An Insider’s View (Harper & Row, New York 1982), pp. 1,7.)

Stages in IMS

1. Classical Gold Standard: Historically, the most important fixed-exchange-rate system was the gold standard, which was used off and on from 1717 until 1933 (Samuelson and Nordhaus, 2005, p.610). In this system, each country defined the value of its currency in terms of a fixed amount of gold, thereby establishing fixed exchange rates among the countries on the gold standard. The United States adopted the gold standard in 1879 and defined the US$ as 23.22 fine grains of gold. With 480 fine grains per troy ounce, it took $20.67 to equal one ounce of gold (Levich, 2001, p. 26). Similarly, the British pound was defined as £1 = 113 grains of fine gold. So it took £4.2474 to equal one ounce of gold. The exchange rate was determined at $4.86656/£ based on the gold contents of the currencies. Exchange rates were fixed for all countries on the gold standard. The exchange rates (also called “part values” or “parities”) for different currencies were determined by the gold content of their monetary units.

Rules of this system:

§ Each country defined the value of its currency in terms of gold.

§ Exchange rate between any two currencies was calculated as X currency per ounce of

gold/ Y currency per ounce of gold.

§ These exchange rates were set by arbitrage depending on the transportation costs of

gold.

§ Central banks are restricted in not being able to issue more currency than gold

reserves.

Advantages:


Classical Gold standard (1860-1914)

Interwar Period (1918-1939)

Bretton Woods System (1944-1971)

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§ Monetary Discipline - because central banks throughout the world were obliged to fix

the money price of gold. They could not allow their money suppliers to grow more rapidly than real money demand, since such rapid monetary growth eventually raises the money prices of all goods and services, including gold.

§ Symmetric monetary adjustment refers to the fact that no country in the system

occupied a privileged position by being relieved of the commitment to intervene (or to defend the value of its currency). Countries shared equally in the cost or burden (relative prices changes, unemployment or recession) of balance of payments adjustment.

Argument in favor of this system:

§ Price Stability:- By trying the money supply to the supply of gold, central banks are

unable to expand the money supply.

§ Facilitates BOP adjustment automatically:- The basic idea is that a country that runs a

current account deficit needs to export money (gold) to the countries that run a surplus. The surplus of gold reduces the deficit country’s money supply and increases the surplus country’s money supply.

Argument against this system:

§ The growth of output and the growth of gold supplies needs to be closely linked. For

example, if the supply of gold increased faster than the supply of goods; there would be inflationary pressure. Conversely, if output increased faster than supplies of gold; there would be deflationary pressure.

§ Volatility in the supply of gold can cause adverse shocks to the economy, rapid changes

in the supply of gold would cause rapid changes in the supply of money and may cause wild fluctuations in prices that could prove quite disruptive

§ In practice monetary authorities may not be forced to strictly tie their hands in limiting

the creation of money.

§ Countries with respectable monetary policy makers cannot use monetary policy to fight

domestic issues like unemployment.

2. Interwar period (1918-1939)The years between the world wars have been described as a period of de-globalization, as both international trade and capital flows shrank compared to the period before World War I. During World War I countries had abandoned the gold standard and, except for the United States. The onset of the World Wars saw the end of the gold standard as countries, other than the U.S., stopped making their currencies convertible and started


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printing money to pay for war related expenses. After the war, with high rates of

inflation and a large stock of outstanding money, a return to the old gold standard was only possible through a deep recession inducing monetary contraction as practiced by the British after WW I. The focus shifted from external cooperation to internal reconstruction and events like the Great Depression further illustrated the breakdown of the international monetary system, bringing such bad policy moves such as a deep monetary contraction in the face of a recession.

Conditions prior to Bretton Woods

§ Prior to WW I major national currencies were on a system of fixed exchange rates under

the international gold standards. This system had been abandoned during WW I.

§ There were fluctuating exchange rates from the end of the War to 1925. But it collapsed

with the happening of the Great Depression.

§ Many countries resorted to protectionism and competitive devaluation. But depression

disappeared during WW II

3. Bretton Woods SystemThe Bretton Woods system was monetary management system that established a new monetary order. The name comes from the location of the meeting where the agreements were drawn up, Bretton Woods, New Hamshire. This meeting took place in July 1944. The Bretton Woods agreement was responsible for the set up of the International Monetary Fund. The Bretton Woods System was an attempt to avoid worldwide economic disasters such as the ones experienced in the 1930's

Purpose of Bretton Woods System

§ The purpose of the Bretton Woods meeting was to set up new system of rules,

regulations, and procedures for the major economies of the world.

§ The main goal of the agreement was economic stability for the major economic

powers of the world.

§ The system was designed to address systemic imbalances without upsetting the

system as a whole.

§ British and American policy makers began to plan the post war international

monetary system in the early 1940s.


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§ The objective was to create an order that combined the benefits of an integrated and

relatively liberal international system with the freedom for governments to pursue domestic policies aimed at promoting full employment and social wellbeing.

§ The principal architects of the new system, John Maynard Keynes and Harry

Dexter White

Features of Bretton woods:

§ The chief features of the Bretton Woods system were an obligation for each country to

adopt a monetary policy that maintained the exchange rate by tying its currency to the U.S. dollar and the ability of the IMF to bridge temporary imbalances of payments.

§ Also, there was a need to address the lack of cooperation among other countries and to

prevent competitive devaluation of the currencies as well

Bretton woods agreements

§ Creation of International Monetary Fund (IMF) to promote consultations and

collaboration on international monetary problems and countries with deficit balance of payments

§ Establish a par value of currency with approval of IMF

§ Maintain exchange rate for its currency within one percent of declared par value

§ Each member to pay a quota into IMF pool – one quarter in gold and the rest in their

own currency

§ The pool to be used for lending

§ Dollar was to be convertible to gold till international instrument was introduced

§ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) was created to

rehabilitate war- torn countries and help developing countries

§ The terms of the agreement were negotiated by 44 nations, led by the U.S and Britain.

The main hope of creating a new financial system was to stabilize exchange rates, provide capital for reconstruction from the war and foment international cooperation.

Structure of International Monetary System:


IMS

International Institution

Private Participants Regional Institutions Govt. institution

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The main components in the international monetary structure are global institutions (such as the International Monetary Fund and Bank for International Settlements), national agencies and government departments (such as central banks and finance ministries), private institutions acting on the global scale (such as banks and hedge funds), and regional institutions (like the Eurozone or NAFTA)

1. International institution: the most prominent institution are the internal monetary fund , the world bank, the world trade organization. The IMF keeps account of the international balance of payments accounts of member states, but also lends money as a last resort for members in financial distress. Membership is based on the amount of money a country provides to the fund relative to the size of its role in the international trading system.

The World Bank aims to provide funding, takes up credit risk, or offers favorable terms to developing countries for development projects that couldn't be obtained by the private sector.The World Trade Organization settles trade disputes and negotiates international trade agreements in its rounds of talks (currently the Doha Round) .

2. Private Participants: Also important to the international monetary structure are private participants, such as players active in the markets of stocks, bonds, foreign exchange, derivatives, and commodities, as well as investment banking. This includes commercial banks, hedge funds and private equity, pension funds, insurance companies, mutual funds, and sovereign wealth funds.

3. Regional Institutions: Certain regional institutions also play a role in the structure of the international monetary system. For example, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Eurozone, Mercosur, and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) are all examples of regional trade blocs, which are very important to the international monetary structure .

4. Government Institutions: Governments are also a part of the international monetary structure, primarily through their finance ministries: they pass the laws and regulations for financial markets, and set the tax burden for private players such as banks, funds, and exchanges. They also participate actively through discretionary spending. They are closely tied to central banks that issue government debt, set interest rates and deposit requirements, and intervene in the foreign exchange market.


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Foreign exchange control in India:

§ Statutory Basis for Exchange Control:

The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973 (FERA 1973), as amended by theForeign Exchange Regulation (Amendment) Act, 1993, forms the statutory basis forExchange Control in India. The FERA1973 as amended, is reproduced in Volume II atAppendix I.

§ Rules, Notifications and Orders issued under the Act

Rules, Notifications and Orders issued by the Central Government and Notificationsand Orders issued by Reserve Bank of India under FERA 1973 which are in force arereproduced in Volume II at Appendix II and Appendix III respectively, classified Section-wise.

§ Transactions Regulated by Exchange Control

The types of transactions which are affected by the Foreign Exchange Regulation Actare, in general, all those having international financial implications. In particular, thefollowing matters are regulated by Exchange Control:

i. Purchase and sale of and other dealings in foreign exchange and maintenance ofbalances at foreign centres

ii. Procedure for realisation of proceeds of exportsiii. Payments to non-residents or to their accounts in Indiaiv. Transfer of securities between residents and non-residents and acquisition and

holding of foreign securitiesv. Foreign travel with exchange

vi. Export and import of currency, cheques, drafts, travellers cheques and other financialinstruments, securities, etc.

vii. Activities in India of branches of foreign firms and companies and foreignnationals

viii. Foreign direct investment and portfolio investment in India including investmentby non-resident Indian nationals/persons of Indian origin and corporate bodiespredominantly owned by such persons

ix. Appointment of non-residents and foreign nationals and foreign companies asagents in India

§ Organisation of Exchange Control Department

(i) Powers conferred upon Reserve Bank by FERA 1973 and Central GovernmentNotifications issued under the Act are exercised by the Exchange Control Department of ReserveBank. The Department has its Central Office at Mumbai and Offices at other centres withjurisdiction as indicated below:

OfficeAhmedabad Bangalore

Bhopal

JurisdictionState of Gujarat

State of KarnatakaState of Orissa


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Bhubaneswar Calcutta

Chandigarh

Chennai

Kochi

Guwahati

Hyderabad

State of Madhya PradeshStates of Sikkim and West Bengal and Union

Territory of Andaman and Nicobar IslandsStates of Haryana (excluding the districts of

Faridabad, Gurgaon andSonepat), Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and Union

Territory ofChandigarh

State of Tamil Nadu and Union Territory of Pondicherry

State of Kerala and Union Territory of Lakshadweep

States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,Nagaland and Tripura

State of Andhra Pradesh

(ii) Nagpur Office of Reserve Bank will deal with applications from persons, firmsand companies resident in the districts of Akola, Amravati, Bhandara, Buldhana,Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Nagpur, Wardha and Yeotmal of the State of Maharashtra, for travel and sundry remittances outlined in Annexure I to Chapter 8 which are beyond the powers delegated to authorised dealers.

(iii) Reference to Reserve Bank should be made to the office of Exchange ControlDepartment within whose jurisdiction the applicant person, firm or company resides orfunctions unless otherwise indicated. If for any particular reason, a firm or a company desires to deal with a different office of ECD, it may approach the office within whose jurisdiction it functions for necessary approval.

Important provision of FEMA:

The Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) was an act passed in the winter session of Parliament in 1999, which replaced Foreign Exchange Regulation Act. This act seeks to make offences related to foreign exchange civil offences. It extends to the whole of India.

The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1973 in India was replaced on June 2000 by the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FERA), which was passed in 1999. The FERA was passed in 1973 at a time when there was acute shortage of foreign exchange in the country.

It had a controversial 27 years stint during which many bosses of the Indian corporate world found themselves at the mercy of the Enforcement Directorate. Moreover, any offence under FERA was a criminal offence liable to imprisonment. But FEMA makes offences relating to foreign civil offences.

FEMA had become the need of the hour to support the pro- liberalisation policies of the Government of India. The objective of the Act is to consolidate and amend the law relating to


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foreign exchange with the objective of facilitating external trade and payments for promoting the orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India.

FEMA extends to the whole of India. It applies to all branches, offices and agencies outside India owned or controlled by a person, who is a resident of India and also to any contravention there under committed outside India by two people whom this Act applies.

The Main Features of the FEMA:

The following are some of the important features of Foreign Exchange Management Act:

§ It is consistent with full current account convertibility and contains provisions for

progressive liberalisation of capital account transactions.

§ It is more transparent in its application as it lays down the areas requiring specific

permissions of the Reserve Bank/Government of India on acquisition/holding of foreign exchange.

§ It classified the foreign exchange transactions in two categories, viz. capital account and

current account transactions.

§ It provides power to the Reserve Bank for specifying, in , consultation with the central

government, the classes of capital account transactions and limits to which exchange is admissible for such transactions.

§ It gives full freedom to a person resident in India, who was earlier resident outside India,

to hold/own/transfer any foreign security/immovable property situated outside India and acquired when s/he was resident.

§ This act is a civil law and the contraventions of the Act provide for arrest only in

exceptional cases.

§ FEMA does not apply to Indian citizen’s resident outside India.

FERA vs FEMA

PROVISIONS

81 in FERA & 49 in FEMA

NEW TERMS IN FEMA


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Capital Account Transaction, current Account Transaction, etc

DEFINITION OF AUTHORIZED PERSON

Authorized Dealer in FERA & Authorized Person in FEMA

MEANING OF "RESIDENT" AS COMPARED WITH INCOME TAX ACT

Citizenship under FERA & 182 days stay under FEMA as per IT act, 1961

PUNISHMENT

As per code of criminal procedure, 1973 under FERA

Civil offence only punishable with some amount of money as a penalty. Imprisonment is prescribed only when one fails to pay the penalty under FEMA

QUANTUM OF PENALTY

Monetary penalty payable under FERA was nearly the five times the amount involved

RIGHT OF ASSISTANCE DURING LEGAL PROCEEDINGS
