Copyright & A K-C

Copyright & A K-C

Creating Powerful Brands in Consumer, Service and Industrial

Markets

Third Edition

Leslie de Chernatony

and

Malcolm McDonald

BUTTERWORTH

HEINEMANN

OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK

PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SIDNEY TOKIO

Copyright & A K-C

,

. ..

-

,

080111 , 080300 ,

070801

Copyright & A K-C

2012

339.138(075.8)

65.290-273-1

49

, ..

..

, .

49 . : - , 080111 , 080300 , 070801 / , ; . . . .. ; .. . .: -, 559 . ( ). I. , .

ISBN 0 7506 5980 7 (.) ISBN 5-238-00894-5 (.)

CIP P ,

, , - -. : -, - , . - .

65.290-273-1

ISBN 0 7506 5980 7 (.) ISBN 5-238-00894-5 (.) Copyright 1992, 1998, 2003, Leslie de Chernatony and Malcolm McDonald. All rights reserved. This edition of Creating Powerful Brands 3rd edition by Leslie De Chernatony and Malcolm McDonald is published by arrangement with Elsevier Ltd, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, England, by UNITY-DANA Publisher, 1, ul. Irina Levchenko, Moscow, 123298, Russia. The right of Leslie de Chernatony and Malcolm McDonald to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with Copyright, Designs and pat-ents Act 1988.

-, , , 2006

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Copyright & A K-C

2012.

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Copyright & A K-C

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7 283

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Copyright & A K-C

VIII

318 321 (ECR) 323 ECR 326 ECR 329 331 333 337

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XIII

(Malcolm

McDonald)

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Copyright & A K-C

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Copyright & A K-C

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Copyright & A K-C

1

9

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Copyright & A K-C

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10

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Copyright & A K-C

I -

12

. - -. , , , - . , , : - (goodwill). .

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Copyright & A K-C

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13

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Copyright & A K-C

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14

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- (added values). , . - , , , , .

Copyright & A K-C

1

15

, - ( ) Diet Pepsi Diet Coke. (). :

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( ), -:

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, - -

Copyright & A K-C

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16

. , , , . , - , , - , , . 1.3.

, , , , (80 %- 20 %- )

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Copyright & A K-C

1

17

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Copyright & A K-C

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18

. , Philip Morris Kraft 12,9 ., - Kraft. Grand Metropolitan Pillsbury' 5,5 ., 50 % Pillsbury', . RHM , - .

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Copyright & A K-C

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Copyright & A K-C

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20

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4556.

Copyright & A K-C

2

, - . , - , , , , , . , , -. -, .

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, , -

Copyright & A K-C

2

23

, - , . , , , - , -, , - , .

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, , - , , . 1990-, VW Skoda, , - . Skoda -, , , , - . - . Skoda , Skoda !

Copyright & A K-C

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24

, -, --, - -, - , - , - . , , , -. , - , - -, - , .

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Copyright & A K-C

2

25

, , . - - Rank Hovis McDougal. 1988 . , - 678 . . , . Jacobs Suchard Nestl - Rowntree. - Rowntree, , 300 . . Nestl, 2,5 . . 2,2 . . , , Nestl, Rowntree, KitKat, Polo, Quality Street After Eight Mints!

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(: Interbrand)

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Coca-Cola 69,6

Microsoft 64,1

IBM 51,2

General Electric 41,3

Intel 30,9

Nokia 30,0

Disney 29,3

McDonald's 26,4

Marlboro 24,2

Mercedes 21,0

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Copyright & A K-C

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26

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Copyright & A K-C

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27

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Copyright & A K-C

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28

. - .

, , . , ( - ), , , , - , . - , , : Age Concern, Red Cross ( ), Greenpeace Oxfam.

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Copyright & A K-C

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30

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Copyright & A K-C

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31

(generic) , , - . , , - .

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MAG-LITE

(expected) ,

,

Copyright & A K-C

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32

( -, , ..) - , , , - (, ).

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Copyright & A K-C

2

33

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34

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, - , - , , , . , , , - , , -. , , , .

Copyright & A K-C

2

35

, : - , . . . 9 , - , , , , () . , Nestl - . Porsche Swatch , Federal Express . , - -, - , , - , . , , (, , ), . 7.

- , . - - , .

, . , - : - , , -. (loyalty cards) ( -), , - .

Copyright & A K-C

I -

36

-

. , Hovis - , Sony Playstation -. - , , - , - . , Manchester United -, , .

-, . : , / . , Tesco ClubCard, , . - , , . - , , , , - . , -, , . , -, , - , - . , , -, , - . -, -. , , - , Federal Express UPS - , -. Baxter Healthcare

Copyright & A K-C

2

37

, . .

, , - . , .

. - - , , . - , - (shorthand device), - . - - , , - Jaguar.

C , , - , .. (differentiating) - . (guarantee), - , (legal protection) . - (, Duracell), ( Shell), ( Coca-Cola), . -, , , , , - Rolex.

, , . - - , . , , -

Copyright & A K-C

I -

38

. , , Oxford English Dictionary , - , . () , , . , , - , . XIX ., , , , . .

, , , . , - . XIX . - , :

(1) ; (2) , ; (3) , ; (4) . , , -

, - . - , . (XVII .) - , , :

;

- ;

; ; . ,

- . , - . XIX

Copyright & A K-C

2

39

. , - . , , , 1900 . - , 90 % .

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, .

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Copyright & A K-C

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40

XIX . , , . 1900 . , 1960-. , , , - . , , , - .

- XIX . - . - , - . - , , . , , , . , , .

, , ,

, -

, ,

. - , - , , , - . - - - (shorthand devices), , , . -

Copyright & A K-C

2

41

, , - . 3.

, , . 8. , , - .

:

, , - --, 1900- . , , . 1870- (multiple) , 10 , , . - ( ) , , Home & Colonial, Lipton International Stores. - . , . .

, , , - , , - . , , , . , -. - ( ) (multiple retailers)

Copyright & A K-C

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42

- , - . - 1015% -, , 17 %, - . - - - , 1950- .

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(

). -

1950- -

,

. -

,

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.

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.

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. , 2000 . -

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, 2001 . 38,4 % -

. ,

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, -

Copyright & A K-C

2

43

(, )

.

- , . -. , , - (, , , , ), -, (in-storeservices), - .

, - . , . -, , . 7.

, , 1970- - (generic). - , , , . 1976 . Carrefour, 50 - . -, , - - . , -, -. - , , , - , - .

() . - , - ,

Copyright & A K-C

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44

. 40% , - , 20% , - . , , .

,

, ,

, .

-

. -

(Argyll: BASICS). -

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,

. ,

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Sainsbury. , -

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, Free From - -

(, ), Be Good to

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,

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Copyright & A K-C

2

45

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Copyright & A K-C

I -

46

, Direct Line .

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(structural branding), , ,

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, . -

,

,

-.

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() Martini

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Nescaf

Delux

Dunhill

Silk Cut

. 2.1

( Langmaid and Gordon, 1988)

- , , . - . , , , -. - . , - , - , , , , -

Copyright & A K-C

2

47

. , : , , .

- -, , , , - . , - , . , - , . , , , , , . - , . - , - , (personality). , - , American Express Singapore Airlines.

, , - , , - .

1.

- - ( , ). - , - : ( -) ( ). , -

Copyright & A K-C

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48

, , Marks & Spencer Harrods, . , -, , , - , (Unique Selling Proposition, USP) - Universal Supermarket Patronage ( )!

, - , , - . - , - . . - , -, , , - . , - .

2.

, -, . . , , , - . , Persil , , - , - . , Tom's Taxi Service, , , - .

, , , - , -

Copyright & A K-C

2

49

, . , , . -, , - , - , . . 4 , . , .

. , .. , , . 2.2. , - . -, - -. -, -, .

,

,

. 2.2

-, ,

. - , , , , .

3.

. , - .

Copyright & A K-C

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50

, , , , , . , , .

, - . , - , - , , - , .

, , - () , . , Post Office, , , Swiftpack.

4.

(, ) () , - (, , ..). , - , , - - . , , .

, - . - , - , . , . - , -, . , - , ,

Copyright & A K-C

2

51

. - (-) . , , , - , (-) .

, , - . , , , - (, , ). , , , - . , -, -. (-), () . -

, , . (-

) Mercedes Visa, - .

5.

, , - , , - . , - , - . , , , - , .. , , ,

Copyright & A K-C

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52

, . , -, . - , -. - , .

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, .

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, ,

, -

.

Copyright & A K-C

2

53

2.4

, SpunDown,

, , , . - -, -. , -. , , - .

Copyright & A K-C

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54

2.5

Thomas Cook ,

- , -, . , - , - . Strand, - .

7.

. , - .

Copyright & A K-C

2

55

: , . - , - . , - - - . , -, - , . -, - Kodak : Kodak , , Kodak.

(retailers own labels) - . . , - 1997 . Marketing, , 17 % -, -, - . , , - (Lomax, Sherski and Todd, 1999), , 57 % - , Sainsbury, - Heinz.

-: Coca-Cola Classic Cola, Sainsbury; Van den Bergh Foods Unbelievable, Tesco; Kellogg Tesco Corn Flakes; United Biscuit Puffin Bar, Asda. , : , Asda . , , - .

- , . - , , -, - .

Copyright & A K-C

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56

8.

, ( - ): . , , - , , , , . - , - . - - , - , , - . , - , .

, - - , , . , - -. -, , . - .

, - , -, . -, , - .

(Mary Goodyear, 1996), , . - (. 2.3). , , () , - , ,

Copyright & A K-C

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57

. - , - , . - , , , Levi 501, . , , , , -, . - - (McGowan and Thygesen, 2002), 90- Levi , - -. , Levi - Youth Panel, -, . , . 2000 . - Levis Engineered Jeans. Levi - .

. 2.3

( Goodyear, 1966)

Copyright & A K-C

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58

, -, . , - . , , , . - , Body Shop Virgin, , Shell.

,

-. , - , -. , - - .

- - . Virgin. - , , , , . - , Caterpillar.

- - -. , .

. , . : (1) , , ; (2) .

Copyright & A K-C

2

59

, - - . , .

, , , . , - -. , , .

, , - . Unilever Procter & Gamble , - * . , - , - , - - . , , . . 2.3 , - .

2.3

(: Doyle, 1989)

, %

1 17,9 2 2,8 3 0,9 4 5,9

: -

* Cannibalization , ..

. (. .)

Copyright & A K-C

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60

(-, , ). , - , , . - , .

, , - , . -, , - , . - (, ) -.

- ? , . , . , . , - , , ( ) . -, , ; , 5%. , , - :

-;

; - ;

;

Copyright & A K-C

2

61

(, Marks & Spencer).

, .

, . -. , - , . - , , - . , , ( ), - , ( . . 9 11).

, - . , , , . - , -. - , -. , - ( , -, , -). , - . - , . - - . , ,

Copyright & A K-C

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62

. , - .

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, - , (, , ..).

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.

, , - - .

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, , - , British Airways. ( ) , ,

Copyright & A K-C

2

63

, - - , - .

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Copyright & A K-C

I -

64

, . - -, -, . , , , , .

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, , -, . , Swatch , , , - , .

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Copyright & A K-C

2

65

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, -, - (, -

Copyright & A K-C

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66

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, - , (Kwik Save, Aldi, Netto) (, -

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, -

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, . , , , , - , . -, , , . - , -, , -. , - -, -, , - . - , - . Laker , Skytrain - . - : - , . Laker, , -, .

Copyright & A K-C

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, , , . 9 . , , - . , Filofax, , . , , - , -, .

, -, - , . , , , , (), , - . , - , - .

, - . , - , . - , - , . , - , , , . .

, , , - .

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, , - , - . - : , - ; , - , ; -; , - ; ; - ; -; . , , -, , . , , . , , , - .

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2. ( - ) . - ( ) - () -

Copyright & A K-C

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() , , . , - .

3. - , : () -; () , , . - , - .

4. , - . , - , , , - .

5. , , , , . - , : () - , - ; () - - .

6. , - - , - , , - , , , -, .

7. - (, , , , ) -, , , -, .

8. , - , , -.

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9. , () ; () . - ?

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16. , , - , , , , - ?

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17. (. , , ?

18. - , ? (. .)

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, . - , -: , - , -. - . , - , - , . , , - . , -; , - , ; - , - . , , , , -, , - .

, , - , - . , , -

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, . - , : . - , , - .

, , , , , , -.

, , - . , -. - . , , . , , . , , ( , , , - ).

- , , , . - .

, - . , -, ,

.

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, , . , - British Airways, KLM? -, . -, British Airways, , , - -, , , - .

, - , , , -, , , - ..

, -, : (1) - ; (2) . , , , , , -, . , , , . , , , , , - . , - , , , , - . , - - , - - . , , - , - .

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- , , - , . 3.1.

. 3.1 ( Assael, 1987)

, , ,

, , - . .

, , . , , , - - (, , , , hi-fi)

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, (, , ). , - . -, , . 3.2.

. 3.2

, . , -, , hi-fi, , . , , , -. (, , , ..) , , - hi-fi - .

- , , , .

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, , ( , ), , , , , ). - , , .

, - , -. , 1997 . - 11 000 , - .

2% -. , -, , , . . - -, -. 2%, , , - , - .

, , , , , - . , , - . , , - , , , - . - , - , - .

- , , -, , . (, , Sony - ..). , - , , , . ,

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hi-fi , , - . , - , - . , . 3.2, - . . , - . - , .

, - , , - . , - -, , , -. , , , , . , - , - - . , , , , - , , .

, (, hi-fi ), -. -, , -. , - , - . , (,

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, ) . . 3.3.

. 3.3

-, , , , . , - , . , - , - . , , , , - , -, . , , , - , .

, - ,

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. , , -, . - - , , .

, , - , . - , - , - . , , , - , , -, .

-, , , , . , , , - -. . 3.4.

. - - . , , -. -, , , , . - , , , - . , ( , , , , , Scotchguarding, ..) - , , -

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. , , . , - - . , - , , - Scotchguarding , . , , . . , , .

. 3.4

, - , , - , . -, (-, ). -, , . Polycell , , - , .

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, , - , , . , , , , - .

- - , - (, - ), - . , , . 3.5.

-. , - . , - . - , , .

. 3.5

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, , . , , , . - , .

. , - . , , - , , , , . , , - , , . , - ( ), .

, -

,

(, , ). , . 3.3, - , - , . - : . , . , - , , , ..

, . , - . , - - , .

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, , , . , . ( - ) . , , , . , , (, - , ), - (, , - ).

, - , - , .

, . , , - . , - , - , , . , .

- , , - , - . -

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, , -, -

, . - (, - Heinz), - . - , . - , , .

. 2 , - . -, , - . , . - , . , - , . , , . 2, .

- , -. , , - . , , . (Heath, 1999) , , . (Aaker, 1991), McDonald's , - , -

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.. , - , . Andrex Andrex Puppy, . - - , , - . Direct Line, , , - . Virgin Group - (Richard Branson)*, .

- - , , . (1999) -, - , . (Ehrenberg), : - . , , (, ..) (, , - ).

, - , , - . , , , . - , ,

* , Virgin, -

(. .)

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. -, , , , , - . (Romaniuk and Sharp, 2000) , - . , , , - - . , , .

, , -, -, -. -, :

( )

( )

=

.

- , -, , . , , , ( ), - ( ). - - , - , -, , . , , , , - - .

, -

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, - . , , - . , , , - , , -, , .

. - - , (Park, 1986). - , , , Microsoft Office -. , , Mercedes Rolex, - -, , , . , ( -), Center Parcs, The Sanctuary ( spa- - ), Chanel No. 5, Hard Rock Caf, -, , .

(Wendy Gordon, 1994) , , -. -, , .. - . , , - . - , . , -, ,

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(. 3.1). . Real Greek Yoghurt ( ), , , , . - , - , - Munch Bunch. , -, , . - . ( - ), - . , , - . , - , Marks & Spencer.

3.1 ( Gordon, 1994)

Real Greek Yoghurt

Munch Bunch

Shape

Tesco ( )

Marks & Spencer

-

. - , , . , - , . -, - . , .

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3.1 /CD Bose Wave , , ,

-

, -, - , - . (Ehrenberg, 1993), - , :

-;

, ;

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, , ;

-, .

3.2 , (1986), Amazon.co.uk

, -

-

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, - . , (Hallberg, 1995), - , , , -. , - , , - - 1015 % . , - - , , , .

, , , -, -: , , -. , , , - , . , - , 48 % , 52 % , .. . , - , . , , , , 16% , - . 3.6. , , , .. 16% - 83 % , . , , - , . , , ,

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, - .

. 3.6 ( Hallberg, 1995)

, -

, , -, , - . - , - : - (, ) - . -, .

- , . , , , . , - , - . , -

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. , - .

, raison d'tre ( -) . , , . , . 10. - - .

, , . , - Best Western Hotels , , - . - . , , - . , Domestos, , , - - , - . , - . , - , , , , , , , . Nescaf. - Nescaf, ,

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, -, .

, , , - , , . ( ) , - , PR, , , . , . , , , . 1960- 1970- , , -

, , ,

, . -, . - , , ( ) , . , , , - , - , - (The fourth emergeny service).

, - , . 4, - , . , , , -. , - Hofmaister, - , - .

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(Jones, 1986), :

1. . , , , , - . , - 25 . . - , , .

2. . , , , , . - Ariel - (Tim Henman), - .

3. , . , , . -, , . , . - - , , . . 3.2, -, , .. - , Diet Pepsi Diet Coke, , - , Diet Coke.

4. . - -, . - , - , .

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3.2

,

%

,

%

Diet Pepsi 51 23

Diet Coke 44 65

/ 5 12

100 100

3.3 Ariel .

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, , , , - , . , , - , - . , , , - .

3.7 , . , , .

- , , , . -, - : - , .

: - . , , , , - , , -, - . - , , .

- , . -, -, . - (, , ..) 5 % - , -

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, , . (47 %) - , 35 %, , . - - , - , . , -, . , - - , , , .

. 3.7

,

, , -, , , . (44 %) - , 49 % , 49 % , . , -, , -

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, , , -, .

, - (, ) . -, - . , - , - . 2 % . , 25 % , , 56 % 8 .

. , - , .. - . , , -. , , - - 35 % .

, .

( , ), , - . .

- , -, .

, . (-, , - ) , -

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(, -). - . , , , , - -, .

: ?

, , - , . - , ( ) - , . - - . - . , ( , , - ) . , -, , - .

, - , -, . . : - , , , .

, , - , - .

, - . (1) , ,

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, . (choice by processing brands). (2) , . (choice by processing attributes).

, - , , , -. , -, , - .

,

, , - , , , . , , , , - . , .

, : - ; ; -; . , (, , , , ..). - , -, . - - ( ) ( , ). , -

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-. , -, , , . -, , - , - . , , , , - , -, , , . - , - .

, , , , . , , , . - , , .

, - , - . - (Miller, 1956), -, . - , , , , - . - . - , - . , , , , - .

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, (Buschke, 1976). . , , , - , (), (). , - , . , . , - . - , , . , - , , (, Nestl, Heinz ..), , : - , , . - , , , - , - , - , .

, , - , , - . , . 2, . - , , , , . ,

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, - , - .

, - , , (, - ), . , ( -), (- ).

, , , (Bruner, 1957). , , , -, , - . - , . , -. - -, . - Strand. - , - Strand. Strand . , , - , , Strand.

, , - - . .

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- , , . - - (selective exposure). -, -, , , - .

(selective attention). , , - . , , (, Toyota. . ?), ( , , , -. , - , ).

, , - (selective comprehension). - , - . , . , - , -, -, Scottish Widows. , , - , , , , , , , , .

- - , - . , -

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. , , .

, , -, . (perceptual vigi-lance). -. (perceptual de-fence). , -, , - , , , . , -, . , , , , .

- -, .

, , , , , , - , - - , . - : , - , , , . - - , , , 5 000 , 500 .

- , . , . , -

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, , , Renault Clio , Jaguar S - .. , , , . -, , - Tesco , - , - , . - , . , , , .

- , - - , , . - , . , , , - ( -) , . - , - . - , - , , - , .

, , -, . - , , , , -, . - (, ). -, , - , , - .

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- , -, . , , , .

, - . - , - : - . , , - , - . , , , - .

, , , . , , , - , .

, , . , -* (closure), -. , Kelloggs , - g , , - , , . - , , . Perrier (-, H2Eau, Eau la la, Eau Revoir, Eau Pair ..). -

* ( . , , )

(. .).

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, - . , Schweppes , -, , . - , , , -, , , , Schweppes. : , , . American Express (Rowan Atkinson).

3.4 , Clearblue , .

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3.4 ()

:

?

, - , - . , , , - . -, - , .

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, , . - . , Ford Motor Company ; Lloyd's of London (); Mercedes ; Amstrad , Alan M. Sugar Trading plc. - . Nova, General Motors, - , - , Roll Royce , Silver Mist ( ), , - , Mist - , , , , , Roll Royce. Pisse-Dru Beaujolais - - , , -. Pecheur et Fischer 36/15, - La Biere Amoureuse ( ). - -, - - .

, , , . - , , , , . , - . , - , -, .

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- , (, Sony, Cadbury, HSBC) , (Ariel, Dreft, Daz, Bold Tide, Procter & Gamble).

- (. 3.8). : Cadbury's Dairy Milk, Holiday Inn Express, Heniz Baked Beans, Zippo Lighters, , , KitKat Nestl.

. 3.8

. , - -, . - , , - . , , - , , -, Weetabix , : Weetabix Mini Crunch Weetabix Organic.

-, Weetabix , -, , - , . , - .

, , (, Halifax Web Saver, First Direct Smartmortgage NatWest Diamond Reserve). -

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, - , . , , , , - , - - .

3.5 () Birds Eye , () Unilever Persil.

-, . , , Co-operative

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Bank, , , , - (Privilege Account, Cashminder Account, Pathfinder Account, Cashsaver Account Save Direct), - - .

3.5 ()

, -, , - , . First Direct , - , -. , HSBC.

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- , . , - , . , . 9. , , -, . , , , , , - -, .

, , - - . Procter & Gamble, , , - , . , , - - , , .

, Seiko Seiko, Pulsar Lorus, , - . - , . , - : 4000 , 2000. , , . , Panasonic : DMC-LC20K, DMC-LC5S DMC-S7. , , - .

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, , . - Continental Airlines, , Southwest, , Continental Lite. - Continental. -, , - , . Continental Lite - , , - Continental -.

, , . , Carphone Warehouse, - , , . - (warehouse ), , , - (carphone). -, . One 2 One T-Mobile, - . (. 3.9).

.

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. 3.9 ,

.

, . , - -

, , . - , ,

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(, , ). - , - , - .

, . , , , , , -, -, .. - , , . , , , , , , .

, , - . , - . , 1014 , - , , -, , - , , . - , -, - .

, , , .

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, , , -. :

; ;

. , -

.

, -, . - , , , . - .

, - , - , . , - , , , - (, ), - . , - -. -,

; ; ; ; ; . ,

- -

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, - .

- , , . , , , - , . - , - -. - , . - , .

, -, , - , - , , - . , - , Unilever Vanish.

,

, .

. - , -. , . , , . ,

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(Pepsi Pepsi Cola, Lewis's John Lewis). : , Mercedes, Merc ().

. , Kodak Adidas, - , , - . , - .

. , , - . , Xpelair, Tipp-Ex Lean Cuisine , *. , . Reliable () , , - Die Hard ( ).

. - Timex , . - , . Orange - , - tel com.

. -, , , , - . Romance Contradiction.

. ,

*

. , Lean Cuisine -

, .. , . (.

.).

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, - , , .

. -, , - , , , . , Kodak, Esso Xerox -, , .

. , - (goodwill) , , . , (Mars ) - (-, Cadbury's Classic Collection of Old Jamaica, Turkish Delight ..).

. - - , - (International Business Machines IBM, Imperial Chemicals Industries ICI, British Midland bmi). , , , , - . , North London Tool and Die Company, , , NLT&D .

. , . -, , - . -, , .

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, Caterpillar Tractors, , . (Tractor) - . , .

, - . , , . - , , , . - , - . , Bonka , .

, , , -. - , - , , : - ; - ; , , -. .

, - . , . - , , , - , , , .

, - , - . , , - , . ,

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, - . , HBOS Halifax Bank of Scotland. 300- Bank of Scotland Halifax .

, - , . , - , - , . - -, . , - . -, , , , , , - . , (. . 5).

, (perceptions) , (objective) -, , . , , , . , , -- . , , .

, - , - , , . -, , , - . -

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. - -. , , - .

, - , , . , - - , , . : - , . - , -, - , , -, , -. , , (, ) , , . - , .

- , , - . , : . - , , , . , -. :

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;

- ;

, ;

- ;

, .

, - , - , . , , , , . , , - hi-fi - , - - .

. 3.3 - , (Jacoby and Kaplan, 1972). , , , - - . , - .

3.3 ( Jacoby and Kaplan, 1972)

7,2 6,4

6,7 5,8

4,9 6,9

4,8 7,3

7,0 5,9

1 , 10

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- , , -. , , , , - . . , - , , - , -, - .

- . - . : , -. - . - , - , - .

, . - - , - . - , - - - . - , - , .

, , .

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- , .

, , (labeling). - . - . , , , - .

: - -, . , , - , , - .

- . , , . -, , -, .

, , , . , - , , , .

, - .

1. , , , , , . -

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, , - , -. , - . . 3.1, - , - , . . - , , , , . - , , , , - . , - - . - -, , , , .

2. - - - ? , , - .

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