1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology ., , , .,,_, .,., . ._, ..,., s._, ..,., + ..,_, ..,, ..,_ ..,., + s ..,, ,., ,_,. , .,. , . ,_, ... ,,_, .... ,,_, ... ,._, ._., , ._, ., ,_, .... ,__, .., ,,._, .,, ,,._, .._. ,,._, .,.... ,,._, . .,_,. , .. . . . ... .. . (anatomical position) (plane of body section) ._, ._ , . , . .. , . , s .. , (body axis) s ., . .. . s ... . ...., ., . , ., .._ . . . , .,. --- . (terms of relationship) . . , ... . . , . ., . . . .,. ., . . . ,, .. , s (terminology of movement) s abduction adduction flexionextension elevationdepression protectionretraction + 2 (Cell and Basic body tissues ) ._. .... .., ., .. .. ._ ., .. . .. ._ ... ..., .,_ . . _ , .., ., _... , . . (basic cell structure) . ..,, .... ... .... ._ ,. .,,.. .,. . ._,., ..., .,,,. .. . .. .. .., ._.,.... . , .,, .,.... __.., . ... .. + . ..... ._ _ ,.. _ -c

-- -- .,. . -- - c . s .,.. - - - - .,. s -s - .,.. ....._ .,.. - -- - -- - .,. - -- ..,.,., ..., /- - -- .,. ,.._ .,. +. . .. .,, ,,.. .. ,. .. ,. ,. .. ,. . .. .. . .., .,.. ss +s . ,,.. . ,,. . .,,... .. .,..,,., .,,... ..,, .. ,, . . ,,. . . . .. ,,... ,,.. s+ ++ . ....,cs .,,..,-s ...., .. .,.. .... ... ... ... . .. ...,..cs- cs- .... ,. _ .. .. , .. .. .. , .., .... ,. .cs- , ... . ._, .. ._, . . .,.. .. + . s + -- n o(Cerebrum) ., .... .. .... .... .. .... .... .... ... ... .... , ,. . +s _... .., .... . .... ._, .... .... ..,. .,,.. .. ... .. .., .., . .. , , . ,. ..,. .. __ ... ... , .. , . . . s vc . +++ s . .... .. .. .._.. ... .. . . ..,. .. . ,. .,. . . ,. .,. . . . . . . . ., _. , .. , +s c ++. s. .,_, ... . .... ,.. s ._. . .,, .,,, ,,, ._ ,,, .,, ,, ..,,_ .. ., . . .. . ...,.., .... .. . .. ..,. .. . .. . ... ., ., ss .. ,. .,... . , . ._.. s . .,,... ... ,.. .. . ... .. . .s .., . , . , . , . ,.,.. .. .,. .., ., . ,. ., . . . .. , . . s+ ... . ., . .. .. ., ,. . , . ,,_. . . . . .,_. . . . .. ... . .. ... . ... ...... ..... ... .. .. .. ....,_.. . .c . s c, c .s . s s c, s. c .s . s sc, . c .s . s s + c, ss c .s . . s . c, . c .+. s. s + c, ..s c+ . .s + c, s s .... .. .. . . + ..,. .,. ,.,..,. .. ,. ,. s. . ... ,. ,. ,.,. .. ,.,. ,.,. ,.,. . ,. . ... .. . s .. .. ..._ ss . . _. .,. ..ss .. .._ ,.,. . .. s s .._ . ._ . . . ,. . .. . ,.. . . ..,. s .,.... ... .,. .... . ..,. .. . ,. . ..,,. .,. ... . ... ... ... s. . . ... .. . .. ... ..,. . ..,. . .. . .. ..,. . ....,. + ..,. .. s. +.,. .._. .. .,. + s + .._ _ ., . . + ... ,... s ......,. ...,.. , . . . ,,, . .. ,. . . ._. ...... .. .. ... ,. .. .... ,. ss ,. ,. ,.. . ,,, ,.... . . .. .. . . ,.. ,...,,,.,,,,. .,.. . .. . . .. ., . ....,. ., . ., .. . ., .. ... ... . .. . .. . .. . . .. . . . ..... ... ... s .. .._ + .s+ s + s+ . s+ s , . . _ . .,, ,,, ,,, .,_, . ... . ,, ,,,, ,,,._ ,,, ...._ ,._ ,. . ,. ,. . ..., .., . .., .. ..,.. ,. ,. ,,, ..,.. .,. .. -ec .ec ..., ,., , .. .. . ... .., , ,,, . ,,, ,, ,, .,, .. ..._ ,,, , ... ,_, . . .,. . . .., .., .. . ++ c ++. . ._. . . . . . ., ., . ... ... .., ... ... .. ., .. ., ., .. . . ... .. .. ... ., . . ...., .. -o-.oo.. -.o.o -o-.oo.. -.o.o .. ., .. ._... .. ._ . ... ... . . .-. . . ,. , . _ + c ++. .. . -. . +-o-.oo... .. .. . s . ., . .. .. . . . . .... ..., .. ., ..._. ._ . .. _. _. _. _.. _ ... . . . . ... .,.. ... _ . . ... ., .. +s _ _ . . c ++. .s ... ...,....._. _. ,.,,., _. _. _. (cartilage) ....,.. .. ._... .. ...., ._. ._ ,_,. ,.. .. .- , .. ,._.._.._ ,._ .._ .._ ...._ ,,,, ._._..._ .. . .._ .,,_ ...,.. .._ .. ._ .+ .. ....,,,,.... .,. (joints) ...._ ._ .. ..,. .,. s , ..., .. .... ..,..,.. ,,, ,, ., .. .. .. ._.,..., _._.. .. . . s. ..._ .,. ....... ...,. ,. .,.. .. ._ .,. .. ,. . ._._ . . . ..... ..... . ,, ....... s .. ...... s .. .. .., . , . .. , ,. .. . .. . , _, ., . .. ,. _ .._. .._ . ,.. . ,._ ,,,, ,,,.,, .._ .. ,,, .._ s,. .. ._ , ._ .s ...,. ..... _ .., .. .,. ,. .., ,.. ...,. ,. .. .._ ,. .._ ...,. .., .. ._ .. 5 Muscular system .. .. ,. .. .. . .. .. .. .... .. .., .., ..., .., ......,._ ... . . .s s (smooth muscle) ...,.. .,. .., ... . .. ..,.... c-- ,,. ,,,. . ,. .,. ,, . ..... .+ . _.. . . .... . .,., .,. ..., ,. ... . s (cardiac muscle) . . ,. .. ,.,_ , . ,... .,... . ..., .., ,. . ... . s (striated muscle) .. ... . ._ . ., .. .. .,. ...,.. .. ._, . ,. . ... . s s. .... ,.... ..,. ..... ,.... ... . . .. .,. .._ .... . ,. ...,.... .., . . ,. .. .,,... ...... .. .. .., ..... ,. ,. ..,..... ..... ss ..... .. ,. .. . .,..,,... ...... ...,... ... .. + ..,....,.. ., .. .. . .. .,..,. ., . .. .,. ... .... , ... .. .,. .... .,. . ... .... ... . .,,.... ,,... . . . ... ,, . .,. _. . .,. . . + vc +++ s+ .._ . . .,. ._ . ._ ., ._. .,._.,. ._.,,_ ,.. . . ._ .. ... . . . ., .._....._ .. s .., .. .. .. .. ., .. . ., .. . ... , . .. .,_....,._.... . . _... ,... _... ...... ,..., s .. .. .. . ... _ ,..., + ....... .. .. . .... s .. . ., , . _.. _.. .. .,. ._ ,,. .. _ .. ., .. .. ,,... . .. .. .. . ,. .. ,. _. .. ,.. .. _...,.._ .. .... ., ._ _ ._ ,. ._.. .,.., s ... .. . . . . ,. , ,. ss ._. . .,. ,,. , ,. , ,. .,.. _..... .._..... .. ..,. ,. .. .,. .. _... . .. . .,.. .. .,. ,,.._..._ .. + ... .. ... .. . . ...,....,.... .,........,. .s .... s. ...,. .,. . _._ _._ _. _ .,. .....,. ...,. . ..._._ . . _. _ _.. ._._ ...,. _.. ,... ..._.. . .. . ....,... . ..... ,.. .. ,,.. . .., . .. ... ...,. ss . .. . . .. . .. .. ... . .. ... .... . .... .._ .._ ( anatomy of striated muscle) .... .., .,,. .,. . .... .... ... .,,. ... . ..,. ... .... .. s+ ., . c ++. + ( microanatomy of muscle ) + .. . ., ,.. ,. ..,, .,.. . .. ... .,. ... . , .. ,. . . . .. ., ,,.. .,. .,. ... .,. ,. ., . . . .. , . , ... /...,... . _ .. ... .,. .. . -.. /.. ... . . . ,. + . -.... /.. . . .. , _,..vv .,,.-vv -vv -v . ., , . . .._ /- ., , . /-c-- .v . _.. . ... ., , , .. s v. +ss +. ._ , . ... ...-.. . ._ /.. .,. . .__/- /- ,.. /- ...,.. , . , .._ ., ,, ., .,.. c-- .,.... .,c-- , , , , .._.... /- -vv , . .._ . . /... . ..._ ..._ ., /- ., . .._ ., . . ..,. c--/-., c-- .,.... .., c-- , ,,., ,.._.. , . /- ..,..._ ., +s _

++ 6 Respiratory system ., ss . s .,_. ... + _. _ .. ... . s + + ._ ., . . s, . +.., /- s .,_ .. ...._. . .,,, .. ,,.. . ... . . . . +s ,.,.,,.. ,, .. s .. , . ... .. . ... . . . . ... ,. . ..., ..., . .... .,. .,, ,, .....,. .., . s.. + . , . ,. . , . ,. . +. ,. ,,. . . . +.,, ..., ..., s ,,,, ,_,, . _. .,. . ..... . .,_ . ., s.. ..__,._ .. .. . . ., ._ ... .. ,. ...... .. . . _ .. ..,.. , .. ,.. .. .. ,,.. ,, .. . .. +s s ...... ,,.. .... . . . (lungs) . ....., .,. . .,. .. ,. ,,. ,... .. ...._ .... ,., , ,., . ,., , . . . . . ... . .. ,. ,, .. .,, . ... ,., . ,., , ,,. . .. - .. c . ++. ++ .. + s (mechanism of breathing) ., ., ., . ,, .. .., .. ._. .. . . -. ss ss .. s .. ... ... ... ,, . ., --co. o. . ...,,. .,,. .,,. . . . ,, _.,..-.. ,, _., ..-. .-. .,,. .-. .,,. .. .. ,. .., .,. ... . .. . . .. . ,__. . ,, .., . ,__. . .__ .... ..,_ . ., . .,,. ... ., ... .,,. .,. . .. ... .,,,. . ,.. . ,.. . ,.. . ..,,,. ,.. . ,.,... ..,,. ,... ,... ..,,.,.. . .,, . ,.. . . . .-- ,- .., ,,.., . . .., ,,.., ..., --,- . .., ,,.., o. co. -- ,, .., .. . .. ... . . co. o. -- .., .., o.co.-- .., ,,., ,, .... ... .._ s .._ . ,, . ...._ _ _ _ _ . , ,, .._ .,. ,,. . . .... ,_ .,_. ... ,_ + ,_. -. - o.-.o. ,_ ._ .,., . s+ s ... .... ... .._. .... ... .... .. .... ,. -- -cos

-- .... _. . o. ,_. . . o. co. -cos

-- c

.. ... .,..,.. .. . ,.,.,, , ,. , ,. -o .,, ,. -o .,, ,. co. s o. -o -os -o 3 ,. o. . co. . _ . _ . .. .. .. ,_ .. . .. ,. ,., , _,., , ., ., ... ,.,. _ . _.. ._... ._.. . ,.,. ,.,, - c . ++. . ,. co. o. . -.o c-+ . ..... ... ... s ss s ss ,,.....-. ,,....--. .. .. (lung capacity) ..,.,._.,.,,, .,., ..,., ._.,., ,,.,., s ..,. .. ,. . ...,. ,,_...,. ..,. . .. ,. + 7 Body fluid s. . . . ... .. s ., + . .,, .s s ..... s. . ..... .+ . . .._ . .. (blood) _, ., +s ..,.. .,., ..., ., + --- c-- ..., ... . ... . .. ..__. ...., -./ .,.. ..._ . .. ., ._ ...... s .. +. +.s .,- ...ss s . s + s . s ... .. .. . ,., .. .. . ..., ... , .., . c++. ,., .., ,., _. ., . ,,., ., , ., . (erytrocytes red blood cell)

s... ..s + ..,., .... ...... . ..... ., ..e., ._. . .---- .--- s .--- . .,_. . . .. .. ,

(haemoglobin) ,., . . - - , . - _ . ,, , ., -., - .. . . . . - ... .. + . ,,, ,_ ,,_+ .,,,, ,,_ ,_..-.o. .,_ ....._. ...._. ..... -.cos ,_. .,., , ..,_. .... . .. _. ( haemopoiesis ) ,._ ,, .., ,. . .. ,, .,, . .,.,., .,. .,. ... .,. ,., (haemolysis) s ...., .,_ ,_.,..... , . ... ... ...... .. ... .. .._ _.. s ., .... , ( anemia ) ... .. . ... ,,, ,, .. (white blood cells leucocytes) .... _ . . .s . . _. .., _.., ,_., ., .,_., ., . .. .. , .s .. ., ,_ ., . . ., _. ..., ... s ., ,_., .,_ ,,., ,_., .., .-... ....o (blood platelets thrombocytes) ._,., -- ._ + .s (plasma) + ++. s+ .. _.. ._,... ._,._.. .. . . ccosso+ . s + ._.. (mechanical of blood ccoagulation) .. ., ., c-- ,. .. ., .._ .. . s s . . . c-- . ... .. . ... .., . ... c-- . ... . -. . ,. .._ . ,. . . ._ . c-- . ... ... ...... ._. ..... .. ..... . .... . (Serum) .._ .,. .. ... , _.. .. . . ,,.. ... s ._ ,,. . . . . .. .-._ ..-. ._ . .... ., ,, . ... . IV c-- .. .-.. . ,. . ...-.. . .... /, _.. . . . . , .,.c . . s.,. . ,. . . , ., . . ..-_ . . . ... -. .._ . . (lymph) .s .,,., ., ,_.... .,, . .. .. .. (cerebrospinal fluid) ....,. ,... ..,. .,.. ... (synovial fluid) .. ._ .+ 8 Circulation system and Lymphatic system (heart) .. ,., ,., . .,., ..., ,... ,.... . (structure of the heart) + . . . .. ,. .... ..... .. .,... ... .,, .. _.. . .. aorta ,., , _ ,., , s .s ... .... ... ... . .. , . .. /... ... .. ...., ..,... /. .. ,. , .., ... ,.,.. ,., ,.,. ,., , ,., ... ..... . /... ..... . ... ..,... ...,. .. .s... ... .,., .... .,... . ....,. ... ,. (microanatomy of the heart) ..... .,... ... .. _.. . aorta ,., , s. ...,. .. ..,. .. ,,, .. ... .s . .,... ....... ,.,_ ..., .. .. .., s/. ./.. .... ,. .,. s/. s/ . .,... . .. /.. s/. s/. /. . ._. . ,,. . /. . ....._. /.. ...._. /. . s .,... , ,..,. ..... .., ., . (blood vessles) . . .. . .+ . . .., ._ . ... . .. ...., .., s. (structure of blood vesseles) s ... ,,..,. . . .... ,,. . . ... .. ._. . .. .s s ._.. . ... ..._ ,,. . . ... s ... ., . _.. . ., _. .. .. s. c. ++. .. .. ... .. ... . . s (circular system) . .,.,... . .,.,.. ,., .. ,., .,,.. .. .,, .. . . .,,.. ... .,.,. .,.,. . . .,.... . ... . s. ... .. (arteries system)

.., .. .. s+ c ++. ,.,... ,.... .... .,... ,.,. ,., , ., ss .., ... .., ._.._ .. ... .,,., .,., ... ... .. .. .. ...,... .. .. _. ,. .. . . (venous system) ... ... .... ._.. s+ ._.. ... ..... ,... ...... , . ,. . , . .. (coronary circulation) ... ., . _., ., (hepatic portal circulation) .,. ,., . .,... ,. . ..s ,... ,. .., ,., , . (lymphatic system) s ..... .,, .,,.. .,,.. .,,. _. .,,. .,,.. . ., ,,., . - .. .. -- .,., ,,., .,_ . ... . . (lymphatic vessles) ss ..... ......_.. .. .. . .,,.., ... .. . . .. ...... .,,.. .,_ ... . (lymph node) . ..,.,, . ..,,,. ,,.. ,,. . (lymphoid organ) ..,. .,._. . _. s. (spleen) . . ,., . ,., . ,., . ,., . ,., ,,.,.,_ ,,., ., (thymus gland) .. ,,., .., ss 9 Urinary system . ._..,.. ,, (kidneys) .,.., ..,. ._ . . ... ./.- . s+ s ,- .+ ,- . ,- ... + .., .. .,, . s ... . . .,.,... ... (anatomy and microanatomy of kidney) . . .. . .,. ._.. .,. ., .... ... .. .._... . ,,. ,, + ,, .,., .s ., ., .. .,. .,., ,, ., ... . .,.. ,_.,.. _.. .,.. -.-.o.. -.s.o- .... _.. + . .. ,,. ,. . + .,. . _.. ., .... ... . . ... . .,....... s medulla cortex .._... . , - ,... .,,. . , %RZPD QuV FDSV XOH_.. , .... ... . .... ... +. v. +ss +. .. .,- . .---o. -. --oo-.. o--s- .,..,.. --oo-.. o--s .....,. .s......... .-.- .---o. -. --oo-.. o--s ..._... ._.._... .. ... .+..._... ._.._... ..... ,,... .,., ,. + . .,.. .., ..., , .,. .,.. _.. +s ....., ..... .,. , ... , ._.. ... , . .- ++ - -- ..., . - ---- .,., . s ++ + .,. ./ s c - .,. , ++ s _.. ._.. _.. ....., ..... _.. _.. _.. _.. -.-.o.. -.s.o- .,. ,. _.. _.. ., .... ... _.. +s++ _.. ... .. , .... .. .. .. ._. s .... ... _.. _.. _.. ..,..,. _.. .. + _.. .. .,. .. . ,. .. ,.. ,. -.-.o.. -.s.o- -.-.o.. .s.-- , ..-. .. -,.. ,.... . ,. .,.. ,. . . _.. s ss . ..._ . ..._ . .._ . -c

.._ . ..._. -c

v_--c-- -.c.,.... . ..... ,., +s ./- .., . .. .... ... .._ . .._ ... - c

-+- -- -- ..._... - -- - /- ---- .._... .._ ... (Ureter) , ... (urinary bladder) (urethra) .,. .. .,... ...,_. .,_. .. +. . .+ + + ,- .+ --+- -cos

--- - .. +s .._. , ._. ,. .._ .., .. .. + ..... .. ..... .... ... . . . . , _.. .. ... .. .... , ... . ++ .. .,, .,_. .. . ._ . .... ... . 1. (Mouth) ., .. .. .. ..,,.., .. .. ,. ., ._. . .., _. . ...., . .... ... . .,, .., . + ..._ .. . . + s .,._. ..,, ..._. _. ...,_. .... ,, s ..... _. .. _. .. . s + ... .s . . .. ... _ ,_. ,. ., ,.... _... ... _ n,_. . ... ,_. . . ... 10.2 s . . ..... .., s .. .. ,, .. ... . . ., . s ... . . .. s . . ,., .., ._. ... + ,. .... .,..,. .,, .,, ,, . ,, .._ ,, . ,, ..... ,, ,, .. _. 2 (pharynx) ,_ . ,_ ..,. , . . .. .. . ,_,, .... .._. s . + _,,_ . .. ._ ,_ ..._ s ,.. 3. (esophagus) .... ....,. + . 4. (stomach) . s .... .... .,,. .... ,. ,,.,. + ,__ ,_ _ .. ,.. ,. s . ,_ _ s ... _ + ,,. _ + .,..,. .-c ... . .,_. ... _... _. _ ,,. _. _ _., .,, .. ... . _. , ... . ,, . ... . .,_. , . ... _. ... ... .. ,, . .. . .. ,. .. .... ... ... .. .,. .. ... .. _.. .. c --. . _. , s ... _. ... _. ,,. _. ..._. ..... .,_. ..,....._. .... , . ... _. . . ..,_. . ,,_ .,_ _..,..... . . . . s..... _., +_... _., ,,._ . .... . _ . s ...... .. ..... .._.... ..,. ._.. ,.. . /s ._. . s . ,.. ..... . _.. .. .,.., .,... . + . .. ._.._ .,.. ,. .... . ... ..,.. + .... . ... , _.. _. . . . . . . .,..,. . . . ,, . ... ,. .,... . .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... . ... .. ... ... ... . ... . .... . . .... .,.. ,. .. ... .. . ,, ... s .. . ... . ... _ ,,._..._ ... ,,._ ... _5. (small intestine) ,,. ... s ..... ... .. ., ...,, .,,. .. ..., cc- . + s ._.. .... .. ,, . , s .. .,, .. s .... . . ,,.. ,. . ,. ... .... ... .. _.. .. .. . ... .. .. .... .,, ,. , . . . .. ,, , . . . ,,... ... .. . . .,, _. 10.4 c . --. s. . ,.. .,. _ 6. (large intestine) s .... ... . ... s .._ . . . ..._ . .. - ,.. ss .. s _. . .,.. ... s,. . .. (defecation) .. s .. ,.. ,. .. .. ,. s+ ,. .., . ,. .., . 7. (anus) ... .,. ,. 1. (liver) s .s .,.. .. .,.... ._... .,.... . .... ,. ... . . ... .. .. .. c

c-- --- ... ... .,.., ,,_ s . ._,., s ... + ,. ,. s . .. 2. (pancreas) .._. ..._. .,.... .,..... ,,,,.,... ..._.._ . . . ss .,.... ,.., _. .., _ .... ,. _ . ._.. .., ,.., .., .. s. (physiology of digestion) s ...._ .. ._... .,.. .. . ...._ ., ._. .. .,.. .. . .. s ...._ . . ss . ,_., ._. .. ,, , ...., ,,_,,, ,,, ,,. .. ...,. s+ . -,.. ,. -c--...,.. .,s s . . , ,, ... ,. , ,., ,_., .., . ... /- . .., /- s.. . ,. , ..._. .. +.... .. ..., .,.., .._ .. .. ..,..., /- .. /- - . ..... .,,. .. ...,. .. ... .. .,, .. . ,.,. ,.,. ... ,.. ,.,. . .. .,. .., ..... .. ... .s . s + .+ 11 Endocrine system . .__ . s .,,. , . .,... .. ... s .. . -s- .- ...,_ ./v-..,... ,, . ./v- /- ., . _ .. ., .. ., .,. . , ., ., ., ., ./ ..,. mRNAmRNA ,, . .s s 1. (pituitary gland hypophysis) ... ,., s . ,., _. .. . ., ,., _. .,.,_. .,,,, , ,,,, . . _ , . , . ... ., . ._..,. ...,+ _...- ,. .., s- .- -s- . ._..,. /c- 6 .._.-s- -s- .. .,,. ._ . ... ._ . -s- .- -s- .- .cs-.. . ._ -s- . ..._ ..- . . ._ . .sc- .- -s- .- -s- .- .- ..,. .. .,_ ._.... -s-.- -s- .- .- .cs- . . .,._ . .- .cs- .s ._ .--- .-- .- s,...- ._..,.,. -.-.,.._ . +,.._.s- s- .. .,,,, .,,, .., . ,,. . . . .. ,., , ,., ,. ., -s- .- ,. /c-s- .- s .+ ., .,_.. s- .+ ., .s -- s- ...,. ./c- .... ... ._..... /c- .,,,, .,,, /c- ,,,,.,,. c-- ..., _ . s _. ..- , .s- .- .- ... .- .- . . .- . .., .- _. ..- ,,,._ . .._. . s ... ., ,._ . vs- vs- .,,.,_. .,,. ,...... . ,.., .,,,, .,,,,,,. ... ./.- ,. ., /.- ., ._., ,., /.- ......... ..._... /.- ..,. ., /.- .,,. . .,. .. ,.... s .,,.,...... 2. (thyroid gland) . .,. , ... .. . ., ..... ... . ., .,.+ .,.s ....

.. .,.... .. .. .. ., v. .., .. ..., v. .. .. .. ., , .. .,_.. s-.,.._ ,. .._ _.. s. - _.._ .,,_,. ._... ev-.. .. .- ,,. ,,. TRH centerior pituitary TRH thyroid , + v.+ss ss ._....s- s- -- 3. (parathyroid gland) ... ,,. .. ,,..-- s+ c-- c-- c-- -o+

,,.. ,,,, c-- ..,.,... c-- .. .... ... c-- ,,... -o+

-o+

-- c-- c-- -- c-- -- -- ... ... c..,... c-- . c-- s+ . -c---o+

-c c-- c.

4. (pancrease) _ .. _ ... /. ,,.e. .. c,. .. . . e. ... /. ._.._ .,,,,. ... .,,_,. ._.._ .,,_,... . c. ,.. ,,,,. _.. s ._ 5. (adrenal glands) ..,. . . .. s . _. ... ... ._..... . .. . ,, ,, ,. . . .. _.. . .., . .. . v.+ss ss ... ._. ..,.. . .- .. .... ... ..._ ... .-- . - ._. . . _. _.. _.. ._. . - _, - _ , ... /c- s c ++. s. . _..... . ... . .. .. .. /c- c--...,_ /c- . ... . .. /c- s ._ _ ,_ ....... ,, .,, . .. . . ,,. ,, /c- ,, ,, ,,,, ,, ,, ss /c- .. body cell _.._ . ,,. hypothalamus . v. +ss .. .. . _ .. ., . s . v. +ss s+ 12 - r-r(Reproductive systems) - r-r (female reproductive system) .., ..... ... .._ .... ._.,_ .. _ n ... . v.c. .--- + . .. .. ..,. .. ... ....... ..._ .,.., + .,,. . _. . ...,.. .. ,... ., .... .. .. . ._. .. ..... .. + . .. .,_. ..,. .. n n ... ...., ..... . .... ._... s ...... .. .,. .,.,... .. ..... .. +. . .. ...., ... + . . ._. ,_ . s ... .,. .,. .,. , .. _. ., .,. .. . ...., ._.. , +s ..,. .-.-. .,. .. .._..... .... .,, ._.. n .... . .._... .. ++ . .._, .. _. .... ...._. ..._ .. .,. + + .,. ... s.. + ... .- - -- - s --. 1 2 . 3 +s ..._ .. .._. ._,. +. - r- r o(Male reproductive organs) . .... , ..., _. ..,., _

... .,. .. ... . ... ._ ....._

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