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22009/02/20

(Constructivism)

() () ()

(Zone of Proximal Development)

The difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help.the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers --- Lev Vygotsky

comprehensible input (i+1)

Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, developed by Stephen Krashen i represents previously acquired linguistic competence and extra-linguistic knowledge. Extra-linguistic knowledge includes our knowledge of the world and of the situation- that is, the context. The +1 represents new knowledge or language structures that we should be ready to acquire

What is a word?Boy? Boys? Child? Children? Walk? Walks? Walked? Go? Went? Book? Run? Sorry? Till? Until?Air? Force? Air Force? Of course?

A lemma is the group of words with inflectional changes, (e.g., boy, boys; jump, jumps, jumped, jumping).A word family is the group of words with inflectional and derivational changes (e.g. trust, trusts, trusted, trustworthy, entrust).

(word frequency)Thorndike, E.L. and I. Lorge. (l944). The Teacher's Word Book of 30,000 Words. Teachers College, Columbia University. (from 18,000,000 running words)West, Michael (l953). A General Service List of English Words. (GSL)Xue Guoyi and I.S.P. Nation. (1984). A University Word List. (UWL)Coxhead, Averil (2000) Academic Word List. (AWL)- (2006)

Thorndike, E.L. and I. Lorge. (l944). Out of 18,000,000 running words, the list tells anyone who wishes to know whether to use a word in writing, speaking, or teaching how common the word is in standard English reading matterChildrens Reading: Black Beauty, Little Women, Treasure Island, A Christmas Carol, The Legend of Sleep Hollow, Youths Companion, school primers, first readers, second readers, and third readersStandard Literature: The Bible, Shakespeare, Tennyson, Wordsworth, Cowper, Pope, and MiltonCommon Facts and Trades: The United States Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, A New Book of Cookery, Practical Sewing and Dress Making, Garden and Farm Almanac, and mail-order cataloguesThorndike also examined local newspapers and correspondences for common words to be included in the book.[

The General Service List (GSL) (West. 1953)http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/staff/paulnation/nation.aspx A set of 2,000 word families selected to be of the greatest "general service" to learners of English. They are not the most common 2,000 words, though frequency was one of the factors taken into account in making the selection.

Top 10 words: the (69975), be (39175), of (36432), and (28872), a (26800), to (26190), in (21388), he (20033), have (12458), it (11247)

10%70%10%10%

University Word List (UWL) Xue Guoyi and I.S.P. Nation. (1984).(available at http://jbauman.com/UWL.html) The University Word List (UWL) is a list of vocabulary items common in academic texts. It is composed of 808 words, divided into 11 levels. This list is designed to be a list of specialized vocabulary for students who know about 2,000 generally common words and plan to study in an English-language college or university. Think of it as the most common 800 words in academic texts excluding the 2,000 words of the General Service List (GSL) (West, 1953).

AcademicNewspaperPopular MagazinesFictions2,000 Words 80.3%UWL 3.9%Others 19.7%2,000 Words 82.9%UWL 4.0%Others 13.4%

AWL Coxhead, Averil (2000)(available at http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/staff/paul-nation/nation.aspx) The list contains 570 word families and is divided into 10 sublists. Sublist 1 consists of the 60 most common words in the AWL. Sublist 2 contains the next most frequently used words and so on. Each sublist contains 60 word families, except for sublist 10, which contains 30. To find these words, an analysis was done of academic journals, textbooks, course workbooks, lab manuals, and course notes. The list was compiled following an analysis of over 3,500,000 words of text.

(available at http://www.ceec.edu.tw/Research/ResearchList.htm) 6,480 1080(lemma) Level 1: consider Level 3: considerable, consideration Level 5: considerate

94-97 4,00089 5,0004.5 93-96 4,00086 5,0008.8

94-97 4,00089 5,0004.5 93-96 4,00086 5,0008.8

- (2006)

(available at http://teach.eje.edu.tw/9CC/context/03-1-5.html)

500600 8,00010,000

( 2006 9534335-44)

(TBEWL)GST (2006)Table 8. TBEWL 2001 words in GSL 1952 Words

TBEWL 1st 1000TBEWL 2nd 1000Total (TBEWL 2000)GSL 1st 1000552 (55.1%)230 (23.0%)782 (39.1%)GSL 2nd 1000 197 (19.7%)272 (27.2%)469 (23.4%)Not in the List253 (25.2 %)497 (49.8%)750 (37.5%)Total1002 (100.0%)999(100.0%)2001 (100.0%)

(TBEWL)GST (2006)

Family wordsTBEWL 1000TBEWL 2nd 1000Total (TBEWL 2000)GSL 1000 651 (65.0%)325 (32.5%)976 (48.8%)GSL 2nd 1000 224 (22.4%)306 (30.6%)530 (26.5%)Not in the List127 (12.6%)368 (36.9%)495 (24.7%)Total1002(100.0%)999(100.0%)2001 (100.0%)

(TBEWL)GST (2006)

Among the 495 words, some are high frequency words while many are low frequency words. According to the frequency per one million in BNC lemmas (Leech, Rayson, & Wilson, 2001), some of these words are rather high frequent such as: area (585), affect (133), assume (112), available (272), contact (140), contract (175), couple (152). create (217), design (266)

(TBEWL)GST (2006)

(1) Culture specific words: chopsticks, dumpling, typhoon, Halloween, Thanksgiving.(2) Food & drink: bakery, banana, barbecue, beef, beer, brunch, buffet, bun, burger, cabbage, cafeteria, candy, carrot, cereal, chocolate, coke, cookie, crab, delicious, dessert, doughnut, dumpling, mango, noodle, peach, pear, pork, pumpkin, seafood, shrimp, steak (3) Sports & games: badminton, baseball, basketball, bike, chess, skate, ski, tennis.(4) School: biology, blackboard, bookcase, bookstore, campus, chart, chemistry, classmate, classroom, crayon, debate, eraser, quiz, semester, textbook, workbook(5) Animals & insects: ant, bark, bee, bug, butterfly, cockroach, dinosaur, dolphin, dragon, eagle, mosquito, panda, shark, spider, tiger, wolf(6) House & apartments: balcony, bathroom, bench, blanket, carpet, ceiling, closet, conditioner, couch, decorate (7) Clothing & accessories: blouse, earrings, pajamas, pants, scarf, shorts, sneakers, sweater, swimsuit, t-shirt, trousers, vest, wallet(8) Countries and proper names: China, Chinese, America, Taiwan, ROC, USA, MRT(9) Computer Tech: computer, e-mail, Internet

1,200 4,000 1,200 4,000 (word family)

Lexical Density (content words/total)

Significant expenditure on product marketing might only be of limited assistance to a corporation if the quality of that product is below a certain minimum acceptable standard. (52%)

It is not much use spending a lot of money on marketing a product if the quality of the product is poor. (36%)If I were you I would not spend a lot of money on marketing that product of yours. (22%)Spending money on marketing a low quality product is probably unhelpful. (64%)

Type/Token Ratio(The ratio of different words, types, to the total number of words, tokens)TTR varies very widely in accordance with the length of the textThe standardised type/token ratio (STTR) is computed every n words as Wordlist goes through each text file. By default, n =1000

T-Unit (Kellogg Hunt, 1965)T-unit to stand for "minimum terminable unit." It is "a main clause with all of its appended modifiers, including subordinate clauses." (Hillocks, 1986, p. 64).The shortest units into which a piece of discourse can be cut without leaving any sentence fragments as residue. (Hunt, 1970).

T-Unit

They left early yesterday. (1 T-unit) They left early yesterday because they were tired. (1 T-unitan independent and a dependent clause)They left early yesterday but promised to return today. (1 T-unitthere is no explicit subject in the second part, so there isnt a second independent clause, just a compound verb.)They left early yesterday, but they decided to stay longer today. (2 T-units2 independent clauses: the subject in the second clause has been made explicit.)I like the movie we saw about Moby Dick, the white whale [1] the captain said if you can kill the white whale, Moby Dick, I will give this gold to the one who can do it [2] and it is worth sixteen dollars [3] they tried and tried [4] but while they were trying they killed a whale and used the oil for the lamps [5].

T-Unit

The T-Unit as a Measure of Syntactic Complexity in Emily Dickinson's Poems,The Emily Dickinson Journal - Volume 11, Number 1, Spring 2002, pp. 91-103Emily Dickinson built poems with great syntactic variety and structural complexity. The power of her language at the phrase, clause, and discourse level is evidence of her poetic genius. As one nineteenth-century New England rhetorician stated: "We find in the best poetry of all nations an almost endless variety of clause and phrase and paragraph" (Hunt, Principles 304).

T-Unit

Syntactic Maturity and Vocabulary Richness Learning Disabled Children at Four Age Levels Journal of Learning Disabilities, Vol. 13, No. 7, 27-32 (1980) (1) A syntactic developmental pattern existed as measured by the number of T-units (one main clause and all subordinated clauses) and the word length per T-unit. (2) A comparison of the syntactic developmental trend of learning disabled and normal children revealed that normal children experience periods of rapid growth, while learning disabled children exhibit gradual control of syntax across the four age levels. (3) A vocabulary developmental pattern exists as measured by the corrected type-token ratio and the number of different words spoken. (4) A comparison of the vocabulary developmental trend of normal and learning disabled children revealed that vocabulary increases for both groups with advancing age.

Gunning-Fog Index

The number of years of formal education that a person requires in order to easily understand the text on the first reading. (6-easy 20-hard)

96989696T-unit8.6912.013.314.514.2515.2514.3116.47

(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

(Pedagogical grammars)

(definite)(coherent)( non-technical) (cumulative)(heuristic)

Odlin, T., (ed.) Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994)

(passive voice) He writes the letters.The letters are written by him.the letterswritesHe.

(passive voice) He writes the letters.The letters are written by him.The letterswriteshe.

(passive voice) He writes the letters.The letters are written by him.The letterswritesby him.

(passive voice) He writes the letters.The letters are written by him.The lettersbe writtenby him.

(passive voice) He writes the letters.The letters are written by him.The lettersare writtenby him.

(passive voice) He wrote the letters in English.The letters were written in English.the letterswroteHein English.

(passive voice) He wrote the letters in English.The letters were written in English.

The letterswrotehein English.

(passive voice) He wrote the letters in English.The letters were written in English.

The letterswroteby himin English.

(passive voice) He wrote the letters in English.The letters were written in English.

The letterswere writtenby himin English.

(passive voice) He wrote the letters in English.The letters were written in English.

The letterswere written(by him)in English.

(passive voice) Be + V-enChinese is spoken in many countries.The letters are written (by John).The letters were written in English.The problem has been fixed.The news will be published soon.

(relative clause)

I remember the boy who talked to me in the park.I remember the boy.The boy talked to me in the park.

(relative clause)

I remember the boy who talked to me in the park.I remembertalked to me in the park.whothe boy.

(relative clause)

I remember the boy who talked to me in the park.I rememberthe boy who talked to me in the park.

(relative clause)

I remember the boy I met in the park.I remember the boy.I met the boy in the park.

(relative clause)

I remember the boy I met in the park.I remember the boy.I met whom in the park.

(relative clause)

I remember the boy I met in the park.I remember the boy.whom I met in the park.

(relative clause)

I remember the boy I met in the park.I remember the boy whom I met in the park.

(relative clause)

I remember the boy I met in the park.I remember the boy whom I met in the park.( )

(relative clause)

I remember the boy I met in the park.I remember the boy I met in the park.

(relative clause)

I like the girl in the red shirt.I like the girl.The girl is in the red shirt.

(relative clause)

I like the girl in the red shirt.I like the girl.who is in the red shirt.

(relative clause)

I like the girl in the red shirt.I like the girl who is in the red shirt.

(relative clause)

I like the girl in the red shirt.I like the girl who is in the red shirt.

(relative clause)

I like the girl in the red shirt.I like the girl who is in the red shirt.( )

(relative clause)

I like the girl in the red shirt.I like the girl in the red shirt.

(participle phrase) Time and occasion(While) having her lunch at the caf, Helen heard the breaking news on the radio. When Helen had her lunch at the caf, she heard the breaking news on the radio.

(participle phrase) Time and occasion(While) having her lunch at the caf, Helen heard the breaking news on the radio. When Helen had her lunch at the caf, she heard the breaking news on the radio.

(participle phrase) Time and occasion(While) having her lunch at the caf, Helen heard the breaking news on the radio. Helen was having her lunch at the caf, she heard the breaking news on the radio.While

(participle phrase) Time and occasion(While) having her lunch at the caf, Helen heard the breaking news on the radio. (While Helen was) having her lunch at the caf, she heard the breaking news on the radio.

(participle phrase) Time and occasion(While) having her lunch at the caf, Helen heard the breaking news on the radio. (While Helen was) having her lunch at the caf, heard the breaking news on the radio.Helen

(participle phrase) Time and occasion(While) having her lunch at the caf, Helen heard the breaking news on the radio. Having her lunch at the caf, she heard the breaking news on the radio.

(participle phrase) Time and occasionSeen from the mountain, Taipei looks beautiful at night. As Taipei is seen from the mountain, it looks beautiful at night.

(participle phrase) Time and occasionSeen from the mountain, Taipei looks beautiful at night. As Taipei is seen from the mountain, it looks beautiful at night.

(participle phrase) Time and occasionSeen from the mountain, Taipei looks beautiful at night. (As Taipei is) seen from the mountain, it looks beautiful at night.

(participle phrase) Time and occasionSeen from the mountain, Taipei looks beautiful at night. (As Taipei is) seen from the mountain, looks beautiful at night.Taipei

(participle phrase) Time and occasionSeen from the mountain, Taipei looks beautiful at night. Seen from the mountain, Taipei looks beautiful at night.

(participle phrase) ReasonBeing tired, I stopped and took a rest. As I was tired, I stopped and took a rest.

(participle phrase) ReasonBeing tired, I stopped and took a rest. As I was tired, I stopped and took a rest.

(participle phrase) ReasonBeing tired, I stopped and took a rest. (As I) was tired, I stopped and took a rest.

(participle phrase) ReasonBeing tired, I stopped and took a rest. (As I) tired, I stopped and took a rest.(Being)

(participle phrase) ConcessionKnowing where I live, Jack never comes to see me. Though Jack knows where I live, he never comes to see me.

(participle phrase) ConcessionKnowing where I live, Jack never comes to see me. Though Jack knows where I live, he never comes to see me.

(participle phrase) ConcessionKnowing where I live, Jack never comes to see me. (Though Jack) knows where I live, he never comes to see me.

(participle phrase) ConcessionKnowing where I live, Jack never comes to see me. (Though Jack) where I live, he never comes to see me.knowing

(participle phrase) ConcessionKnowing where I live, Jack never comes to see me. (Though Jack) knowing where I live, never comes to see me.Jack

(participle phrase) ConcessionKnowing where I live, Jack never comes to see me. Knowing where I live, Jack never comes to see me.

Time and occasion While having her lunch at the caf, Helen heard the breaking news on the radio. Seen from the mountain, Taipei look beautiful at night.Reason Being tired, I stopped and took a rest.Concession Knowing where I live, Jack never comes to see me.

(participle phrase)

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

It was John that gave me the invitation. John gave me the invitation. It was that It was that gave the invitation.Johnme

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

It was John that gave me the invitation. John gave me the invitation. It was that It was that the invitation.John gaveme

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

It was John that gave me the invitation. John gave me the invitation. It was that It was that gave .Johnthe invitationme

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

What he likes is not in this store.

What is The item is not in this store.He likes the item.

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

What he likes is not in this store.

What is The item he likes is not in this store.(which)[ ] he likes is not in this store.What

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

World peace is what he always hopes for. what World peace is something.He always hopes for something.

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

World peace is what he always hopes for. what World peace is something.He always hopes for which.

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

World peace is what he always hopes for. what World peace is something.which He always hopes for.

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

World peace is what he always hopes for. what World peace is something (which) he always hopes for.[ ] World peace is he always hopes for.what

(cleft)/(pseudo-cleft)

() It was John that gave me the invitation. It was me that John gave the invitation. It was the invitation that John gave me.() What he likes is not in the store. World peace is what he hopes for.

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