-Revistã de istorie şi culturã-Iniţiatã în anul 2013 ca revistã de istorie şi culturã ce-şi propunea sã aducã înaintea cititorilor lucrãri de istorie, religie, pedagogie

ASTRA Salvensis, an VII, numãr 13, 2019

1

ASTRA SALVENSIS -Revistã de istorie şi culturã-

YEAR VII NUMBER 13 Salva

2019


2

Astra Salvensis - review of history and culture, year VII, No. 13, 2019

Review edited by ASTRA Nãsãud Department, Salva Circle and

,,Vasile Moga” Department from Sebeş Director: Ana Filip Deputy director: Iuliu-Marius Morariu Editor-in-chief: Mihai-Octavian Groza

FOUNDERS:

Ioan Seni, Ana Filip, Romana Fetti, Vasilica Augusta Gãzdac, Luminiţa Cuceu, Iuliu-Marius Morariu

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE:

PhD. Lecturer Daniel Aron Alic, ,,Eftimie Murgu" University, Reşiţa; PhD. Emil Arbonie, ,,Vasile Goldiş” University, Arad; PhD. Assist. Prof. Ludmila Bãlţat, ,,B. P. Haşdeu” University, Cahul; PhD. Lecturer Maria Barbã, ,,B. P. Haşdeu” University, Cahul; PhD. Assoc. Prof. Alex Bãlaş, New York State University from Cortland; PhD. Assoc. Prof. Ioan Cârja, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca; PhD. Luminiţa Cornea, Independent Researcher, Sfântu Gheorghe; Phd. Lecturer Mihai Croitor, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca; PhD. Prof. Theodor Damian, The Romanian Institute of Orthodox Theology and Spirituality/Metropolitan College, New York; PhD. Dorin Dologa, National Archives of Romania, Bistriţa-Nãsãud Districtual Service; PhD. Prof. Lucia Fetcu, University of Bucharest; PhD. Prof. Ştefan Florea, "Valahia" University, Târgovişte; PhD. Assoc. Prof. Ion Gumenâi, State University, Chişinãu; PhD. Assoc. Prof. Olimpia Iacob, ,,Ion Popescu de la Brad” University, Iaşi; PhD. Bogdan Ivanov, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca; PhD. Assoc. Prof. Rastko Jovic, University of Belgrade; PhD. Lecturer Adriana Denisa Manea, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca; PhD. Victor Mãruţoiu, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca; PhD. Assist. Marius Andrei Mocan, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca; PhD. Lecturer Ioan Morariu, ,,Titu Maiorescu” University, Bucharest;

PhD. Assist. Ioana Iacob Mudure, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca;

PhD. Luiza Palanciuc-Şora, ,,Benjamin Fondane” Institute, Paris;

PhD. Lilia Rufanda, University of Kapokidistrian, Athens;

PhD. Assoc. Prof. Ana Victoria Sima, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca;

PhD. Doru Sinaci, ,,Vasile Goldiş” University, Arad;

PhD. Prof. Grigore Smeu, ,,Constantin Brâncuşi” University, Târgu-Jiu;

PhD. Assist. Radu Suciu, University of Genève/University of Fribourg;

PhD. Assoc. Prof. Inocent-Maria Vladimir Szaniszlo, Catholic University of

Ružomberok, Košice;

PhD. Mihai Şora, Independent Researcher, Honorary Member of Romanian

Academy, Bucharest;

PhD. Valentin Talpalaru, Museum of Romanian Literature, Iaşi;

PhD. Assoc. Prof. Teofil Tia, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca;

PhD. Assoc. Prof. Vasile Timiş, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca;

PhD. Assist. Lucian Turcu, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca.

EDITORIAL BOARD:

Mihai-Octavian Groza (Cluj-

Napoca), Iuliu-Marius Morariu (Cluj-Napoca), Diana-Maria Dãian (Cluj-Napoca), Andrei

Pãvãlean (Cluj-Napoca), Adrian Iuşan (Cluj-Napoca), Grigore-Toma Someşan (Cluj-Napoca),

Andrei Faur (Cluj-Napoca), Gabriela-Margareta Nisipeanu

(Bucharest), Daria Otto (Wien), Petro Darmoris (Liov), Flavius Cristian Mãrcãu (Târgu-Jiu), Olha Soroka (Liov), Tijana Petkovic (Belgrade), Robert

Mieczkokwski (Warsaw), Melissa Trull (Seattle)

Translation of abstracts:

Iuliu-Marius Morariu Anca-Ioana Rus

Diana-Maria Dãian

Covers: Ana Platon (Cluj-Napoca)

Indexation:

Scopus, ErihPlus, Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory,

IndexCopernicus International, Ebsco, RePEc, CEEOL, Google

Academic, ORCID, Universal Impact Factor.

ISSN 2393-4727

ISSN-L 2344-1887 The responsibility for the articles and studies published it belongs

to the authors. Please send any e-mail to the

following address: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


3

CUPRINS/CONTENTS Editorial………………………………………………………………..9

ISTORIE/HISTORY Saule ORAZBAY, Magripa ESKEEVA, Raushangul AVAKOVA, Sholpan KHUDIAROVA, Gaziza SHOYBEKOVA Kultegin is the Commander of Ancient Turks………………………...15 Florin DOBREI Un protopop uitat: Nicolae Pop din Balomiru de Câmp (judeţul Alba)/A Forgotten Archpriest: Nicolae Pop from Balomiru de Câmp (Alba County)……………………………………………………………….31 Pavlo SMOLIAK, Oleg SMOLIAK Ethnographic Boundaries of Western Podillya: History of Formation and Ethnic Identity………………………………………………………..45 Florin I. BOJOR Discursul patriotic de la Blaj al preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu-sursã de inspiraţie pentru Andrei Mureşanu şi act de condamnare a Uniaţiei? Ipoteze plauzibile/The Patriotic Discourse from Blaj of the Priest Simion Bãrnuţiu-Source of Inspiration for Andrei Mureşanu and Condemnation Act of the Church Union? Plausible Assumptions......................................................................................................61 Daniel Aron ALIC Oraşul Caransebeş-scurte repere de spiritualitate bãnãţeanã/Caransebeş Town-Short Landmarks of Banat Spirituality…………………………83 Valery Fedorovich BLOKHIN, Irina Viktorovna ALFEROVA, Julia Nikolaevna USTINOVA, Ekaterina Sergeevna FISHER Periodicals and Military Censorship during the First World War: Military Secrets and the Freedom of Information Problem……………………93 Mihai-Octavian GROZA Însemnãri memorialistice referitoare la activitatea Legiunii Române din Praga (1918)/Memoirs regarding the Activity of the Romanian Legion from Prague (1918)………………………………………………….101


4

Maria Alexandra PANTEA Organizarea românilor din Cercul Vârşeţului în toamna anului 1918/Organization of the Romanians in the Vârşeţ Circle in the Autumn of 1918……………………………………………………………....123 Cristina TUDOR Aspecte privind Decretul numãr 177 din 4 august 1948 pentru regimul general al cultelor religioase/Aspects Concerning the Decree No. 177 from 4th of August 1948 for the General Regime of Religious Cults……........................................................................................................131 Mihai CROITOR, Sanda CROITOR Nikita S. Hruşciov şi chestiunea frontierelor în cadrul blocului comunist. Studii de caz: China, Iugoslavia, Polonia, România, Ungaria şi URSS/Nikita S. Khrushchev and the Border Issues within the Communist Bloc. Case Studies: China, Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania, Hungary and the USSR……………………………………………...159 Adrian MÃRINCEAN Public Administration in the Territories Controlled by the Islamic State…………………………………………………………………175

TEOLOGIE/THEOLOGY Bogdan-Lucian ŞOPTEREAN Jerusalem Temple’s Rebuilding as a Religious and National Unity Factor-a Central Topic in Prophet Haggai’s Writing………………………...187 Ioan POPA-BOTA Taina şi înfãţişarea heruvimilor la Sfinţii Pãrinţi/ The Sacrament and Look of Cherubims in Holy Fathers’ Taught……………………………………...195

Rastko JOVIĆ Pseudo-Macarius: Mysticism and Community……………………….205 Ioan CHIRILÃ, Stelian PAŞCA-TUŞA, Adrian MÃRINCEAN, Bogdan ŞOPTEREAN The Divine Light. The Sight and Experience of it in Gregory Palamas Theology…………………………………………………………….221 Iuliu-Marius MORARIU


5

Saint Faustina Kowalska and Saint Teresa of Calcutta-Two Authors of Spiritual Autobiographies from Catholic Space of the 20th Centrury……………………………………………………………..231 Inocent-Mária V. SZANISZLÓ OP. The Question about a Common Good in the Secular State………….241

ŞTIINŢE SOCIALE/SOCIAL SCIENCES Svetlana NOVIKOVA, Irina MUSHKINA, Galina ROMANOVA, Irina UKRAINTSEVA, Elena SHMELEVA Professional Retraining of Pedagogical and Managerial Personnel as a Perspective Direction of the System of Identification Development and Support of Gifted Children and Youth……………….……………...261 Vitalii BOCHELIUK, Mykyta PANOV, Valentyna NECHYPORENKO, Ellina POZDNIAKOVA-KYRBIATIEVA Formation of Mental Set of Subjects of Higher Education Institution for Management by the Correction Game Method………….…………...275 Igor Yu. ANIKIN, Svetlana V. LAPTEVA, Anatoliy V. KOZLOV, Olga S. TAMER Competences of the Teaching Staff in the Computerization of the Learning Process…………………………………………………….289 Igor Yu. ANIKIN, Svetlana V. LAPTEVA, Anatoliy V. KOZLOV, Olga S. TAMER Dynamics of Knowledge Acquisition using a Synergistic Approach in Training……………………………………………………………...299 Sanim KOZHAYEVA, Maira RAKHIMZHANOVA, Kulyan IBRAYEVA, Gulzhan MURATOVA, Ainur DZHUMAGALIEVA Formation of Humanitarian Qualities Among Students in Higher Education Institutions……………………………………………….309 Elena AGRIKOVA, Marina VORONINA, Elena KASHINA, Victoria LEVCHENKO Transmedia Skills as an Integral Part of the 21st Century Professional: Structure and Development…………………………………………327


6

Vladimir G. MARALOV, Alena Yu. GURA, Radik Dzh. TATLYEV, Galina A. EPANCHINTSEVA, Irina N. BUKHTIYAROVA, Dmitrii M. KARAVAEV Influence of the Sex and Age on People’s Attitude toward Hazards……………………………………………………………...343 Elmira A. AITENOVA, Alua A. SMANOVA, Aktoty T. AKZHOLOVA, Almash T. TURALBAYEVA, Zhanil K. MADALIEVA, Ulzharkyn M. ABDIGAPBAROVA

Construction of Dual System of Preparation of Engineering-Pedagogical Personnel at Higher Education Institute……………………………..353 Irina USHATIKOVA, Elena KONOVALOVA, Victoriya LING, Victor CHERNYSHEV, Anna DMITRIEVA The Study of Blended Learning Methods in Higher Education Institutions…………………………………………………………..367 Marina A. GASANOVA, Ruslan I. SEFERBEKOV, Bashir B. BULATOV, Elmira M. G. ZULPUKAROVA Linguistic Landscape of Modern Dagestan City……………………...389 Tetiana YEFYMENKO, Tetiana MOROZ, Anzhelika SOLODKA, Yana PROSIANNIKOVA The Phenomenon of Linguistic Interference in Professional Intercultural Communication and Translation (on Example of Ukrainian-English Differences)…………………………………………………………399 Aigul A. KARAMOVA, Еlena A. BURCEVA, Amina Sh. ABDULLINA, Rishat F. KHASANOV, Olga V. LYSOVA, Gulfira R. ABDULLINA Speech Manipulation as one of the Main Properties of Modern Political Discourse……………………………………………………………413 Olga S. ZAVJALOVA Text Functions of the Aspect-Tense Verbs Forms as the Basic Principle for Teaching the Aspect of Russian Verbs…………………………...425 Dmytro A. BEGEKA Linguo-Social and Cultural Competence as a Factor of Professional Training of Future Foreign Philology Teacher……………………….441


7

Marzhan U. SULEIBANOVA The Growth of Agglutinativity in the Word-Formation System of the Russian Language……………………………………………………457 Anastassia PETROVA G. Apollinaire in the Context of Modern French Literature: ,,New Consciousness” and Prose Writers…………………………………..467 Vladimir P. KAZAKOV Nominative Chains in the Novel The Terracotta Old Woman by E. S. Chizhova…………………………………………………………….483 Tamusa H. AKHMADOVA, Inna B. BACHALOVA, Petimat Kh. KHUNARIKOVA, Maryam Kh. SADULAEVA ,,The Robber Brothers” and Razin Folklore in the Works of A. S. Pushkin……………………………………………………………...497 A. M. KHUSIKHANOV, T. K. AKHMADOVA, M. K.

SADULAEVA, M. P. ASUKHANOVA, E. H. DALIEVA

Genre Searches in the Chechen Prose of the 50s-80s………………..505 Vitaly V. POPOV, Oksana A. MUZIKA, Vladimir V. PODBEREZNY, Aleksander M. CHERVONY, Margarita V. KREVCUN Oksana A. HOLINA Social Transformation in the Context of Temporal References……...513 Alexander S. KOKIN, Seyfullakh A. RAMASANOV, Marina V. OGORODOVA, Larisa V. LAVRENTEVA, Zhanna V. SMIRNOVA, Anna I. ORLOVA The Study of the Market of Mutual Investment Funds in the Russian Federation…………………………………………………………...525

RECENZII/BOOK REVIEWS Iuliu-Marius MORARIU Jeffrey T. Zalar, Reading and Rebellion in Catholic Germany, 1770-1914, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018………………………545 Florina SAS


8

Rãzvan Mihai Neagu, Formarea intelectualitãţii din Turda: studenţi din Turda la marile universitãţi europene 1377-1918, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega, 2015…………………………………………………………………547 Ana-Maria Iulia MORARIU Sebeşul şi Marea Unire: memorii, acte şi documente, ediţie, studii introductive, note şi indici de Mihai-Octavian Groza, Iuliu-Marius Morariu, Gabriela-Margareta Nisipeanu, Claudia Fechete, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Argonaut, 2018..................................................................................................................550 Nicolae DUMBRÃVESCU Ioan Lupaş, Prãbuşirea monarhiei austro-ungare şi importanţa istoricã a zilei de 1 Decembrie 1918, ediţie, studiu introductiv, note şi indice de Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan, Cluj-Napoca, Academia Românã, Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2018……………………………………………………552 Iuliu-Marius MORARIU Yazid Said, Lejla Demiri (eds.), The Future of Interfaith Dialogue. Muslim-Christian Encounters through A Common Word, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018……………………………………………….554 Iuliu-Marius MORARIU Kenneth A. Gould, Tammy L. Lewis (eds.), Ten Lessons in introductory sociology, 2nd edition, Oxford/New York, Oxford University Press, 2018…………………………………………………………………556 Iuliu-Marius MORARIU Gerald O’Collins, Catholicsm. A Very Short Introduction, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017……………………………………………….558 Mihai-Octavian GROZA Zenovie Cârlugea, Lucian Blaga şi lumea Banatului, Iaşi, Editura Tipo Moldova, 2018………………………………………………………560 Raluca-Nicoleta UILEAN Tatiana Niculescu, Tãierea fecioarelor, Bucureşti, Editura Humanitas, 2018…………………………………………………………………562 Lista autorilor/Contributors…………………………………..……..567


9

EDITORIAL

Iniţiatã în anul 2013 ca revistã de istorie şi culturã ce-şi propunea sã aducã înaintea cititorilor lucrãri de istorie, religie, pedagogie şi filologie, Astra Salvensis a crescut numãr cu numãr, an dupã an, pãstrându-şi totuşi specificul.

Articolele de istorie localã, publicate încã din primele numere de tineri cercetãtori precum Iuliu-Marius Morariu (devenit între timp pãrintele Maxim),1 Vasilica Gãzdac,2 Ana Filip,3 Adrian Iuşan4 şi alţii,5 au fost o prezenţã de-a dreptul recurentã de la primul şi

1 Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Pagini din istoria Salvei. Partea I-Salva în documentele vremii în secolele XIII-XVIII”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 1, 2013, pp. 13-24; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Elemente ale opresiunii comuniste în localitatea Salva, judeţul Bistriţa-Nãsãud”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 2, 2013, pp. 54-59; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Elevi sãlãuani în primele promoţii ale Gimnaziului Grãniceresc Nãsãudean”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, pp. 60-63; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Preocupãrile medicale ale lui Leon Daniello, reflectate în paginile ,,Buletinului Eugenic şi Biopolitic” (1927-1947)”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 5, 2015, pp. 116-123; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Preotul Vasile Dumbravã (1854-1907) şi activitatea lui pastoralã în localitãţile Bichigiu şi Salva”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 6, 2015, pp. 180-186; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Elevi ortodocşi şi greco-catolici la Liceul ,,Alexandru Odobescu” din Bistriţa, între anii 1925 şi 1931”, în Astra Salvensis, an V, numãr 9, 2017, pp. 139-151; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Aspecte demografice privitoare la evreii din localitatea Salva, judeţul Bistriţa-Nãsãud (1885-1894)”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr 11, 2018, pp. 107-116. 2 Vasilica Gãzdac, ,,Rituri agrare la Salva-cununa grâului”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 2, 2013, pp. 4-9; Vasilica Gãzdac, ,,Localitatea Salva (judeţ Bistriţa-Nãsãud) între anii 1869-2002. Studiu demografic”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, pp. 76-81. 3 Adrian-Cosmin Iuşan, ,,Discursul ţãrãnist împotriva lui Vintilã Brãtianu, reflectat în ziarul Dreptatea, 1927-1928”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, pp. 106-113. 4 Ana Filip, ,,Salva-prima comunã membrã a Astrei din 1861”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 1, 2013, pp. 6-12; Ana Filip, Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Simpozionul ,,Convergenţe şi divergenţe între ştiinţã şi religie în lumea contemporanã”, Petrova, Maramureş, 21 octombrie 2016”, în Astra Salvensis, an IV, numãr 8, 2016, pp. 239-241. 5 Andrei Pãvãlean, ,,Relaţiile franco-române reflectate în presa româneascã din Transilvania în perioada 1890-1900”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 2, 2013, pp. 65-70; Alexandru Dãrãban, ,,Revenirea la Ortodoxie în zona Nãsãudului”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 2, 2013, pp. 10-14; Gheorghe Cazacu, ,,Voluntarii Români ardeleni din Rusia în timpul Primului Rãzboi Mondial”, an I, numãr 1, 2013, pp. 90-115; Nicolae Dumbrãvescu, ,,Thomas’ Sunday Gathering (30th April 1848) from Blaj, Depicted in Memoirs about the 1848-1849 Revolution from Transylvania”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr special, 2018, pp. 1035-1045; Daniel Aron Alic, ,,Institutul Pedagogic Diecezan din Caransebeş (1876-1920). Scurte consideraţii istorice”, în Astra Salvensis, an V, numãr 9, 2017, pp. 161-172; Daniel Aron Alic, ,,Rãspândirea cãrţii româneşti în Banat”, în Astra Salvensis, an IV, numãr 7, 2016, pp. 189-201; Florin Dobrei, ,,The expansion of


10

pânã la cel de-al treisprezecelea numãr. Autorilor provenind, iniţial, din spaţiul transilvãnean, li s-au alãturat de-a lungul timpului cercetãtori din diferite spaţii culturale şi de diferite orientãri profesionale. Aşa se face cã secţiunea teologicã s-a dezvoltat şi îmbunãtãţit pas cu pas,6 asemenea celei pedagogice,7 sau zonei de

Hungarians in the south-west of Transylvania in the 10th-13th centuries. Historical reference points”, în Astra Salvensis, an IV, numãr 8, 2016, pp. 31-44. 6 Grigore-Toma Someşan, ,,Icoana care ucide”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 1, 2013, pp. 67-80; Grigore Furcea, ,,Libertatea şi libertinajul-o perspectivã patristicã şi post patristicã”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 1, 2013, pp. 31-42; Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan, ,,Valoarea persoanei umane în teologia creştin-ortodoxã”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 2, 2013, pp. 95-103; Emanuel Cãşvean, ,,Elemente ale misticii germane reflectate in opera omileticã a lui Meister Eckhart”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 2, 2013, pp. 74-78; Grigore-Toma Someşan, ,,Alioşa şi Mişkin-chipuri ale libertãţii harice”, în Astra Salvensis, an I, numãr 2, 2013, pp. 79-83; Petro Darmoris, ,,The concept of the human being in God’s design in accordance with views of Gregory of Nyssa”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, supliment numãr 1, 2015, pp. 79-96; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Bioethics in the discussions of the Pan-Orthodox Synode from Crete (2016)”, în Astra Salvensis, an IV, numãr 7, 2016, pp. 247-255; Ratsko Jović, ,,Religious education-Challenges and perspectives in contemporary society: Western Balkans/Serbia”, în Astra Salvensis, an V, numãr 9, 2017, pp. 11-20; Ratsko Jović, ,,Patriarch Gavrilo Dozic and Ideal of Freedom. Yugoslavia: Coup d’ètat in 1941”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr 11, 2018, pp. 159-168; Tijana Petković, ,,A christian perspective on genetic manipulations”, în Astra Salvensis, an IV, numãr 8, 2016, pp. 235-246; Tijana Petković, ,,Orthodox perspectives on the status of the embryo”, în Astra Salvensis, an V, numãr 9, 2017, pp. 21-27; Sebastien-Jean Cross, ,,Et du travail des hommes... Le Père Teilhard de Chardin et la liturgie”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, supliment numãr 1, 2015, pp. 73-78; Jean-Jacques Dupont, ,,Bible, lectio divina, littérature et romans font-ils bon ménage?”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, supliment numãr 1, 2015, pp. 97-102; Inocent-Mária V. Szaniszló, OP, ,,Die Ethik des Seins oder Was für ein Mensch sollte zum Objekt der Ethik, Philosophie und der Theologie werden?”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, supliment numãr 1, 2015, pp. 191-219; Inocent-Mária V. Szaniszló, OP, ,,Denken des Hl. Thomas von Aquin als eine gute basis für gerechte sozialpolitik”, în Astra Salvensis, an IV, numãr 7, 2016, pp. 10-19; Sergey Melnik, ,,Difficulties in Understanding of Bible Text in Terms of Exodus 21:22-23 and Its Influence on Teaching about Abortion in Catholic Church”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr special, 2018, pp. 991-1000; Inocent-Mária V. Szaniszló OP, ,,Tangenten der Wissenschaft und des Glaubens Suche Nach der Interaktion der Natur-und Humanwissenschaften in Ihrer Beziehung zur (Moral) Theologie”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr special, 2018, pp. 1001-1014; Theodor Avramov, ,,Trans-Ecclesial Eucharist? An Exploration of some Critiques of Eucharistic Ecclesiology and the outlining of Potential New Paths”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr 11, 2018, pp. 385-402; Melissa Nicole Trull, ,,Spirit Sophia and the ,,None” Movement: an Ecumenical Mission Reflection on Spiritual ,,Nones” of the United States”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr 11, 2018, pp. 403-416; Lucian Zenoviu Bot, ,,Unitatea de cuget a Bisericii. Sintezã eclesiologicã”, în Astra Salvensis, an IV, numãr 7, 2016, pp. 63-84. 7 Maria Barbã, ,,Educaţia centratã pe copil la vârsta preşcolarã în Republica Moldova”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 6, 2015, pp. 152-161; Emilia-Sanda Cârceie,


11

studii culturale.8 În acelaşi timp, însã, ne-am strãduit sã adãugãm de fiecare datã când am avut ocazia, cronici ale unor evenimente şi recenzii. Au existat, de asemenea, în ultimii ani şi situaţii în care am gãzduit în paginile periodicului astrist lucrãrile unor manifestãri prestigioase derulate în ţarã sau strãinãtate. Prezenţa unor autori referenţiali din varii domenii a fãcut posibilã citarea textelor publicate în paginile unor volume şi reviste de prim rang de pe cuprinsul întregii lumi.

În acelaşi timp, având în vedere indexarea revistei în paginile unor baze de date prestigioase precum SCOPUS, ErihPlus, CEEOL, Ebsco sau Index Copernicus, am devenit mai selectivi şi mai exigenţi, publicând o proporţie destul de redusã din numãrul textelor ce soseau pe adresa revistei. Acest fapt ne-a adus uneori mulţumiri, alteori ameninţãri şi presiuni. Nu a afectat, însã, calitatea textelor, ci dimpotrivã ne-a determinat sã continuãm în aceastã

,,Dezvoltarea inteligenţei preşcolarilor şi şcolarilor mici”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 6, 2015, pp. 137-146; Olga Chiş, ,,Educaţia-repere şi forme de organizare”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, pp. 158-161; Adriana Denisa Manea, ,,Coordonate ale educaţieipermanente”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 5, 2015, pp. 168-171; Adriana Denisa Manea, ,,Educaţia incluzivã-un imperativ al societãţii contemporane”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, pp. 165-167; Adriana Denisa Manea, ,,Exigenţe în formarea continuã a cadrelor didactice”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 4, 2014, pp. 181-184; Adriana Denisa Manea, ,,Interelaţia profesor-elev-familie-societate promovatã prin parteneriatul educaţional”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 6, 2015, pp. 132-136; Delia Muste, ,,Aspecte privind motivaţia pentru învãţare la vârsta adultã”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 6, 2015, pp. 147-151; Merima Carmen Petrovici, ,,Înţelegere versus interpretare, comprehensiune versus explicaţie”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, pp. 168-170; Merima Carmen Petrovici, ,,Importanţa competenţei argumentative a profesorului în comunicarea didacticã”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 4, 2014, pp. 185-189; Merima Carmen Petrovici, ,,Perspectivã empiricã de abordare a comunicãrii”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 5, 2015, pp. 164-167; Corina Radu, ,,Familia temporar dezintegratã: factor ce afecteazã succesul preşcolar al elevului (Studiu de caz: Republica Moldova)”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 6, 2015, pp. 162-171; Cornelia Stan, ,,Motivaţie şi demotivaţie în activitatea educaţionalã”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, pp. 162-164; Cristian Stan, ,,Idei despre educaţie în opera lui Platon”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 4, 2014, pp. 176-180. 8 Cf. Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,L’androgyne chez Platon et Mircea Eliade”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr special, 2018, pp. 1023-1033; Mihaela Talpaş, ,,Interpreting gains momentum. Words-the new weapon of the 21st century”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, pp. 184-191; Paul Ersilian Roşca, ,,Romania and the Balkan Wars”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr special, 2018, pp. 1015-1022; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Virgil Gheorghiu’s Literary Activity Reflected in Securitate Archives”, în Astra Salvensis, an VI, numãr 12, 2018, pp. 149-155.


12

notã. Pãstrând calitatea înaltã a textelor, ne vom strãdui şi în cadrul acestui numãr sã oferim cititorilor lucrãri interesante şi utile din diferite areale tematice (precum cel istoriografic, cel teologic, cel pedagogic, dar şi din arealul studiilor culturale sau recenzii ale unor volume recent apãrute). În timp ce unele dintre texte continuã nişe de cercetare deja deschise de autori,9 altele propun abordãri noi şi inedite şi vor deschide cu certitudine noi direcţii în spaţiul de investigaţie ştiinţificã.

Sperãm ca, asemenea celorlalte, şi numãrul de faţã sã fie citit, citat şi analizat şi sã-şi gãseascã locul în bibliotecile de specialitate şi bibliografiile cercetãrilor viitoare.

Vivat, crescat, floreat, Astra Salvensis!

Mihai-Octavian GROZA

9 Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,The Spiritual Autobiography in the Eastern space in the second half of the XIXth and XXth century”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, supliment numãr 1, 2015, pp. 166-174; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Aspects of political theology in the spiritual autobiographies of the Orthodox space? New potential keys of lecture”, în Astra Salvensis, an V, numãr 10, 2017, pp. 129-133; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Aspects of political theology in the spiritual autobiography of Dag Hammarskjöld”, în HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, an LXXIV, numãr 4, 2018, pp. 1-5; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Aspects of political theology in the spiritual autobiography of Saint John of Kronstadt (1829-1908)”, în HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, an LXXIV, numãr 4, 2018, a4993, pp. 1-5.


13

Istorie/History


14


15

KULTEGIN IS THE COMMANDER OF ANCIENT TURKS

Saule Orazbaу, Magripa Eskeeva, Raushangul Avakova, Sholpan Khudiarova, Gaziza Shoybekova

University named after the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan-Elbasy, Astana, Kazakhstan

Eurasian National State University named after L. Gumilev, Astana, Kazakhstan

Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Foreign Languages and Professional Career University,

Almaty, Kazakhstan Kazakh State Women’s Teacher Training University,

Almaty, Kazakhstan

Abstract: Union of Turkic captives laid the foundations of the Great Turkic khanate. It is a large state that stretched from the Dnieper to the Amur and between the Yenisei and Tibet. These Turkic peoples used ancient Turkic writing. The ancient Turkic writing was known in Siberia, Mongolia, Shynzhan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and in the South of Russia. Their story covers a large period of V-VIII centuries. and it corresponds to the period of existence of the Western, Eastern, Turgesh, Khazar khaganates, as well as the Khaganate of the Turkic Kagan, which stood out from the Great Turkic Khaganate. The ancient Turks ruled the great Silk Road. Their military campaigns, which were conquered lands of Central Asia, Zhetysu, Khorezm, Aralsea, the Northern Caucasus, Manchuria, was directed against Zuganov, Taganov, kydaniv, of the people of the Bulgars. The article describes the research of the Orkhon-Yenisei and Talas monuments. After the Huns, the ancient Turks continued the military chronicle of Kazakhstan. The Turks lived in the Altai territory, were United in 545-547. Bumyn in the Union of Turkic captives and laid the foundations of the Great Idea of the written monument "Kultegin" is the first example of heroic epics. This is an invaluable heritage of the Turkic people, who dreamed of independence and unity. The legend describes the people with the desire for independence and unity. Heroism of the batyrs, who broke the yoke of slavery, shuddered the whole world preserved the unity of the people. A written monument dedicated to heroism, honor, courage, national spirit testifies to the dream of independence. The main idea of the legend of the military leader of the culture Is the unity of a huge nation. It speaks of the need to live in unity, to be committed to a common goal, to preserve the state, and otherwise, there was a possibility of loss of the nation. The exploits of the military leader Kultegin, from the age of sixteen to forty-seven years are described in epic language, revealed the meaning of the existence of the warrior.

Keywords: ancient turks, Kultegin, written monument, batyr, warlord, hero, independence, unity, battles, war, armed warrior, homeland.

Studying written monuments, you can look into history. As an

effective scientific achievement, these ancient writings forced to speak the silent stones of the vast expanses, and told the story of the great


16

Turkic people to his generation. Three hundred years ago, armed with long spears on trained horses, the Turks ruled the Kazakh land. The priceless treasure of all Turkic people written monuments of Orkhon-Yenisei and Talas became the property of world culture; these are the monuments telling about heroism, these are the sources of writing. In these letters, the sounds in the word are transmitted by symbols. Without regard to the location between written symbols, there is no particular difference in time of appearance or application. Both the handwriting and the use of symbols are similar. The history of writing of the Kazakh people originates from these monuments, these letters are the evidence of the past, and are of great importance for such subjects as the Kazakh language and history of Kazakhstan. Methods of communication of words in the language of written monuments are identical to the laws of the modern Kazakh language. Five types of communication of phrases of the modern Kazakh language are reflected in these writings. For example, "Sighted my eyes were blinded, my mind was so dull".1

The uniqueness of valuable historical information through the centuries contributes to the formation and recognition of the spirit of the Turkic world. They are witnesses to the written culture, these valuable historical records become a chronicle of heroism of our ancestors in turbulent times in the struggle for the people, land, freedom and independence, is depicted on the rocks of historical written records, have become urgent problems of the study of modern scientists – the monuments of the Orkhon, Yenisei, Talas. This is an ancient historical chronicle, telling a simple word about the Turkic-speaking tribes. The Turkic tribes were the modern Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Karachay, Karakalpaks, Uzbeks, Uighurs, Tatars, Nogai, Sakha (Yakutia), Khakassia, Azerbaijan, Turks, Kumyks, Avars, Balkars, Bashkurts, Karaimys, whose languages are related.

The language of the monument is the material used to study the history and language of the ancient Turkic languages, with phonetic, lexical and grammatical features, and many lexicons in the monuments are still preserved in our language.2 For example, the words associated

with the widespread Turkic social relations characteristic of the Turkic

languages: "Эл (ил)-эл. Ил биригме теңри // Tengri, which united the people.

Қаған. Антағ күлиг қаған ермис // They were very respected kagans. Бэг-бег.

1 D. D. Vasiliev, "The monuments of turks runic writing in Central Asia", in Soviet Turkology, no. 1, (1976), pp. 71-81. 2 K. A. Amanzholov, A. Tasbolatov, Military history of Kazakhstan, Almaty, Bilim Press, 2008.


17

Түрк бэглер, будун, буны есидиң // Turkic lords and people, listen to this. Барс

бег ерти. Қаған ат бунта биз биртимиз // Bars became their ruler. We gave

them the title of Kagan".

The word "сү" in the monuments was used in the meaning of

soldiers and troops. For example: Биз екі сү болту // we had two

different troops. These examples are proof that the Turkic languages in the ancient

era were already structurally-semantic and grammatical developed. If not

all lexemes can be found in Kipchak languages, they are used in other Turkic languages, it proves that the ancient Turkic language is a heritage

for all Turkic peoples.

The origin of Kazakh people Our history stores information about the ancestors of the Turks

after the Sakas - Huns, who lived on the lands of northern China, Mongolia, Baikal, consisting of 24 tribes and formed their own state in the III century. In the battles against the enemies the Huns often used aggressive methods. As well as used high-speed horse troops. Horse troops were armed with bows, swords, daggers and spears. The Huns were valiant warriors, and used during battles a loud cry. One of the favorite tricks of the Huns is the speed and killing enemies with long ropes, lassos, which were thrown at their enemies’ necks. Their numerous military expeditions were directed against China, and against Ancient Rome. The construction of the Great Wall of China was to protect the country from the Huns. There is evidence in the ancient writings of China that the military might of the Huns were 300 thousand soldiers. At the same time, the Huns conducted official and business correspondence and used the seals in their documents.

The founders of the Kazakh people-Saka tribes-appeared on the historical scene in the VII century, existed for two centuries, and lived on the territory of Central Asia, Kazakhstan and East Turkestan. Written monuments carry invaluable information about the history, worldview, traditions of the Turkic peoples.

V century

Information about Sakas can be found in the works of the Greek

historian of 484-425 years Herodotus, and in Chinese writings. Sakas, who had existed in V-X centuries, were sometimes called Massagets.


18

Saka tribes were nomadic and semi-nomadic, engaged in cattle breeding and crafts. The place of Saka tribes in military history and art of Kazakhstan is special. They used long swords, spears, battle axes, a bow with small arrows in military arts. They protected themselves with helmets and shields. As Sakas were constantly at wars, their ranks were constantly replenished by soldiers from the defeated tribes. Stories about their raids, the war with the Persians and the Greeks testify to the fact that Sakas was a large and powerful tribe. And along with this, they gave a strong rebuff to Gistaps’s son Darius and pursued his troops along the Syrdarya River.

In 530 year

In 530 as a result of the Battle near the Amudarya River, where the

Sakas, led by Queen Tomiris, faced Persians, the Persian king Cyrus II died. Sakas, who lived in the south of Kazakhstan, resisted the troops of Alexander the Great and during the enemies’ crossing the Syrdarya River wounded Alexander with an arrow. Only because of their fearlessness Saka tribes have retained their lands and escaped slavery.

In 545-547 years

After the Huns, the ancient Turks continued the military chronicle

of Kazakhstan. The Turks lived in the territory of Altai, were in 545-547 they were united by Bumyn in the union of Turkic tribes and laid the foundations of the Great Turkic khaganate. This large state extended from the Dnieper River to the Amur River and between the Yenisei River and Tibet. These Turkic peoples used the ancient Turkic writing. Ancient Turkic writing was known in Siberia, Mongolia, Shynzhan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and the south of Russia. Their story covers a large period of V-VIII centuries and corresponds to the period of existence of evolved from the Great Turkic khaganate the Western, Eastern, Turgesh, Khazar Khaganates and Khaganate of Turkic Khaganate. The ancient Turks ruled the Great Silk Road. Their military campaigns, in which lands of Central Asia, Semirechye, Khorezm, the Aral Sea, the North Caucasus, Manchuria were conquered, were directed against zhuzhan, togon, kidan, Sogdians, Bulgars.

In 562 year


19

The Turkic khaganate, having won against the Persians in 562, started to divide the conquered lands together with Iran. Winning in military campaigns, in 576 the Turks conquered Byzantium. In 582, at the peak of its existence due to internal strife, the Turkic Khaganate was divided into Western and Eastern Turkic khaganates.

In 603 year In 603 after the division of the land in the Western (land between

Semirechye and East Turkestan) and Eastern (the Land of Mongolia) khaganates the large state began to weaken. Former winners and losers in military campaigns, who owned vast territories, coexisted with nature, with its own kind of worldview, culture, existence, centuries-old traditions of the ancient Turks became the heritage of the modern generation, and left behind stone historical written monuments of nomadic peoples.

Literature review

• Professor L. N. Gumilyov proved in his works the valor of soldiers of the ancient Turks: "Experienced soldiers of the Turks, clad in armor from head to toe, were strong enemies in wars against Chinese foot soldiers, and against horse shooters of Iran".3

• O. Suleimenov highly appreciated the works of art, describing with the help of language historical events that characterize the ethnic characteristics of any nation: "No one will strike out and destroy".

• Professor S. Amanzholov states: "I believe that modern dulats are direct descendants of the ancient Turks Orkhon-Yenisei".4 Orkhon-Yenisei monuments provide valuable and phenomenal information to determine the level of development of Turkic languages at that time. According to Professor S. Amanzholov: "Orkhon language has a great similarity with modern Kazakh dialects",5 and academician Kh. Khamidov says: " It is impossible to doubt that these Orkhon inscriptions are related to the Karakalpak language, which belongs to a group as well as Kazakh does"6.

3 N. N. Gumilev, Ancient turks, Moscow, Nauka Press, 1993. 4 S. I. Vainshtein, S. G. Klyashtorny, V. V. Radlov, Historic study of turkic languages. Turkological textbook, Moscow, Nauka Press, 1971. 5 Ibidem. 6 Kh. Kharnadov, Turkological digest, Moscow, Nauka Press, 1981.


20

• Written monuments of Kipchak and other Turkic languages began to be studied in the second half of the XVII century. Kazakh, Western and Russian scientists made a great contribution to the processes of finding, reading, translation and study of ancient Turkic written monuments: D. G. Messershmidt,7 V. V. Radlov,8 S. E. Malov,9 A. M. Shcherbak,10 L. R. Kyzylasov,11 S. Amanzholov,12 K. Sartkozha,13 M. K. Yeskeeva.14

• The very first information is found in 1662 in the writings of N. Vitzen.15

• In 1697 S. Remezov16 in his work "Drawing of desert and mountain lands of Siberian cities" the place "Orkhon Rock" is named, there is information in the work of the Swedish officer I. Stralenberg "Northern and Eastern parts of Europe and Asia" for 1730.

• In 1793 P. Pallos17 published samples of monuments found on Siberian land.

• in 1818 by G. Spassky18 in the journal "Siberian Herald" in 1875 published several samples of monuments found on Siberian land.

• the Finnish scientists, having equipped the expeditions, published the collected materials in the work entitled "Inscriptions of Yenisei".

• In 1892 N. Yadrintsev, taking part in the expedition, found along the Orkhon River numerous monuments and published the work "Works of the Orkhon expedition".

7 A. S. Amanzholov, History and theory of turkic languages, Almaty, Mektep Press, 2003. 8 S. I. Vainshtein, S. G. Klyashtorny, V. V. Radlov, Historic study of turkic languages. 9 S. E. Malov, Monuments of ancient turkic languages: writing, Moscow, Institute of Archeology, USSR Academy of Sciences Press, 1951. 10 A. S. Shcherbak, Turkic runic. The origin of the most ancient written language of the Turks, the boundaries of its distribution, and the particular use, Moscow, Nauka Press, 2001. 11 I. L. Kyzylasov, Ancient Turkic runic writing of Eurasia (Experience of paleographic analysis), Moscow, Institute of Archeology, USSR Academy of Sciences, 1990. 12 A. S. Amanzholov, Historical and dialectic questions of Kazakh language formation, Almaty, Mektep Press, 2009. 13 M. Zholdabekov, K. Sartkhozha, Full Atlas of Orkhon Monuments, Almaty, Kultegin Press, 2005. 14 M. K. Yeskeeva Historical foundations of Kazakh writing, Almaty, Kultegin Press, 2002. 15 D. D. Vasiliev, ,,Turkologic glossary”, in Soviet Turkology, no. 3, (1979), pp. 90-101. 16 S. Karazhaubai, Orkhon heritage »1 book. Historical-cognitive ethnographic literature. Part 1, Almaty, Mektep Press, 2003. 17 S. Karazhaubai, Orkhon heritage »1 book. Historical-cognitive ethnographic literature. Part 2, Almaty, Mektep Press, 2003. 18 Ibidem.


21

• In 1892-1896 the Russian academic expedition under the leadership of V. Radlov19 on the banks of the Orkhon River, the Yenisei River was organized, all found material was studied by him together with N. Yadrintsev, and the results of the work were published in the work "Atlas of the ancient heritage of Mongolia".

• In 1899 P. Melioransky20 published a work in 140 pages about the monument of Kultegin.

• In 1893 a scientist from Denmark V. Thomsen first read in the runic inscriptions of the word "Turk" and "Tengri".

• S. Malov in "Written monuments of the ancient Turks" will publish a literal Russian translation of written monuments.

• In 1894 V. Radlov, having organizing Orkhon archaeological expedition, will contribute to archaeological methodology.

• In 1897 will publish jointly with P. Melioransky translation into Russian language of written monuments called "Ancient Turkic monuments of Kosho-Tsaidam".

• I. Stebleva in the work "Poetry of the Turks of VI-VIII centuries" will prove that the written monuments are a poetic work.21

• O. Suleymenov writes about the ideas of ancient written symbols, the etymology of modern words in his work "Prehistory of the Ancient Turkic languages and writings".

• A. Amanzholov studies the ancient Turkic language from the point of view of historical, cultural, morphological and syntactic issues.

• In 2003 K. Sartkozha in the work "Orkhon Heritage"22 notes the correspondence of the origin of the ancient Turkic inscriptions to the tengrian worldview.

• From the factual point of view, we can note the work of a new generation of turkologists, Kazakh scientists M. Zholdasbekov and K. Sartkozha, "Full Atlas of Orkhon monuments"23. The work presents drawings, photographs, location system, text of the primary source, transcription, translation and conceptual apparatus. It has plans-sketches of 12 complexes, and the location of 300 rock works are marked. This is a very valuable work for all Humanities and it introduces the whole world to the Turkic-Kipchak civilization.

19 S. I. Vainshtein, S. G. Klyashtorny, V. V. Radlov, Historic study of turkic languages. 20 Ibidem. 21 S. Karazhaubai, Orkhon heritage »1 book. 22 S. I. Vainshtein, S. G. Klyashtorny, V. V. Radlov, Historic study of turkic languages. 23 K. A. Amanzholov, A. Tasbolatov, Military history of Kazakhstan, Almaty, Bilim Press, 2008.


22

Results

Groups of Turkic writings by location I. L. Kyzylasov24 examines the writings of the Yenisei River as a

heritage of the VII-XIII centuries. He classifies the Turkic writing into two groups:

1) Asia - monuments of Orkhon, Yenisei, Talas, location of South Siberia, Central Asia, Semirechye;

2) Eurasia-monuments of the Don, Kuban, Isfarin, Ashiktas, South of the Yenisei, location of Eastern Europe, Central Asia, southern Siberia.

In general, the ancient Turkic writings are divided by researchers into three groups by location:

1. Monuments of Yenisei

This group includes inscriptions found along the Yenisei, in the

republics of Tuva, Khakas, Altai, in the Novosibirsk region of Western Russia and along the channel of the Irtysh River. The number of ancient written monuments in these areas reaches 150. The period of application and appearance are determined by the V-VII centuries.

2. Monuments of Talas

The second group includes monuments found in southern

Kazakhstan, Semirechye, along the Syr Darya riverbed, as well as in Kyrgyzstan, and 20 monuments found in Zhambyl region. Period of application and appearance are V-VIII centuries. The writings of Talas are the oldest examples of Orkhon inscriptions. The monuments of Talas are called in the ordinal form - the first, second and third rocks. From a historical point of view, it is connected with the States of Turks, Turgesh, Karluks. The language structure of the inscriptions is similar to the ancient Kazakh language.

3. Monuments of the Orkhon

24 I. L. Kyzylasov, Ancient Turkic runic writing of Eurasia (Experience of paleographic analysis), Moscow, Institute of Archeology, USSR Academy of Sciences, 1990.


23

This group includes 30 monuments found along the rivers of Mongolia Orkhon, Seleng, Tula and in the lowlands of Minusinsk in Russia. The period of application and the emergence are VII-VIII centuries. Labels represent long texts, for example, "Kutlug Kagan, "Bilge Kagan", "Kultegin", "Tonykok", "Cooley Chor" "Moyin Chor". The first tribes established on the territory of Kazakhstan in the period of uysin, used the Orkhon inscriptions. With the help of this letter, the Turkic khagans conducted business correspondence with China, Iran, Byzantium, at the same time, the letters were used for funeral texts on tombstones. The writings are preserved on stones, wood, bones, and tombstones.

The military chronicle of the Kazakh people originates from the largest inscriptions, the most unique monuments in the world history, full of historical information-the monument of Kultegin 732, the monument to Bilge Kagan 735, the monument to Tonykok 716.

Monuments dedicated to the outstanding Batyr-Kultegin One of the ancient Turkic written monuments of different

content, and recorded in accordance with historical events, a monument dedicated to the outstanding Batyr – Kultegin. The Kultegin is the youngest son of Kutluk (Ilteris) Kagan, warrior, hero, military leader. His older brother led the country with Bilge Kagan, expanded the land through the conquest of neighboring tribes. A written monument dedicated to Kultegin begins with his call to his family and people. For example: "Ančaqazγanmyš ančaitmiselimis, törümizerti. Türük, oγuz begleri, bodun esidiŋ! Üze teŋri basmasar, asra jir tilinmeser, türük bodun, eliŋin törüŋin kim yrtady. Udtačy. Türük bodun // This was the state we created, this was the power we established. Oh! You, Turkic, Oguz Beki people, listen! If Tengri did not press you from above, and the earth below opened up to you, Turkic people who will ruin your state, your power! Unite! Turkic people".25

After that, the story is interspersed with stories about wars, battles, confrontations, the struggle for the country, the internal strife of the Turkic tribes. The purpose of ancient scripture is to reveal to the people the name of the heroes who defended their country, who dreamed of the independence of their homeland. When Kultegin died at the age of forty-seven, his brother Bilge Kagan wrote out a master from China, who put the story of the heroism of Kultegin on a stone, and set Kultegin a

25 E. R. Tenshiev, Comparative historical grammar of turkic languages. Regional reconstruction, Moscow, Nauka Press, 2006.


24

monument of stones in the shape of a pyramid. The written monument consists of two parts: small and large inscriptions. A large inscription on the monument to Kultegin is composed of 6 novels, 428 songs, 53 lines, and the small contains 8 cycles; the idea of historical written monument, which tells of the heroism, the country, protection of people, the unity of the people is the achievement and preservation of independence of the Kazakh people. The image of the commander, who defended his people in troubled times, is transmitted through the image of Kultegin. Kultegin, like all the warriors of the Turks, was distinguished by courage, determination, firmness of mind. His whole life was spent on horseback, in armor, in the endless battles for the Khaganate. The image of Kultegin is a figure exalting the existence, wisdom, fearlessness and heroism of our ancestors in the period of the ancient Turks. Kultegin, who dreamed of the independence of the entire Turkic people, was an outstanding military leader, ruler, took an indelible place in the pages of history.

Kultegin was such a person who adhered to the idea of uniting all the Turkic people, a person who sought unity not only in business, but also in the goal of all the people. The image of Kultegin combines such qualities as Turkic self-consciousness, devotion to the values of the Turkic world, their veneration, praise, perseverance in achieving the goal, fortitude, courage, confidence in the chosen path, invincible will, cordiality, responsibility, conscience, self-esteem, and organization. Batyr, who defended his people was not an ordinary man, absorbed the above-mentioned qualities, he became an exemplary person for the future generation, and held a special position in his society.

The time of existence of the Turks is filled with battles. The laws of life were very strict then. The strongest won. And, despite the internal strife, defeated external enemies. The written monuments also have a place for the art of war. They describe in detail such combat strategies as fights, ring attack, throwing a mace on horseback, foot battle with swords, etc. For example, "Türges bodunuγ uda basdymyz. Türges qaγan süsi bolčuda otča borča kelti. Süŋüsdimiz. Kül-tigin bašγu boz at binip tegdi. Bašγu boz tutuzty ekisin özi altyzdy. Anda jana kirip türges qaγan bujruqy az tutuqyγ eligin tutdy. Qaγanyn anda ölürtümiz. Ilin altymyz. Qara türges bodun quup ičikdi. Ol bodunyγ tabarda qo // We defeated, pursuing, the Turgesh people. The army of the Turkic Kagan came to Bolcha like fire and storm. We fought. Kyul-Tegin, sitting on the gray horse Bashgu, rushed to the attack. Gray horse Bashgu [....] captured. Two [enemies] he destroyed himself. Then he again, breaking into the ranks of enemies, grabbed the commander of Az-Tutuk of Turgesh Kagan. We killed there their


25

Kagan, the people was subordinated. The Turgesh people obeyed. We settled that people in Tabar".26

This testifies to the high martial art of the Turks. In general, the Turks are a majestic people, who managed to form at the time the Turkic nation, which developed from year to year its civilization, which became a model for the future generation in terms of cultural and spiritual heritage, had its own traditions and dreamed of independence.

The collective image of tribes and clans living in the great steppe is an armed horse warrior. Armed soldier is a rider, a flag-bearer, a hunter, a marksman, a warlord, protecting his people and his land. Images of such batyrs as Kultegin are reflected not only on the monuments of Orkhon-Yenisei, but also found on the rock paintings in the habitats of the Turkic Khaganate and Turkic-speaking peoples in southern Siberia, near Baikal, in Semirechye, the Upper tributary of the Irtysh River, these are images of soldiers armed with various weapons with banners in their hands.

Dastan Kultegin became a stone monument for future generations, telling about the life of the Turkic Khaganate. In a great writing of Kultegin, consisting of forty lines, there is a large material about the past, the history of the Turkic Khaganate. Khaganate makes every effort to unite the Turkic tribes and establish peace in the four corners of the world. In the legend the dream of the people of independence is put. This written monument sounded in the Kazakh language in the legend which became a historical relic of the dream of heroism and freedom. The written monument became the basis for the formation of legends about the heroism of the Kazakh people. In the stories describe the exploits of heroes in numerous military campaigns. Kultegin was a clear example of love for the people, land, Country, an example of heroism, bravery, courage, perseverance, fearlessness (what is his personal opposition to numerous enemy)-creates determination in the young generation, enhances his spirit. His exploits on the battlefield awaken love for native land, the Motherland in the younger generation. For example, "Tijin türük bodun üčün tün udymadym, küntüz olurmadym. Inim Kültegin birle eki šad birle ölü jitü qazγandym. Anča qazγanyp biriki bodunyγ ot sub qylmadym. Men // For the sake of the Turkic people I did not sleep at night, I did not stay. Together with my brother Kultegin and two shadas dying (until exhaustion) we created a state. So conquering, I did not destroy with fire and water

26 Ibidem.


26

the peoples who joined us (tried to get along peacefully with them). When I sat down with Khaganate, from all the counries".27

Heroism of Kultegin in the name of his country forms in the minds of young people a call to defend the honor of the country brings them a heroic spirit, calls for the protection of the people from external enemies. Heroism leads to freedom, freedom leads to the nation.

The idea of a written monument "Kultegin" is the first example of heroic epics. This is an invaluable heritage of the Turkic people, who dreamed of independence and unity. The legend describes the people with the desire for independence and unity. Heroism of the batyrs who broke the yoke of slavery, shuddered the whole world preserved the unity of the people. A written monument dedicated to heroism, honor, courage, national spirit testifies to the dream of independence. The main idea of the legend about the military leader Kultegin is the unity of a huge nation. It speaks of the need to live in unity, to be committed to a common goal, the preservation of statehood, and otherwise, there was a possibility of loss of the nation. The exploits of the military leader Kultegin, from the age of sixteen to forty-seven are described by the epic language, the meaning of the existence of Batyr is revealed.

In the monument of Kultegin there is information about the

capture of all four sides of the world: "…üze kӧk teɳri, asra jaɣyz jer

qylyntuqda ekin ara kisi oɣly qylynmys. Kisi oɣlynda üze ećüm apam bumyn qaɣan,

istemi qaɣan olurmys. Olurypan türük bodunyn elin, tӧrüsin tuta birmis, iti birmis // …when the almighty Tengri was created at the top, the brown earth below, between them the sons of people were created. Mankind was ruled by my ancestors Bumyn-Kagan, Istemi-Kagan. Sat on the throne (kingdom), (they) arranged the Turkic people, created the state and power".28

However, in the ancient Turkic writings common to the Turkic people of the monument there are concepts: language, religion, history, homeland, reflecting the idea of the country and heroism.

M. Auezov29 was one of the first to evaluate ancient written monuments as a heroic epic: "their content is dominated by the epic nature of the statement; this is confirmed by the artistic form of the legend. Answer how many people and exploits are described in the writings of Kultegin, Tonykok and Sudzha?! They are a chronicle of the

27 Ibidem. 28 Ibidem. 29 I. V. Kormushin, Turkish Turkic Epithaphs: Grammar, Textology, Moscow, VLADOS Press, 2008.


27

numerous battles of the clans and tribes; there are descriptions of wars, of the exploits, the invasions".

This legend reflects the faith of the ancient Turks in the heavens and the earth’s forerunner. The fire was considered sacred. There is faith in Umai Ana. In the monument to Kultegin there are lines about Umay Ana. For example, "Umaj teg ögüm qatyn quutyŋa inim Kül-tigin er at boldy. Alty Jigirmi jašyŋa ečim qaγan ilin törüsin anča qazγandy. Alty čub soγdaq tapa süledimiz, buzdymyz. Tabγač oŋ-tutug biš // to the delight of her majesty my mother-katun like Umai, my younger brother Kultegin received a heroic name (ep). At the age of sixteen he strengthened the state and the authority of my uncle-Kagan. We went to war against the six chubykh sogdak, defeated them, it’s fifty thousand army came, the army of Tabgach On-Tutuk. Fought".30

The leader in the battles was the gray wolf. The ancient Turkic monuments are permeated with special urgency; they are like the shrill cry of the petrel against the clouds of enemies like thunder.

The heroic spirit of the brave and strong military leaders of the monuments of Orkhon-Yenisei, who sacrificed themselves in the name of the people, a piece of land, who fought with the enemies sparing no life, their invaluable heroism in the protection of independence, their lives filled with battles for their homeland is a historical relic and chronicle of the people, which has a greater educational value for the younger generation. Khans and khagans, who decided the fate of the people, the feats of batyrs in the name of independence became a vivid image of history.

Their selfless feat, contribution to the cause of ancestors, the battle for the freedom of their native land is an invaluable example for young people. For example, "Kultegin jiti otuz jasina qarlq budun erür barur erikli jayϊ boltϊ/when the Kultegin was twenty-seven years, the people of Karluk, obeying, from the comfort of subordination [not obey], has become an enemy of us". 31

It is difficult to imagine a military leader without a description of a weapon, a faithful horse, a beloved woman, and relatives. A special place in the life of the Batyr and his exploits takes his horse. As the saying goes, "Strength of the hero is in the horse," and therefore in the understanding of the people each hero should be worthy only of his horse. The heroism of batyr is directly connected with his horse. In the written monuments of Kultegin his horses are described in details. For example, "Binip oplaju tegdi bir erig oqun urdy. Eki erig udyšru sančydy. Ol tegdükde bajyrquunyŋ aq adγyryγ udluqyn syju urtu. Qyyrqyz qaγanyn ölürtimiz.

30 E. R. Tenshiev, Comparative historical grammar of turkic languages. 31 Ibidem.


28

Ilin altymyz. Ol jylqa türgeš toγa ertis ügüzig keše jorydymyz. Türges bodunuγ uda basdymyz. Türges qaγan süsi bolčuda otča borča kelti. Süŋüsdimiz. Kül-tigin bašγu boz at binip tegdi. Bašγu boz // he rushed into the attack, he struck one soldier with an arrow, stabbed two soldiers one by one with a spear. In this attack the hip of a white stallion from Bayirku broke. We killed the Kyrgyz Kagan and subjugated the people. In the same year, we went against the Turgesh, traveled around Altuna router, crossing over the Irtysh River. We defeated the Turgesh people, pursuing them. The army of the Turkic Kagan came to Bolcha like fire and storm. We fought. Kyul-Tegin, sitting on the gray horse Bashgu, rushed to the attack. Grey horse Bashgu".32

Horse is the support of the Turk and the importance of the horse in the life of batyrs was so important that during the days of the Sakas and the Huns heroes were buried together with them. Batyr and his horse were perceived as something integral. They complemented each other. According to the beliefs of the Turks, the universe is full of such mythical phenomena as horses. A strong horse that lived in the sky, which had the ability to deliver to the appointed place in the blink of an eye, was faithful and knew the human language. In the written monuments of the Turks, on the metal products of the Altai Sakas, on the headdress of the Golden man found in the Issyk burial on the territory of Kazakhstan, on the dishes of the Scythians are depicted winged horses. And this winged horse found a worthy place on our coat of arms, the state attribute of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

In ancient Turkic times, the khagans, who started the country, had to make great campaigns in order to awaken the Turkic people, unite the Turkic Khaganate and mobilize the country for a common goal. In the Manifesto, the Turks call for the struggle for the freedom of the country, not to depend on another country, not to be subordinate, to be interested in the world of the neighboring rich state, not to succumb to their colors. The Turkic peoples declared that they were not less than the country, but more and called on them to defend their rights. To achieve these goals, it is necessary to awaken the spirit of the Turkic people and unite in the "blue Turks". In another country, there was no nadan, in turn; the establishment of an independent free Turkic Empire was started. Therefore, researchers believe that the writing of the monument found on the stone is an eternal heritage that will be cherished by today and future generations.

Monuments of ancient Turkic writing are a valuable source of language, history, geography, written culture. In the written monuments inexhaustible energy and firm will of the creators of the Turkic ale are

32 I. V. Kormushin, Turkish Turkic Epithaphs: Grammar.


29

laid in relation to all that relates to such sacred concepts as "people", "State", "freedom", "independence".


30


31

UN PROTOPOP UITAT: NICOLAE POP DIN BALOMIRU DE CÂMP (JUDEŢUL ALBA)

A Forgotten Archpriest: Nicolae Pop from Balomiru de Câmp (Alba County)

Florin Dobrei

„1st of December 1918” University, Alba Iulia, Romania

Abstract: The present study aims to remove the personality of a priest and archpriest from Transylvania in the middle of the eighteenth century, today forgotten, Nicolae Pop from Balomiru de Câmp (Alba County), a cleric who, like his great contemporary, the hierarch Ioan Inochentie Micu, has fully identified himself with the ideals of his nation. Through his entire activity and dedication, he managed to create a real bridge between the two slopes of the Carpathians, pasturing, with equal love and sacrifice, both the Transylvanian Church, for which he was, for several years, Vicarius, as well as the monks of the well-known monastery from Curtea de Argeş.

Keywords: Transylvania, Nicolae Pop from Balomiru de Câmp, Bishop Ioan Inochentie Micu, Romanian Orthodoxy, Union with the Church of Rome.

Respingerea turcilor de sub zidurile Vienei în anul 1683, urmatã de

victoriile succesive ale Casei de Habsburg împotriva Înaltei Porţi, a deschis larg, austriecilor, drumul spre Transilvania, Principat autonom aflat, din 1541, sub suzeranitate otomanã. Perfectatã formal prin pacea de la Carloviţ, din anul 1699,1 translaţia pârghiilor puterii cãtre noile autoritãţi a întâmpinat însã mari dificultãţi, „stãrile” transilvãnene, majoritar calvine, nefiind dispuse sã renunţe atât de uşor la privilegiile anterioare. În aceste circumstanţe, singura soluţie pentru schimbarea raportului politic existent rãmânea sporirea numãrului catolicilor din Ardeal; iar aceasta se putea realiza doar prin unirea cu Roma a populaţiei româneşti majoritare.2 Pentru Contrareforma apuseanã, terenul pãrea prielnic, de vreme ce, în spiritul prevederilor Approbatae-lor de la 1653, naţiunii române şi Bisericii sale li se aplicau în continuare eticheta de

1 Virgil Cândea (coord.), Istoria românilor, volum V, O epocã de înnoiri în spirit european (1601-1711/1716), Bucureşti, Editura Academiei Române, 2003, pp. 358-374. 2 Silviu Dragomir, Istoria dezrobirii religioase a românilor din Ardeal în secolul XVIII, ediţia a II-a, volum I, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 2002, pp. 61-63; Dumitru Stãniloae, „Uniatismul din Transilvania, opera unei întreite silnicii”, în Biserica Ortodoxã Românã, Bucureşti, an LXXXVII, numãr 3-4, 1969, pp. 357-358; Pompiliu Teodor, „Politica confesionalã a Habsburgilor în Transilvania (1692-1759). Cazul Românesc”, în Caietele David Prodan, an I, numãr 2, 1994, pp. 17-19; David Prodan, Supplex Libellus Valachorum. Din istoria formãrii naţiunii române, ediţia a II-a, Bucureşti, Editura Enciclopedicã, 1998, pp. 162-163; Mircea Pãcurariu, Istoria Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, ediţia a III-a, volum II, Iaşi, Editura Trinitas, 2006, pp. 253-254.


32

„tolerate”. De asemenea, nu trebuie trecut cu vederea statutul economic şi cel social precar al preoţimii ardelene, supusã, mai ales în timpul rãzboiului turco-austriac din anii 1683-1699, unor dãri şi robote împovãrãtoare.3

Drept urmare, la cumpãna secolelor XVII-XVIII, s-au înregistrat mai multe încercãri de atragere a românilor ortodocşi ardeleni la unirea cu Biserica Romei, ultima dintre acestea, cea din 1701, fiind încununatã, în parte, de succes.4 Contestatarii unirii nu au întârziat însã sã aparã; „Bisericii Unite i s-au dat douã mari lovituri, cãci clerul din pãrţile Hunedoarei declarã cã nu-i trebuie nici papã, nici superintendent, ci cã-i ajung vechile datini româneşti, iar din rândul preoţilor celor mai cãrturari şi isteţi se ridicã Ion [Iov n. n.] Circa sau Ţircã din Batiz [Botez, judeţul Alba n. n.], care, strângând iscãlituri de preoţi, cãutã a se face recunoscut ca episcop”.5 Situaţia s-a menţinut tulbure şi în deceniile urmãtoare. Care vor fi fost realitãţile bisericeşti concrete nu se poate stabili însã cu exactitate, întrucât sursele documentare pãstrate sunt puţine şi au un caracter general; istoriografia ortodoxã susţine cã, ademenitã de posibilitatea obţinerii unor avantaje materiale imediate, doar o parte a preoţimii ardelene ar fi rãmas fidelã unei uniuni principiale cu Biserica Romei, pe când marea masã a pãstoriţilor, în frunte cu îndrumãtorii lor spirituali, şi-a pãstrat pe mai departe, nealteratã, „legea rãsãriteanã”, departe de frãmântãrile confesionale ale timpului.6

În deceniile care au urmat, istoria Transilvaniei a fost dominatã de figura marelui ierarh Inochentie Micu/Inocenţiu Micu-Klein (1692-1768), neînfricatul luptãtor pentru drepturile românilor ardeleni în faţa silniciilor politico-naţionale, sociale şi religioase ale autoritãţilor imperiale şi guberniale. În fapt, „momentul Inochentie Micu” a reprezentat o paginã de aur în istoria luptei pentru egalitate a românilor ardeleni cu celelalte naţiuni conlocuitoare; conscripţia clerului şi a credincioşilor din anul 1733, nesfârşitele drumuri spre Viena imperialã, petiţiile bine argumentate adresate mai-marilor vremii constituie doar câteva dintre acţiunile rãsunãtoare ale acelor ani. Dar lupta marelui ierarh s-a încheiat brusc. Chemat la Viena, a fost pus, în ziua de 16 noiembrie 1744, în faţa

3 George Bariţiu, Pãrţi alese din Istoria Transilvaniei. Pre doue sute de ani din urmã, volum I, Sibiu, 1889, pp. 126-128, 151-153; Nicolae Iorga, Sate şi preoţi din Ardeal, Bucureşti, Atelierele Socec & Co., 1902, pp. 168-172; Silviu Dragomir, Istoria dezrobirii, volum I, pp. 63-65; Leon Pãdureanu [Liviu Stan], „Adevãrul asupra «unirii» religioase de la 1700”, în Ortodoxia, an I, numãr 4, 1949, pp. 53-59; Dumitru Stãniloae, „Uniatismul”, pp. 356-357. 4 Mircea Pãcurariu, Istoria Bisericii, volum II, pp. 254-257. 5 Nicolae Iorga, Istoria Bisericii româneşti, ediţia a II-a, volum II, Bucureşti, Tipografia „Neamul Românesc”, 1930, p. 25. 6 Mircea Pãcurariu, Istoria Bisericii, volum II, p. 267.


33

a 82 de acuzaţii false; între „culpe” figurau convocarea, fãrã acordul forurilor laice şi ecleziastice, a unui sinod la care au participat şi reprezentanţii neuniţilor, permisiunea pãtrunderii cãrţilor ortodoxe şi a preoţilor hirotoniţi în afara Transilvaniei etc. Dupã prima anchetã a pãrãsit capitala austriacã pe ascuns, sperând cã va obţine la Roma sprijinul papei Benedict al XIV-lea (1740-1758); de acolo a trimis, fãrã sorţi de izbândã, alte noi şi noi memorii. Constrâns financiar, la 7 mai 1751 a semnat retragerea din scaun, în schimbul unei pensii anuale de 1200 de florini. A trecut la cele veşnice la 22 septembrie 1768.7

Susţinãtor al marelui ierarh a rãmas, în toţi acei ani, protopopul hunedorean Nicolae Pop din Balomir, vicar general al eparhiei unite ardelene, iar dupã revenirea sa la Ortodoxie, stareţ al uneia dintre cele mai importante mãnãstiri medievale din spaţiul extracarpatic: „perla Basarabilor” de la Curtea de Argeş.

Nicolae Pop din Balomir-câteva repere biografice

Viitorul preot şi protopop s-a nãscut în jurul anului 1700, în

Balomir (azi Balomiru de Câmp din judeţul Alba), sat aparţinãtor, la acea datã, scaunului sãsesc al Orãştiei. Provenea, cu siguranţã, ca mai toţi clericii acelor vremuri, dintr-o veche familie preoţeascã localã, în sânul cãreia va fi deprins tainele „scris-cetitului, ale socoatei, ale cântãrii şi ale pravilelor bisericeşti”. Pentru plasarea locului naşterii sale în Balomiru de Câmp pledeazã atât mutarea sediului oficiului protopopesc în acest sat în vremea sa, cât şi conţinutul unui proces verbal, întocmit „în sãbor în Orãştie, în Rumânii din Jos [cartier românesc, aflat în afara cetãţii sãseşti, la „drumul Ţãrii” n. n.], în predvoriul biserecii [„Adormirea Maicii Domnului” n. n.]”, la 1 iulie 1750”, în care se aratã cã, „în Balomir, funduş de casã nu iaste, iarã pãmânt arãtor iaste de 14 gãlete şi de 2 ferdele şi de un car de fân şi de 2 ferdele de sãmânţã de cânepã”;8 cu alte cuvinte, doar un preot localnic şi-ar fi putut asigura, din venituri proprii, cele necesare traiului, transformându-şi, în plus, locuinţa în casã parohialã.

A fost hirotonit de cãtre episcopul Inochentie Micu prin anii 1734-1735; în conscripţia efectuatã în 1733, în dreptul Balomirului erau menţionaţi alţi cinci preoţi: Ion, Groza, Ionaşcu, Petru şi Vasile.9 Cu unii

7 Ibidem, pp. 315-323. 8 Aurel Rãduţiu, „Actele româneşti tipãrite la Alba-Iulia în 1653”, în Revista de Istorie, an XXVIII, 1975, p. 487. 9 Nicolae Togan, „Statistica românilor din Transilvania în 1733”, în Transilvania, an XXIX, numãr 9-10, 1898, p. 203; Augustin Bunea, Episcopul Ioan Inocenţiu Klein, Blaj, Tiparul Archidiecesan, 1900, p. 387; Keith Hitchins, Ioan Beju, „Conscripţia scaunalã a


34

dintre aceştia va fi slujit, în duminici şi sãrbãtori, în lãcaşul de cult al obştii, construit, din bârne de lemn, în 1703, potrivit datei înscrise pe clopotul mic, preluat de biserica actualã în 1848, dupã dãrâmarea celei vechi.10

Data ridicãrii sale la demnitatea protopopeascã nu ni s-a transmis; acest fapt s-a petrecut, oricum, înainte de 1741, când Nicolae Pop solicita împãrãtesei Maria Terezia (1740-1780), în noua calitate, cercetarea abuzurilor comise de autoritãţile austriece la adresa românilor.11 Nici coordonatele primilor sãi ani de activitate administrativ-pastoralã nu se cunosc. Cum între clericul hunedorean şi episcopul Ioan Inochentie Micu de la Blaj s-a stabilit, încã dintru început, o strânsã colaborare, în 1743, Nicolae Pop îl înştiinţa pe ierarh în legãturã cu tensiunile confesionale ivite în satele hunedorene Turdaş şi Romos.12 Protopopul a participant apoi la soborul general din 25 iunie/6 iulie 1744-o mare adunare naţionalã, la care au luat parte aproximativ 150 de clerici şi mireni, uniţi şi ortodocşi deopotrivã, numãrându-se, probabil, printre autorii „Promemoriei” înaintate Cancelariei vieneze, prin care cei prezenţi declarau cã, dacã nu li se împlinesc cele promise în diplomele leopoldine, vor pãrãsi unirea.13

Situaţia politicã şi confesionalã era însã tulbure. În primãvara anului 1744 s-a derulat ampla acţiune de redeşteptare religioasã iniţiatã, de „eremitul valah” Visarion Sarai,14 cel care, potrivit rapoartelor

clerului român de pe Pãmântul Crãiesc. Anul 1733”, în Mitropolia Ardealului, an XXXIV, numãr 4, 1989, p. VIII. 10 Gheorghe Fleşer, Ioana Rustoiu, Ana Dumitran, Biserici româneşti de zid din judeţul Alba, volum I, Alba-Iulia, Editura Altip, 2005, pp. 8-9. 11 Zenovie Pâclişanu, Istoria Bisericii Române Unite, ediţia a III-a, Târgu Lãpuş, Editura Galaxia Gutenberg, 2006, p. 258, 261-266. 12 Laura Stanciu, Keith Hitchins, Daniel Dumitran (edit.), Despre Biserica românilor din Transilvania. Documente externe (1744-1754), Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2009, p. 118. 13 Nicolaus Nilles, Symbolae ad illustrandam historiam Ecclesiae Orientalis in terris Coronae S. Stephani, volum II, Oeniponte (Innsbruck), 1885, pp. 562-563; George Bogdan-Duicã, Procesul episcopului Ioan Inochentie Klein, Caransebeş, 1896, pp. 51-58; Augustin Bunea, Episcopul Ioan Inocenţiu Klein, pp. 118-121; Silviu Dragomir, Istoria dezrobirii, p. 196; Zenovie Pâclişanu, Istoria Bisericii, pp. 277-281. 14 A se vedea, in extenso, George Bogdan-Duicã, Cãlugãrul Visarion Sarai (1744). Studiu istoric din istoria Transilvaniei, Tiparul Diecesan, Caransebeş, 1890; Gheorghe Cotoşman, „Eremitul Visarion Valahul”, în Mitropolia Banatului, an VII, numãr 1-3, 1957, pp. 99-124; Ion B. Mureşianu, „Contribuţii la istoria bãnãţeanã în prima jumãtate a secolului al XVIII-lea (cãlugãrul Visarion Sarai)”, în Mitropolia Banatului, an XVIII, numãr 10-12, 1968, pp. 639-653; Florin Dobrei, „Cuviosul Visarion Sarai, apãrãtor al Ortodoxiei ardelene”, în Îndrumãtorul Bisericesc, an CLVIII, 2010, pp. 249-258.


35

contemporane, în doar câteva sãptãmâni dezorganizase „întreg sistemul unirii” din sudul Transilvaniei, încât în comitatul Hunedoara şi în scaunul Orãştie „abia s-au mai putut ţine câteva frânturi” din aceasta;15 la nivel de ansamblu, potrivit raportului înaintat Guvernului la 11 ianuarie 1749 de cãtre românul renegat Petru Dobra, „sãtenii rãzvrãtiţi au batjocorit, bãtut şi maltratat preoţii uniţi şi s-au înţeles între ei sã pedepseascã cu 12 floreni pe acela care va intra în vreo bisericã unitã; toate lucrurile, vasele şi odãjdiile luate de la uniţi le-au spãlat mai întâi, iar vatra bisericii o sãpaserã şi aruncaserã pãmântul cãlcat ca şi când acela ar fi fost profanat de picioarele preoţilor uniţi, icoanele dãruite de catolici şi crucile ridicate de ei le-au rupt şi le-au ars; morţii şi-i îngropau fãrã prohod în afarã de cimitire şi dacã, totuşi, un preot unit prohodea un mort de al lor, îl exhumau şi-l îngropau din nou; preoţii neuniţi îşi aduceau oamenii în locuri ascunse unde le fãceau slujbe şi-i împãrtãşeau cu muguri în loc de Sfintele Daruri; nu recunoşteau nici Botezul, nici Cãsãtoria sãvârşite de uniţi şi de aceea botezau şi cununau din nou chiar şi pe oamenii bãtrâni [...]; în unele locuri au aprins casele preoţilor uniţi, în alte locuri le-au dãrâmat, vitele preoţilor uniţi nu erau primite în turma satului; misionari erau trimişi în toate pãrţile ca sã îndemne poporul sã se lepede de unire”.16

Corespondenţa purtatã cu Ioan Inochentie Micu

În absenţa întâi-stãtãtorului ardelean, administrarea diecezei unite a revenit, în anul 1745, cãlugãrului Petru Pavel Aron (1745-1752), un moţ şcolit în colegiile iezuite apusene, originar din Bistra (judeţul Alba), ridicat la rangul de vicar,17 moment ce a corespuns însã şi intensificãrii corespondenţei dintre clericul hunedorean şi ierarhul „surghiunit” în Cetatea Eternã. Spre exemplificare, la 10 septembrie 1746, Inochentie Micu îi mulţumea lui Nicolae Pop cã îl ţine la curent cu tot ceea ce se întâmplã „acasã”, mirându-se însã cã Aron a decis convocarea unui sobor general fãrã sã îl înştiinţeze. La 10 noiembrie revenea cu o nouã scrisoare, îndemnându-l ca, împreunã cu protopopii Avram Pop din Daia Românã şi Gheorghe Timandi din Juc, sã ia legãtura cu vicarul şi sã convoace ei sinodul, în care sã se ia act de excomunicarea teologului iezuit Iosif Balogh; mãsura trebuia adusã apoi la cunoştinţa poporului. Cu acelaşi prilej, pentru administrarea domeniului episcopal era instituitã o comisie.

15 Iacob Radu, Istoria Vicariatului greco-catolic al Haţegului, Lugoj, Tipografia Gutenberg, 1913, p. 108; Silviu Dragomir, Istoria dezrobirii religioase, volum I, pp. 368-371; Zenovie Pâclişanu, Istoria Bisericii, p. 288; Keith Hitchins, Conştiinţã naţionalã şi acţiune politicã la românii din Transilvania, volum I, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1987, p. 50. 16 Zenovie Pâclişanu, Istoria Bisericii, pp. 332-333; Laura Stanciu, Keith Hitchins, Daniel Dumitran (edit.), Despre Biserica românilor, pp. 194-197. 17 Mircea Pãcurariu, Istoria Bisericii, volum II, pp. 457-458.


36

În epistola din 17 decembrie 1746, episcopul îi enumera motivele pentru care a oprit ţinerea soborului anunţat de Aron, rugându-l sã vegheze la respectarea mãsurilor luate în legãturã cu „paterul” (teologul) catolic. În cursul anului urmãtor, raporturile dintre ierarhul aflat în exil şi vicarul sãu se deterioraserã atât de mult încât, la 9 aprilie 1747, Inochentie Micu i se plângea protopopului cã Aron l-a trãdat, vânându-i scaunul vlãdicesc; era îndemnat sã rãmânã statornic în credinţã şi sprijinitor al luptei pentru dezrobirea religioasã a Bisericii româneşti ardelene.18

Trecut în tabãra adversarilor episcopului ardelean, vicarul Petru Pavel Aron a fost excomunicat de Inochentie Micu, fiind înlocuit de acesta, la 25 august 1747, cu însuşi Nicolae Pop; scrisorile expediate protopopilor la aceeaşi datã aveau urmãtorul conţinut: „Pentru cã Petru Aron rezistã de mai mult de un an poruncilor mele şi pune la îndoialã puterea mea apostolicã, nesocoteşte decretul meu adresat întregului cler, apãrã pe iezuitul excomunicat, ajutã la violarea imunitãţii bisericeşti şi la risipirea veniturilor episcopale, recurge, trecând peste mitropolit, contra mea şi a venerabilului cler, la trepte bisericeşti mai înalte, cu insinuãri calomnioase, şi sãvârşeşte şi alte excese în mod incorigibil, de aceea l-am depus din vicariat, l-am suspendat din treptele hirotoniei şi l-am excomunicat, pentru care motiv Domnia Voastrã îl va evita, sub pedeapsã de excomunicare, şi va face sã fie evitat şi de supuşi. Am numit vicar general pe Rev. Prot. Dl. Nicolae Pop de Balomir şi am poruncit sã se ţinã sinodul cât mai repede. De aceea, poruncesc Domniei Voastre, sub pedeapsã de excomunicare, ca, trecând peste toate impedimentele, sã vinã la sinod şi sã se sfãtuiascã cu numitul domn vicar Nicolae Pop pentru liniştirea controversei, pentru imunitatea şi liniştea Bisericii şi pentru împlinirea cât mai grabnicã a poruncilor mele”. În aceeaşi zi, îi adresa o scrisoare şi protopopului hunedorean, înştiinţându-l în legãturã cu decizia luatã.19 Cãrturarul iluminist Samuil Micu rezuma episodul înlocuirii astfel: „Dupã aceasta, vlãdica Clain pe protopopul Nicolae Pop de la Balomir îl face vicareşiu gheneralis şi-i porunceşte sã adune sãbor şi în sãbor şi de toţi protopopii sã scrie şi sã vesteascã şi afurisaniia theologului şi a lui Petru Aaron [...] şi mare scãdeare au fãcut aceastã afurisanie a lui Aaron şi în mare urã la tot clerul şi neamul românesc l-au pus, care de el se scârbea şi în tot chipul sã ferea, nu numai de altã

18 Zenovie Pâclişanu, Corespondenţa din exil a episcopului Inochentie Micu Klein, Bucureşti, 1924, p. 28, 56-57, 61, 65-66; Dumitru Stãniloae, „Lupta şi drama lui Inochentie Micu Clain”, în Biserica Ortodoxã Românã, an LXXXVI, numãr 9-10, 1968, pp. 1160-1164. 19 Augustin Bunea, Episcopul Ioan Inocenţiu Klein, pp. 223-225; Zenovie Pâclişanu, Corespondenţa, pp. 96-101; Dumitru Stãniloae, „Lupta şi drama”, pp. 1169-1177; Teodor V. Damşa, Biserica Greco-Catolicã din România în perspectivã istoricã, Timişoara, Editura de Vest, 1994, p. 132.


37

împãrtãşire cu el, ci şi de vorba cu el, [de] nici la besearica unde mergea el alţii, afarã de casnicii lui, nu venea”.20

Corespondenţa dintre Inochentie Micu şi vicarul sãu a continuat şi în lunile urmãtoare.21 Astfel, la 9 septembrie 1747, ierarhul exilat îi relata cererea imperativã a papei, a patra de acest fel, de a abdica. Refuzând de fiecare datã, primise interdicţia de a mai pãrãsi Roma; bãnuia implicarea episcopului rutean Manuil Olszavski al Muncaciului, care dorea sã-i uzurpe scaunul vlãdicesc. Confruntat cu mari lipsuri, solicita sprijinul financiar al preoţilor ardeleni. Întruniţi în sobor la Daia Românã, protopopii îi cereau, prin scrisoarea din 22 septembrie, sã nu renunţe la episcopat şi sã facã toate demersurile necesare pentru a i se permite reîntoarcerea acasã; între semnatari figura şi preşedintele sinodului, „Nicolaus Pop, archidiaconus Balomirensis”. În ultima epistolã pãstratã, purtând data de 30 septembrie, este descrisã din nou drama ierarhului, constrâns, prin înfometare, sã semneze retragerea; pentru a rezista josnicelor presiuni, cere sã i se trimitã bani pe ascuns, prin cãlugãrii piarişti.22

Cum era de aşteptat, raporturile cu fostul vicar au devenit tensionate. Spre exemplu, la 5 octombrie 1747, Aron îl pâra guvernatorului Ioan Haller (1734-1755) cã ar fi permis unui preot „schismatic” (ortodox) sã predice douã zile uniţilor în biserica acestora din Orãştie.23 Reacţia fusese generatã de convocarea marelui sinod al clerul ardelean pentru data de 8 octombrie, prin scrisorile trimise protopopilor şi preoţilor la 20 septembrie; textul „convocatorului” avea urmãtorul conţinut: „De la milostivul Dumnezeu tot fericitul, bine pohtesc Sfinţiei Tale, C[instite] Pãrinte! Pentru multele greutãţi şi supãrãri, care şi pe Mãriea Sa D. Vlãdica îl încunjurã, [iar] pe noi ne împresoarã, au trimis Mãriea Sa, din Râm, asprã poruncã, supt afurisanie şi supt oprire de preoţie, sã fie sãbor mare. Pentru aceea, împreunã cu alţi cinstiţi protopopi, ne-am sfãtuit şi am detãrminãluit ca sã fie sãbor mare în Blaj, pe Joi, în 8 zile ale lui Octombrie, în ziua cuvioasei Maicii Pelagii, unde Sfinţia Ta, dupã porunca Mãriei Sale, lãsând alte toate, sã vii pe

20 Samuil Micu, Istoria românilor (ed. princeps dupã manuscris de Ioan Chindriş), volum II, Bucureşti, Editura Viitorul Românesc, 1995, p. 230. 21 Nicolae Densuşianu, Independenţa bisericeascã a Mitropoliei Române de Alba-Iulia, Braşov, 1893, pp. 46-48; Zenovie Pâclişanu, Corespondenţa, pp. 96-97; Dumitru Stãniloae, „Lupta şi drama”, pp. 1169-1177; Laura Stanciu, Keith Hitchins, Daniel Dumitran (edit.), Despre Biserica românilor, p. 164, 167. 22 Augustin Bunea, Episcopul Ioan Inocenţiu Klein, pp. 226-227; Zenovie Pâclişanu, Corespondenţa, pp. 102-103, 106-108, 108-109; Dumitru Stãniloae, „Lupta şi drama”, pp. 1169-1177; Teodor V. Damşa, Biserica Greco-Catolicã, pp. 133-134. 23 Laura Stanciu, Keith Hitchins, Daniel Dumitran (edit.), Despre Biserica românilor, p. 167.


38

numita mai sus zi în Blaj la sãbor, unde celelalte mai pe larg porunci de la Mãriea Sa venite le vei auzi, earã de nu ai putea Sfinţiea Ta, pentru vreo grea supãrare, sã-ţi trimiţi joratul cu plenipotenţie, dupã care, recomãndãluindu-mã dragostii Frãţiei Tale, rãmâiu al Sfinţiei Tale. Balomir, sept. 20 zile 1747. Gata slugã, protopop Nicolaie Balomireanu”.24

Participanţii la soborul general de la Blaj, din 8-10 octombrie 1747, au validat numirea lui Nicolae Pop în funcţia de vicar al Bisericii Unite ardelene; cu acelaşi prilej s-a luat şi decizia trimiterii unei delegaţii la Viena, care sã solicite readucerea în ţarã a episcopului. Un alt sinod, întrunit la Alba-Iulia în 20 noiembrie 1747, sub preşedinţia aceluiaşi cleric hunedorean, a protestat, fãrã succes, împotriva investirii de cãtre papã a lui Petru Pavel Aron ca „vicar apostolic”.25 În februarie 1748, în pofida interdicţiilor guvernatorului Transilvaniei, Nicolae Pop a efectuat o vizitã canonicã în Sãliştea Sibiului; în cadrul acesteia s-a realizat o apropiere între vicar şi preoţii ortodocşi locali.26

Informatã de existenţa celor douã facţiuni bisericeşti, împãrãteasa Maria Terezia a dispus, la 28 martie 1748, convocarea unui nou sobor general, în care „protopopul [din] Balomir sã fie destituit şi sã i se comunice cã actul episcopului, prin care a excomunicat pe Petru Aron, a fost reprobat de Sfântul Scaun, iar el se dovedeşte ataşat mai mult episcopului decât Sfântului Scaun, iar de este adevãrat unit trebuie sã recunoascã în cele bisericeşti, ca autoritate supremã, autoritatea papalã şi deci sã se oblige la aceastã ascultare şi fidelitate mai mare”. Sinodul s-a întrunit la Sibiu, în zilele de 15-17 mai 1748.27 Sub presiunea autoritãţilor, dezbaterile au fost conduse de episcopul rutean Manuil Olsavszki, participanţii, „fãr’ de voia lor, au trebuit sã se supue şi sã fie ascultãtori lui Aaron”.28

24 Zenovie Pâclişanu, Corespondenţa, p. 106. 25 Augustin Bunea, Episcopul Ioan Inocenţiu Klein, pp. 232-241; Zenovie Pâclişanu, Istoria Bisericii, pp. 324-326; Dumitru Stãniloae, Uniatismul din Transilvania, încercare de dezmembrare a poporului român, Bucureşti, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, 1973, pp. 92-97; Teodor V. Damşa, Biserica Greco-Catolicã, p. 135; Mircea Pãcurariu, Istoria Bisericii, volum II, p. 322. 26 Dumitru Stãniloae, Uniatismul, p. 98. 27 Augustin Bunea, Episcopul Ioan Inocenţiu Klein, pp. 244-247, 275-287; Zenovie Pâclişanu, Istoria Bisericii, pp. 327-328; Dumitru Stãniloae, „Lupta şi drama”, pp. 1178-1180; Teodor V. Damşa, Biserica Greco-Catolicã, pp. 135-137; Ovidiu Ghitta, „Episcopul Manuel Olsavszky şi sinodul de la Sibiu din 15-17 mai 1748”, în Sorin Mitu, Rudolf Gräf, Ana Sima, Ion Cârja, (coord.), Bisericã. Societate. Identitate. In honorem Nicolae Bocşan, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2007, pp. 56-64; Laura Stanciu, Keith Hitchins, Daniel Dumitran (edit.), Despre Biserica românilor, pp. 179-180, 183-186. 28 Samuil Micu, Istoria românilor, volum II, p. 321.


39

Cu toate cã avea de partea sa mai mulţi „archidiaconi [protopopi n. n.]”, dovediţi ulterior „şovãitori”, vicarul a fost nevoit sã se ridice „de pe locul sãu”, anunţându-şi, „printr-o lungã alocuţiune”, abdicarea din fruntea acestui oficiu ecleziastic.29 Frãmântãrile acelor ani sunt surprinse şi în Plângerea Sfintei Mãnãstiri a Silvaşului din Eparhia Haţãgului, din Prislop, cronicã rimatã de mari dimensiuni, redactatã la Râmnic, pe la anul 1763, de un cãlugãr pribeag la sud de Carpaţi, anume ieromonahul Efrem de la Prislop: „Vlãdica Inochentie la Beciu [Viena n.n.] au plecat/Şi în locul sãu, namesnic [locţiitor n.n.], pã Nicolae au lãsat/Şi orice pricini în cliros sã se întâmpleze,/Toate de el sã se îndrepteze./Aron, acum, bunã vreme au gãsit,/Pre Inochentie la crãiasa l-au pârât,/Zicând cã umblã cu fãţarie/Şi nu-i drept la Împãrãţie./Iar cãtrã vlãdica s-au arãtat/Priiatin bun dânsu-i şi sfat,/Însã, prin scrisori, l-au viclenit/Şi pânã la Roma l-au izgonit;/Acolo în robie s-au închis/Şi în toatã viiaţa sa au plâns./Apoi la Nicolae Balomireanu s-au întors/Şi din curtea arhiereascã, cu urgie, l-au scos./Şi nu numai cã l-au scos şi l-au gonit,/Ci şi din Ardeal, cu totul, l-au pustiit” (v. 381-398).30

Bejenar la sud de Carpaţi

Nori de furtunã se adunau la orizont... Ca atare, „Nicolae [Pop]

Balomireanul, temându-se ca sã nu cazã la prinsoare îndelungatã, au trecut muntele şi s-au dus în Ţara Româneascã, unde, aşezându-sã la o mânãstire, au fost arhimandrit”.31 Înştiinţatã de fuga sa, Curtea vienezã a expediat Guvernului douã scrisori de mustrare, purtând datele de 28 iunie şi 7 iulie 1748;32 episodul este relatat şi în epistola adresatã de împãrãteasã cardinalului Mellini.33 La 21 octombrie, cãlugãrul fransciscan Joseph Michaud raporta baronului Penkhler, internunţiul papal austriac din Constantinopol, prezenţa clericului ardelean în Muntenia şi intenţia sa de a ajunge pânã în capitala Imperiului Otoman.34

În octombrie 1748, Nicolae Pop a pornit într-o lungã cãlãtorie spre Moscova, pentru a înfãţişa ţarinei Elisabeta Petrovna (1741-1761) doleanţele bisericeşti ale românilor neuniţi ardeleni; dupã depunerea unui

29 Ovidiu Ghitta, „Episcopul Manuel Olsavszky”, p. 59, 63-64. 30 Mircea Pãcurariu, Mãnãstirea Prislop. Monografie istoricã, ediţia a III-a, Deva, Editura Episcopiei Devei şi Hunedoarei, 2013, p. 167. 31 Samuil Micu, Istoria românilor, volum II, p. 321. 32 Zenovie Pâclişanu, Istoria Bisericii, p. 332. 33 Augustin Bunea, Episcopul Ioan Inocenţiu Klein, p. 261. 34 Silviu Dragomir, Istoria dezrobirii religioase, volum I, p. 259; Mircea Pãcurariu, „Legãturile Bisericii Ortodoxe din Transilvania cu Ţara Româneascã şi Moldova în secolele XVI-XVIII”, în Mitropolia Ardealului, an XIII, numãr 1-3, 1968, p. 70; Laura Stanciu, Keith Hitchins, Daniel Dumitran (edit.), Despre Biserica românilor, p. 200.


40

memoriu detaliat, la 17 noiembrie 1749 a plecat spre „Valahia”. În anul 1750, împãrãteasa l-a însãrcinat pe ministrul Mihail Petrovici Bestuzev-Riumin, aflat la Viena, sã cerceteze veridicitatea conţinutului petiţiei înaintate, urmând ca acesta sã intervinã, în scris sau verbal, la ministrul Curţii imperiale.35

Scrisoarea suna astfel: „S-au aretat aicea, la Moscu, [un] protopop, anume Nicolae Balomireanul de la Ardeal, ce iaste supt stãpânirea Mãrii Sale Împãrãtesii Râmului şi Krãesei ţierilor ungureşti şi Bohemii, şi au dus la sinodul nostru [un] memorial, arãtând cã el s-au trimis aici de la clerul şi norodul rumânesc din Ardeal, pentru ca sã se roage de milostiva aperare [a] pravoslavnicilor creştini cari se aflã acolo, cari creştini pãtimesc prea mari nevoi şi izgoniri, pentru cã nu vor sã primeascã uniria cu Besearica Romei. Deci, fiindcã ei se nevoiesc pentru pravoslavie, cu aceastã a noastrã aperare, care noi asupra noastrã o luãm, vor putea fi pãziţi şi aperaţi, ca sã rãmâie, dupã dreapta pohta inimii lor, ca mai nainte, în legea cea pravoslavnicã a Resãritului, fãr de nici o înpiedecare şi necaz. Oricâte dar strâmtori şi izgoniri acestui norod, cãrui pentru credinţã i se fac de acestea, mai luminatã înţelegere vei lua din scrisorile tãlmãcite, date de la numitul protopopã la Cancelaria Noastrã, care ţie ţi se trimit. Peste acestea au dus încã numitul protopop la sinodul nostru multe documenturi, atât despre comisia aceasta, ce i s-au încredinţat lui de la norod, cât şi privilegiuri care au ei de la Kraii Ardealului şi osebi de la ãnsuşi kesariul Leopold, şi iarãşi ce fel de lipsã i s-au fãcut acestui norod în trebile Bisearecii şi în Episcopia lor, despre partea uniţilor [...] Deci, luând seama de toate acestea [...], despre toate sã te înştiinţezi cã adevãrat iaste, cã numitul protop Nicolae Balomireanul de la acel norod aici la Împãrãţia Noastrã, cu acest fel de rugãciune, pentru aperarea lor, s-au trimis şi drept este cã acest norod din Ardealul Rumânesc se aflã într-aceste nevoi şi, precum se aratã, cã acel norod de demult au fost slobozi a ţânea legea greceascã, iar de la oarecare mai dupre urmã vreme le face strâmtoare şi silã la unie şi, dacã vei afla cã aşa este adevãrat, atunci vei scrie memorial, întemeindu-l în numele Nostru, arãtând aceste pricini şi dându-l la Ministerul Mãrii Sale împãrãtesii şi crãeasii, sã te sileşti a isprãvi, ca sã aibã acel de multe ori pomenit norod rumânesc din Ardeal de plinã slobozie, ca sã rãmâie iar, precum şi mai nainte, lângã ţânerea legii lor cei greceşti, fãr de nici o împiedecare sau supãrare, şi sã aibã voe sã ţâe besearicile lor şi preoţii lor de legea greceascã şi nici un fel de strâmtorare sã nu li se facã”.36

Despre acţiunea protopopului ardelean dã mãrturie şi preotul bãnãţean Mihail Popovici, cel care, cãlãtorind în Rusia în anii 1770-1771, amintea cã Nicolae Pop a pribegit „pentru leage în ţara Muscului”,

35 Ioan Lupaş, Istoria bisericeascã a românilor ardeleni, ediţia a II-a, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1995, pp. 113-114; Ştefan Meteş, Emigrãri româneşti din Transilvania în secolele XIII-XX, ediţia a II-a, Bucureşti, Editura Ştiinţificã şi Enciclopedicã, 1977, pp. 111-112. 36 George Bariţiu, Pãrţi alese din Istoria Transilvaniei. Pre doue sute de ani din urmã, volum I, Sibiu, 1889, pp. 730-731.


41

plângându-se ţarinei şi Sfântului Sinod al Bisericii Ruse de „asuprirea legii şi gonirea pravoslaviei de cãtre papistaşi”, încât „ceale sufleteşti şi trupeşti întru prea luminatul condicul împãrãtesc, cu multã întristare, cu neuitare, s-au însemnat”, fãcându-se, ulterior, „multe întrebãri, prin scrisori, cãtre crãiasa din Beci [Viena n. n.]”, în vederea încetãrii prigonirii neuniţilor transilvãneni.37

Aşadar, protopopul Nicolae Pop revenise la Ortodoxie. Exemplul i-a fost urmat şi de consãtenii din Balomir. Deşi în conscripţia vicarului Petru Pavel Aron din 1750 parohia figureazã ca fiind supusã canonic Blajului, sunt înregistrate 191 de „suflete”, cu o bisericã şi trei preoţi,38 adevãrata apartenenţã confesionalã a credincioşilor este relevatã de alte trei surse documentare contemporane. Astfel, în tabelele „comisiei de dismembrare Buccow” din anii 1761-1762, în dreptul acestei localitãţi sunt înscrise o familie unitã cu trei preoţi, cãrora le revenise lãcaşul de închinare, şi 59 de familii ortodoxe, fãrã un pãstor sufletesc şi fãrã bisericã.39 Diferit, în catagrafia bisericeascã a episcopului Atanasie Rednic al Blajului (1765-1772) din 1765 erau înregistrate cinci familii unite şi un preot.40 În sfârşit, în statistica românilor „greco-rãsãriteni”, întocmitã la cererea ierarhului neunit Dionisie Novacovici (1761-1767) în anul 1766, Balomirul avea 337 de credincioşi ortodocşi (165 de bãrbaţi şi 172 de femei).41

Reîntors în Ţara Româneascã, Nicolae Pop, rãmas, cu probabilitate, vãduv, s-a închinoviat la mãnãstirea Argeş, primind, în cãlugãrie, numele de Nichifor.42 Dar legãturile cu foştii sãi pãstoriţi ardeleni au continuat. Mai mult, în octombrie 1748, acesta solicitase domnitorului fanariot Constantin Mavrocordat (1733-1735; 1741-1743; 1748-1749; 1769) permisiunea emigrãrii peste munţi a circa 16.000 de români ardeleni, cerere aprobatã, la 14 mai 1750, de urmaşul acestuia, domnitorul Gheorghe II Ghica (1733-1735; 1748-1752).43 Prin urmare,

37 Silviu Dragomir, Istoria dezrobirii religioase, volum I, p. 262. 38 Augustin Bunea, Statistica Românilor din Transilvania în anul 1750, fãcutã de vicariul episcopesc Petru Aron, Sibiu, 1901, p. 21. 39 Virgil Ciobanu, ,,Statistica românilor ardeleni din anii 1760-1762”, în Anuarul Institutului de Istorie Naţionalã, Cluj, an 3, 1926, p. 700; Matei Voileanu, Sã se facã luminã. Biserica românilor din Ardeal în veacul al XVIII-lea, Sibiu, Tipografia Tiparului Arhidiecezan, 1926, p. 90. 40 ***, Diecesa Lugoşului. Şematism istoric, Lugoj, Tipografia Ioan Virányi, 1903, p. 383. 41 Keith Hitchins, Ioan Beju, „Statistica românilor ortodocşi din Transilvania din anul 1766”, în Mitropolia Ardealului, an XXII, numãr 7-9, 1977, p. 550. 42 Mircea Pãcurariu, „Preoţimea hunedoreanã, sprijinitoare a nãzuinţelor poporului în cursul veacurilor”, în Mitropolia Banatului, an XVIII, numãr 10-12, 1968, p. 625. 43 Nicolaus Nilles, Symbolae, volum I, p. 598; Nicolae Iorga, Sate şi preoţi din Ardeal, Bucureşti, Institutul de Arte Grafice „Carol Göbl”, 1902, p. 248; Silviu Dragomir, Istoria


42

potrivit rapoartelor generalului Platz, adresate Consiliului Aulic de Rãzboi în ianuarie-februarie 1749, clericul hunedorean se gãsea în atenţia autoritãţilor de la nordul Carpaţilor.44 În pofida celor 200 de galbeni, promişi la 7 noiembrie 1750, ca recompensã, celui care îl va ademeni sã se reîntoarcã în Transilvania şi-l va da pe mâna „stãpânirii”, nu s-a gãsit niciun apropiat care sã îl trãdeze.45 În plus, în vara anului 1761, monahul hunedorean îl primea la Argeş pe cãlugãrul Sofronie de la Cioara (azi Sãlişte, judeţul Alba), un alt mare apãrãtor al Ortodoxiei ardelene,46 mijlocind numirea acestuia în fruntea obştii monahale muscelene de la Robaia, iar, ulterior, a celei de la Vieroş.47

În anul 1763, episcopul Grigorie Socoteanu al Râmnicului a intervenit pe lângã episcopul ortodox Dionisie Novacovici al Ardealului (1761-1767), cerându-i, printr-o scrisoare, sã îl reprimeascã în eparhie; motiva cã „din îndemnarea locuitorilor pravoslavnici ai Ardealului, luându-ţi voie şi blagoslovenie de la noi, s-au dus cu oare-şi-ce jãlbi şi pânã la Curtea ruseascã, la rãposata întru fericire Elisaveta Petrovna, şi, de acolo, întorcându-se iarãşi aice, doreşte, de va fi cu voia şi blagoslovenia Frãţiei Tale, sã-şi vie în locul şi neamul sãu”.48 De teama autoritãţilor austriece, ierarhul de neam sârb l-a refuzat.

Încã din anul 1750, episcopul Grigorie Socoteanu al Râmnicului (1748-1764) îl ridicase la treapta de „archimandrita et hegumenos Dominialis monasterii Argis”. De altfel, prestigiul de care s-a bucurat în ochii contemporanilor este vãdit şi de propunerea sa, în anul 1763, pe lista celor trei candidaţi la scaunul episcopal al Buzãului, alãturi de stareţul

dezrobirii religioase, volum I, p. 259, 424-425, 441-445; Ştefan Meteş, Emigrãri româneşti, p. 122; David Prodan, Supplex Libellus Valachorum, p. 220. 44 Mihai Sãsãujan, Habsburgii şi Biserica Ortodoxã din Imperiul Austriac (1740-1761). Documente, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2003, pp. 248-251. 45 Silviu Dragomir, Istoria dezrobirii religioase, volum I, pp. 267-268, 441-445; Mircea Pãcurariu, „Legãturile Bisericii”, p. 70; Laura Stanciu, Keith Hitchins, Daniel Dumitran (edit.), Despre Biserica românilor, p. 232. 46 Florin Dobrei, „Ein Gegner der religiösen Union der Rumänen aus Siebenbürgen mit der Kirche Roms: der Mönch Sofronie von Cioara”, în Johann Marte, Viorel Ioniţã, Nikolaus Rappert, Laura Stanciu, Ernst Christoph Suttner (coord.), Die Union der Rumänen Siebenbürgens mit Kirche von Rom, Bucureşti, Editura Enciclopedicã, 2015, pp. 402-435 47 Nicolae Iorga, Studii şi documente privitoare la istoria românilor, Bucureşti, volum IV, 1904, p. 39; Ştefan Meteş, Emigrãri româneşti, p. 120; Mircea Pãcurariu, „Legãturile Bisericii”, p. 72. 48 Augustin Bunea, Episcopul Ioan Inocenţiu Klein, p. 221.


43

Partenie de la Tismana şi de protosinghelul Mitropoliei din Bucureşti, Cosma Popescu, ierarhul ales (1763-1787).49

Din pãcate, realizãrile sale ca stareţ sunt puţin cunoscute. Se ştie doar cã, în anul 1761, în cadrul unei ample renovãri, egumenul Nichifor a „tocmit” doi zugravi ardeleni, pe Iacov şi pe Stan, fiii preotului Radu Man din Rãşinari (judeţul Sibiu), pentru a reînnoi zestrea picturalã a mãnãstirii.50 La finalizarea lucrãrilor, a dãruit sfântului aşezãmânt „o sfitã de stofã cu stihar, cu poias, cu paftale de argint, şi alte multe odoarã”.51

Sfârşit de drum

Nicolae Pop, preotul şi protopopul hunedorean unit de altãdatã,

s-a aflat la conducerea vestitei mãnãstiri a Argeşului pânã prin iunie 1764,52 data ultimei sale atestãri; momentul corespunde, probabil, cu însãşi trecerea sa la cele veşnice. Cã a rãmas însã în memoria contemporanilor o dovedeşte o „plânsoare” a boierilor munteni, redactatã în jurul anului 1773, în care se aratã cã „în corespondenţele noastre cu împãrãteasa [ţarina Elisabeta II a Rusiei n. n.], spre a face cunoscute dorinţa şi aplecarea ţãrii, ne-au slujit doi arhimandriţi, Argeşanul [Nichifor/Nicolae Pop n. n.] şi Vieroşanul [Sofronie/Stan Popovici de la Cioara n. n.], care au dobândit şi decoraţii împãrãteşti”, anume crucea imperialã de aur.53

Se stingea astfel un simbol al luptei pentru refacerea unitãţii bisericeşti a românilor ardeleni. Identificându-se în totalitate cu idealurile naţiunii sale, protopopul Nicolae Pop a reuşit sã creeze o veritabilã punte de legãturã între cei doi versanţi ai Carpaţilor, pãstorind, cu egalã dragoste şi jertfelnicie, atât Biserica ardeleanã, în fruntea cãreia s-a aflat câţiva ani ca vicar, cât şi obştea „monastirei” Argeşului. Din memoria celor de astãzi, amintirea sa, din nefericire, s-a estompat.

49 Ioan Ionaşcu, „Ieromonahul transilvan Nicodim în Ţara Româneascã”, în Omagiu lui Ioan Lupaş la împlinirea vârstei de 60 de ani, Bucureşti, 1943, p. 366; Mircea Pãcurariu, „Preoţimea hunedoreanã”, p. 625. 50 Mircea Pãcurariu, Istoria Bisericii, volum II, p. 535. 51 Aurelian Sacerdoţeanu, „Pomelnicul mãnãstirii Argeşului”, în Biserica Ortodoxã Românã, an LXXXIII, numãr 3-4, 1965, p. 307. 52 Ioan Ionaşcu, „Ieromonahul”, p. 366; Mircea Pãcurariu, „Preoţimea hunedoreanã”, p. 625. 53 Ştefan Meteş, Emigrãri româneşti, p. 121.


44


45

ETHNOGRAPHIC BOUNDARIES OF WESTERN PODILLYA: HISTORY OF FORMATION AND ETHNIC IDENTITY

Pavlo Smoliak, Oleg Smoliak

Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, Ternopil, Ukraine

Abstract: The article analyzes the historical preconditions for the formation of the

West Podillya region on the basis of ancient sources and modern literature. The historical and political factors that influenced ethno-regional consciousness of the population residing in the region, especially in the border areas, are outlined as being the reinforcing factor for ethnic self-preservation and identity. Due to the analysis of the ancient chronicles, as well as the works of well-known ethnologists, the ethnographic term ,,Podillya” was defined as well as its origin, etymology and peculiarities of interpretation. There are three parallel interpretations of the term ,,Podillya” giving geographical, administrative and ethnographic views in scientific discourse. The most legitimate in this case is geographic interpretation, because it is devoid of political background and regulated by historiography. The article postulates that an important factor in identifying the characteristic features of the West-Podillya region is the peculiarities in certain customs and rituals, their terminological specifics, regional consciousness, being almost completely lost in the region under study, although in the late XIXth and early XXth centuries they were inherent to many inhabitants of Podillya, as well as a number of other specific features that give grounds for a specific regionalism and localization of the territory.

Keywords: ethnographic region, chronicles, ethnologists, ethnic groups, regional consciousness, locals.

The territory of the ethnographic region of Podillya, especially its

western part, has not been sufficiently studied in Ukrainian ethnology to this day. This is due to the historical instability of the borders of this territory. For a considerable period it was a part of the Galician Principality, the Polish Kingdom ,,several times”), the Lithuanian state, the Turkish Sultanate, and the Russian and Soviet empires.

During their rule political and administrative boundaries changed every time with the change of metropolis. Accordingly, the ethno-cultural vectors and identities of the people living on these territories also changed. Historical and political factors influenced their ethno-regional consciousness, especially in the border areas and were a unifying factor for ethnographic self-identity and survival.

The name ,,Podillya” is of Ukrainian origin. It means a territory, or a locality, which is placed on the valley of any raised terrain. The famous Ukrainian historian M. Symashkevych noted to the point: ,,This is the most correct and originally Slavic name of our land ,,territory”, which is found in the most


46

ancient historical records”.1 Similarly this region is named in the letter dated 1432 of Lithuanian prince Švitrigaila to Prince Paul ,,Master of Prussia”.2

Later the chroniclers Grabianka and Velychko of the Southern Rus’ used the name ,,Podolye” or ,,Podollye”. Actually the name ,,Podillya” is of later origin. This is a literal translation from the Latin ,,Podolia”, which originally was mentioned by the Polish chroniclers and then in later acts and chronicles of Rus’.

As M. Sуmashkevуch notes, ,,such a name is fully suitable for our locality, which geographically is not a properly complete and independent territory, but only the lower part of the Galician-Russian principality, which the ancient chroniclers referred to according to the geographical location and often was named as ,,Rus’ Mountainous” or ,,Mountainous Country”.3

Probably the name ,,Podillya” appeared for the first time in the XIV century in the letter of Prince Alexander Koriatovych ,,the letter is retained in the Smotrych Dominican monastery) and dates back to 1375. In the letter the prince calls himself ,,Lord of the Podillya Land”,4 the name had been established in this area since the time of Lithuanian rule. By that time it had had the name Ponyzzya ,,Lowlands),5 which is synonymously close to the term Podillya. As M. Sуmashkevych notes, these two names are derived from the reduction of the earlier names of this area ,,Lower Rus’” and ,,Rus’ Dolnа”.6

The term Ponyzzya ,,Lowlands” had not stay long for this territory and almost completely disappeared from the Rus’ chronicles from the middle of XIII century. Since ХІV century it was replaced by the term ,,Podillya”, which eventually gave name to the Podillya Principality, and later Podillya Province.

It is known that neither The Tale of Bygone Years nor Kiev Chronicle and the Galician-Volyn Chronicle give us information about the administrative territory known as ,,Podillya land” ,,Podol”, ,,Podolia”. In these sources Podillya stands under various other names. In particular, in the Galician-Volyn Chronicle dated the beginning of the XIII century-1205) it is called the Land of Rus’.

1 M. Symashkevych, Historical-geographical and ethnographic essay of Podolia, p. 2. 2 N. M. Karamzin, Note to the history of the Russian state, volume 5, Saint Petersburg, Printing House of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1852, p. 192. 3 M. Symashkevych, Historical-geographical and ethnographic essay of Podolia, p. 2. 4 Acts relating to the history of Southern and Western Russia, collected and published by the Archeographic Commission, volume 1, 1361-1598, Saint Petersburg, Printing House of E. Prats, 1863, p. 21. 5 N. M. Karamzin, The history of the Russian state, volume 3, Saint Petersburg, Printing House of E. Prats, 1842, pp. 153-161. 6 M. Symashkevych, Historical-geographical and ethnographic essay of Podolia, p. 2.


47

In our opinion the most specific was the information in the Lithuanian chronicle. In particular, it states that when the Lithuanian prince Algirdas defeated the Tatars in the Battle of Blue Waters the Koriatovich brothers possessed the Podillya land, built the cities of Smotrych, Bakota, Kamianets and after that ,,...all the cities of Podillya were built and all the Podillya land was inhabited”.7

Polish historian M. Stryjkowski in his work ,,Kronika” uses the term ,,Podillya” in the information about the events of the XI century. In his interpretation Princes Volodymyr and Vasylko were considered to be the rulers of Peremyshl and Podillya: ,,Volodymyrko, the son of the ruler of Galicia receives from his father the possession of Zvenygorod and Podillya”.8

Unlike Stryjkowski, Polish historian Jan Długosz in his work ,,Historiae Polonicae” mentioned the name ,,Podillya” only once, namely in 1352.9

Another Polish historian M. Kromer, like his predecessor Jan Długosz, refers to the mention of Podillya land as an affiliate of Poland ,,and, accordingly, uses this term by the same year-1352. According to Kromer, the Dniester River is the border between Dacia and Sarmatia and is called the land of Rus’ or Podillya”.10

M. Bielskу in his information dating from the XIV century did not mention Podillya land at all. For the first time the term ,,Podolskie krainy” was mentioned by Bielskу in 1403. ,,When, in his words, the Polish king, Vladislav, wanted to give the land of Podillya, Zhydachiv, Stryi, Shidlyv, Stebnitsyа and Ustya to the Lithuanian prince Švitrigaila”.11

The terms ,,Podolia” were also mentioned in the Chronicles of P. Vlasts and in the Gustyn Chronicle. Information provided in the first source in particular refers to the Polish king Bolesław I the Brave ,,Bolesław I Chrobry”, who after having conquered the Ugrs, Saks and Czechs established the boundary of his possessions located between Kiev, Podolia and Lithuania.12 And the Gustyn Chronicle, which is the

7 Ignacy Daniłowicz, Latopisiec Litwy i Kronika ruska: Z rekopisu sławianśkiego przepisane, Wilno, 1827, p. 44. 8 Maciej Stryjkowski, Kronica polska, litewska, żmódzka i wszystkiej Rusi, volume I, Warszawa, 1846, p. 53, 104, 177, 210. 9 Joannis Dlugossi, Historiae Polonicae. Curaet impensis A. Przezdziecki, volume 12, Cracoviae, Typ. Czas, 1873, p. 245. 10 Kronika Polska Marcina Kromera, biskuba Warmińskiego, Ksiega XXX, Sanok, Nakład i druk K.Pollaka, 1857, p. 621. 11 K. J. Turowski, Kronika Marcina Bielskiego, Z. 5-8 i dod. nadzwyczajny, bezplatn, Sanok, Naklad i druk Karola Pollaka, 1856, p. 249. 12 A. Bielowski, Pomniki dziejowe Polski (Monumenta Poloniae historica), Lwów, Nakł. Akad. Umiejetności w Krakowie, 1878, p. 203.


48

continuation of Hypatian Codex ,,also known as Hypatian Chronicle, Ipatiev Chronicle” mentions Podillya land with the city of Kamyanets for the first time in 1241.13

Ukrainian historian Ye. Sitsinsky gives some interesting considerations about the formation of the term ,,Podillya” in his work Essays on the history of Podillya. In particular, he notes that ,,the western part of Podillya land that stretched along the middle reaches of the Dniester was called as Ponyzzya-Lowlands during the pre-Tatar invasion that is the lower land in comparison with the neighboring mountainous highlands Galicia. The Lowlands once belonged to Galician principality. It occupied the left side of the Dniester in its middle course, from the left stream of the Strypa River and ended with the flow of the Murafa River”.14 Thus, this source noted the western border of Podillya for the first time in Ukrainian historiography. Ye. Sitsinsky further notes that ,,The eastern part of Podillya land, extending along the upper reaches of the Bug River and on the right and left of its tributaries was called as Pobozhzhya and stretched to Kiev principality. In the XIV century Ponyzzya and Pobozhzhya acquired the common name of Podillya, which also has a local Ukrainian origin and is the equivalent name to Ponyzzya Lowlands”.15

Sometimes Western Podillya is called the Galician Podillya in the scientific literature because the territory from the river Zbruch to the Strypa River ,,by our definition as far as to the Koropets River” was subjected to Galicia as the local province of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.16

There are three parallel interpretations of the term ,,Podillya” giving geographical, administrative and ethnographic views in scientific discourse. The most legitimate in this case is geographic interpretation, because it is devoid of political background and is regulated by historiography.

We find supporting considerations in I. Oleksyshyn’s scientific research of ,,Podillya” as he notes: ,,From the geographic point of view Podillya it is a plateau separating the river Vereshchytsya from the Nadsyan lowlands in the west; the Bug River ,,section Khmilnyk–Vinnytsia-Tauriv” separates it from the Upper Dnieper ,,right bank” upland in the east; the river Murafa is in the south-east where Podillya hilly plateau gradually decreases and goes into the Black Sea bottom; in the north in many places it rapidly breaks over the rivers Bug and Styr to the adjoining Volyn; in the south the Dniester River separates the Podillya territory from

13 Chronicle of Gustinsky Monastery. Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles, volume 2, Saint Petersburg, 1843, p. 187. 14 Ye. Sitsinsky, Essays on the history of Podillya. Part One. Essay first: Overview of the history of Podillya, Vinnytsia, Publishing for studying Podillya, 1927, p. 5. 15 Ibidem, p. 6. 16 Ibidem, p. 5.


49

the Transnistria Lowland and the Pokutsk-Besarabsk Upland”.17 Ethno-regional features such as historical boundaries of its borders, the common shared material and spiritual culture, and the ethnographic identity of the population give grounds to assume that this geographical area is an ethnographic region.

The oldest Ukrainian written sources The Tale of Bygone Years as well as Kiev and Galician-Volyn chronicles did not leave us any information about Podillya land and about its territory in particular.

Only at the end of the XVI century certain foreign travelers, writers, historians, including A. Gvagnin, M. Kromer and others drew attention to Podillya land as a very large territory. According to Gvagnin, ,,Podillya region extends from the south borders with Moldova and Wallachia up to the Don River and the Black Sea up to the possessions of the Perekop Tatars”.18

According to M. Kromer, the borders of Podillya reached the Dniester as far as to Bolgrad and farther to the east to the Dnieper and the Black Sea ,,to the possessions of the Perekop Tatars”. According to him, ,,…the borders of Podillya are not known exactly since this territory is large and unpopulated”.19

The most specific was the information in the Lithuanian chronicle. There are mentions about Podillya cities such as Smotrych, Bakota, Kamyanets, Skala, Chervonograd, Bratslav, Sokolets, and Vinnytsia. As we can see in the XV century the border of Podillya land did not cross the Dniester River in the south, and in the west it stretched along the river Strypa. In the south the territory of Podillya reached the Ushytsia River. If the new possessions of the Lithuanian princes were continuous and integrated, then the boundaries of urban settlements within these possessions were cut in the middle of the Murafa River and extended to Bratslav or Sokolets in Southern Buh. As can be seen from the chronicle, Podniprovsk stripe of the present Kiev region was not part of Podillya: ,,...prince Vytautas the Great went to Podillya land and ordered prince Švitrigaila to leave Kiev for Cherkasy and Zvenygorod”.20

The next source providing information about the territory of Podillya and its western lands in particular is the chronicle of the Polish

17 I. Oleksyshyn, ,,Podillya”, in Ways of the Golden Podillya. Regional Historical Memorial Collection of Ternopilshchyna, volume 1, Editorial Board: S. Konrad, V. Matskiv, R. Mykolayevych, Philadelphia, 1983, p. 213. 18 A. Gvagnin, Z kroniki Sarmacyi europejskiej… Opisanie Polski, W. Ks. Litewskiego, wziemie ruskiej, ziemie pruskiej, ziemie inflantskiej, Kraków, 1860. 19 Kronika Polska Marcina Kromera, biskuba Warmińskiego, p. 621. 20 Ignacy Daniłowicz, Latopisiec Litwy i Kronika ruska: Z rekopisu sławianśkiego przepisane, p. 44.


50

historian Maciej Stryjkowski. According to him, before prince Vytautas Lithuania bordered on the lands of Volyn, Podillya and Rus’, and after Vytautas it was stretching out to the Black Sea as far as Ochakiv and along the River Don to Azov. According to Stryjkowski princes Volodymyr and Vasylko were considered to be the rulers of Peremyshl and Podillya. ,,Volodymyrko, the son of the ruler of Galicia, received from his father the possession of Zvenygorod and Podillya”.21 Most likely that M. Stryjkowski names as ,,Podillya” the area where, according to the Galician-Volyn chronicle, Ushytsia and Mykulyn now Mykulyntsi of the Ternopil region were located. To this land Stryjkowski also allocated the cities of Zvenygorod, Sokolets, Kamyanets, Bakota, Smotrych, Bratslav, Vinnytsia, Khmilnyk, Zbarazh and Terebovlya. According to him the cities of Olesk, Buchach and Berezhany no longer belonged to Podillya, but to Pidgirya. The city of Medzhybizh in Stryjkowski’s ,,Chronicles” had been mentioned only since the half of the XV century ,,1449” that is from the time when the Poles proved their original possession of Podillya. According to Stryjkowski, this land was divided and converted into the Voivodeship of the Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1395, but his records did not specify any exact boundaries. Generally speaking, the boundaries of the Western Podillya, according to Stryjkowski, were defined by the river Strypa not reaching the city of Brody in the north.

Another Polish historian Jan Długosz had somewhat different vision of the borders of Podillya land. He defined the land of Podillya in the west by such border towns as Zhydachiv, Stryi, Shydliv, Stebnytsa, Druchchya. Unlike Stryjkowski Długosz significantly extends the western boundaries, that is, he includes Opillya to Podillya or, most likely, combines them into one ethno-regional territory.22

Polish historian M. Kromer mainly adheres to the views of his predecessor Długosz concerning the investigated region, although he criticizes him in some respects. Kromer, like his predecessor, had mentioned Podillya land for the first time in 1352 as the possession of Poland. According to Kromer, ,,the Dniester River was the border between Dacia and Sarmatia, and the latter is called the land of Rus’ or Podillya”.23 In his work Cromer lists the very same Podillya castles that were listed in the Lithuanian chronicle. A little later Kromer includes Olesko-1432, Zbarazh-1434, Medzhybizh and Khotyn-1448 into Podillya. That is, he

21 Maciej Stryjkowski, Kronica polska, litewska, żmódzka i wszystkiej Rusi, volume I, Warszawa, 1846, p. 44 22 Joannis Dlugossi, Historiae Polonicae. Curaet impensis A.Przezdziecki, p. 245. 23 Kronika Polska Marcina Kromera, biskuba Warmińskiego, p. 621


51

adds the part of the northern lands and the part of Bessarabia to the territory determined by his predecessor.

Other Polish chronicles of that time do not provide detailed information about the territory of Podillya land. Thus, M. Bielski in his Chronicles refers to Podillya land only in 1403, when, as he said, Vladislav gave to Švitrigaila all the Podillya country including Zhydachiv, Stryi, Shydliv, Stebnytsa and Ustya.24 Bielski mentioned only Kamyanets of all the cities in Podillya.25 And the chronicler Mazovetski reports that Boleslaw III gave to Henry Sandomyrsk, Lublin and Podillya voivodeships.26

Analyzing the above-mentioned sources, we can state that since the XIV century the historians do not provide information other than those recorded in the Lithuanian Chronicle. According to this source, ,,In the XIV century Podillya occupied the territory limited by the Dzhuryn River ,,present Chortkiv district of the Ternopil region to the west or even up to the river Strypa”.27 The river Strypa as the boundary line is mentioned in the acts of the XV century, when Podillya land was already converted into a voivodеship and was divided into counties. ,,From the south it was separated by the middle course of the Dniester, from the east of the city of Kalus the land border stretched across the river Murafa up to Bratslav and Sokolets along the Bug River in the north”.28

According to the data of this chronicle, the southeastern part of Ternopil County and Chortkiv County including the Transnistrian part belonged to the Western Podillya.29 It should be noted that the south-eastern territory of the modern West Podillya differs from its north-western part with some stylistic features. In our opinion cultural and centripetal movement from the southeast towards Kamyanets and from the northwest towards Lviv played a dominant role in these processes.

Ancient manuscripts and chronicles do not provide information about the settlements that were in Podillya land at that time. They informed only about the cities with castle fortifications. ,,Castles were of great interest to the chroniclers at that time because of their fortifications and means of

24 K. J. Turowski, Kronika Marcina Bielskiego, Z. 5-8 i dod. nadzwyczajny, bezplatn, Sanok, Naklad i druk Karola Pollaka, 1856, p. 383. 25 Ibidem, p. 383. 26 A. Bielowski, Pomniki dziejowe Polski (Monumenta Poloniae historica), Lwów, Nakł. Akad. Umiejetności w Krakowie, 1878, p. 203. 27 River Strypa is a landmark limit defining the western part of Podillya in the XIV century. 28 Ignacy Daniłowicz, Latopisiec Litwy i Kronika ruska: Z rekopisu sławianśkiego przepisane, p. 44. 29 Ibidem, p. 44.


52

defense against foreign enslavement and consolidation of Lithuanian influence in the state”.30

At the end of the XIV and XV centuries historical sources recorded more settlements in Podillya lands. The medieval sources did not indicate the exact boundaries of Podillya land, but merely listed its main cities and that could be problematic for contemporary ethnologists.

The more or less exact Podillya boundaries from the west to the

east were defined by Kazimierz Stadnicski in the publication Bracia Wladyslawa-Jagielly Olgierdowicza”.31 Based on the sources of later time Stadnitsky considered the cities of Bratslav, Bar, Cherkasy, Chervonograd, Khmilnyk, Medzhybizh, Vinnytsia, Letychiv, Yazlovets, Buchach and Kamyanets to be the part of Podillya.32

Podillya began to change its administrative boundaries due to military struggle of the ruling powers of Lithuania, Poland, and Russia, and the cultural vector often turned to various metropolitan areas. But this did not prevent the later chroniclers, in the XVI-XVII centuries in particular, to credit Podillya with those areas that did not currently belong to it.

Podillya was politically consistent during the period of Lithuanian domination from the time of Gediminas to Švitrigaila ,,XIV-XV centuries”. It was an independent area among other Lithuanian administrative units, which were called the ,,principality” or ,,land” at that time. And this meant that the inhabitants of each ,,land” were considered to be a separate ethnic area with their respective laws and customs.

Podillya existed in such limits not for a long time. After continuous strife for the right to own this territory, the Poles and Lithuanians divided it into two parts. In 1432 Lithuanian prince Švitrigaila was forced to abandon the north-western part of Podillya and declared it in possession of Poland. In 1434 the Polish part was converted into a voivodeship consisting of three counties: Kamyanets, Letychiv and Chervonograd. ,,In the north it bordered on Volyn province, in the west on Rus’ Voivodeship ,,Galician land” separated by the river Seret, in the south it was limited by the Dniester River, in the east-by the river Murafa, and then there was a land border, which included Bar, Lityn, Khmilnyk and Salnyky subregions”.33

30 N. Molchanovsky, Essay news about the Podolia land before 1434, Kiev, Typography of Imperial University of St. Volodymyr, 1885, p. 13. 31 Braсia Władysława-Jagiełły Olgierdowicza, Króla Polski, Wielkiego Księcia Litwy Przez Kazimierza Stadnickiego, Lwów, Z druk. Zakladu Narod. im. Ossolinśkich, 1867, p. 121. 32 Ibidem, p. 122. 33 Encyklopedia powszechna z ilustracjami i mapami, volume XIX, Kraków, p. 913.


53

The boundary between the Rus’ and Podillya voivodeships in the south was by the Dniester, in the west it was by the river Strypa. To the south of Buchach the border turned to the east so that the villages of Pomirtsi, Polivtsi, and Cherkavshchyna belonged to the Podillya Voivodeship, and Tsvitova, Dzhuryn, Bilobozhnytsya and Chortkiv with Uhryn were in Rus’ Voivodeship. Shvaykivtsi, Probyzhna, Zhabyntsi, Vasylkivtsi, Trybukhyvtsi, Gusyatyn with Vilkhovchik belonged to Podillya while Hadynkivtsi, Teklivka, Kotsyubyntsy, Kregulets, Nizhybirok, Samolusky, Lychkivtsi belonged to the Rus’ Voivodeship. From the east the border of Chervonograd povit ,,district” was marked by the Zbruch River, and in Sataniv area it deviated to the east.34 As for the second southeastern part ,,Lithuanian”, it was transformed into Bratslav Province and was under the rule of Lithuania until the Union of Lublin ,,1569”. It also consisted of three counties-Bratslav, Vinnytsia and Zvenygorod. ,,The boundaries of the Bratslav Province were the following: it bordered on Podilsk Voivodeship in the west and northwest, and on the Dniester River in the south separated from Moldova and the Kodyma River and the ancient Podillya virgin lands or Tatar steppes began after the Kodyma River, in the east the border was marked by the rivers the Vys’ and Sinyukha and the Kiev province, in the north it bordered on Kiev and Podillya voivodeships”.35

The division of Podillya remained almost unchanged for three and a half centuries during all the time of Polish rule in our region ,,short-term changes in the borders of Podillya and Bratslav voivodeships during the Turkish possession of Podillya in 1672-1699 had no influence on the further status quo of these voivodeships”.

After the accession of the Polish provinces to the Russian Empire in 1795 Podillya and Bratslav voivodeships were transformed into the region, and then immediately into the governorship. In particular, the Podillya province consisted of 12 districts: Kamyanets, Ushytsya, Verbovets, Grudets, Zinkivtsi, Letychiv, Proskuriv, Starokostyantyniv, Basaliysk, Yampil, Kremenets and Dubno.36

According to scientists Ya. Zhupansky, V. Krul, V. Jaman, at this time Podillya district ,,...occupied the territory of the current Borshchiv,

34 Ya. Pasternak, ,,West Podillya on tidy stories”, in Zalishchyky land in memories of emigrants, compiler and editor B. Melnychuk, Ternopil, publishing house ,,Ternopil”, 1993, p. 13. 35 Ibidem, p. 69. 36 M. Symashkevych, Historical-geographical and ethnographic essay of Podolia, p. 9.


54

Zalishchyky, Chortkiv, southeastern part of Buchach and the southern part of the Gusyatyn district of the Ternopil region in the west”.37

Podillya province with 12 districts was re-established in 1796, and Kamyanets was made a central provincial city. It consisted of such counties as Kamyanets, Balta, Bratslav, Vinnytsia, Haysyn, Letychiv, Lityin, Mogylev, Teofipil, Proskuriv, Ushytsya and Yampil.38 With the formation of the Podillya province, its western part as far as the river Zbruch was under Austria-Hungary and was included in the Galician Voivodeship where it was until 1939. From now on this land was completely under the Galician influence and is often referred to in the literature ,,scientific, artistic” Galician Podillya.39

In the last quarter of the XIX century Podillya province bordered on Volyn province in the north, namely with its Starokonstyantyniv, Novgorod-Volynskyi and Zhytomyr districts, on the east-with Kiev province, in particular with Lypovetsk and Uman districts, in the south-east-with the Kherson province, Ovidiopol and Ananyiv counties, from the southwest-with Bessarabia and Galicia, which is separated by the Zbruch river.40

In the second half of the nineteenth century Ya. Holovatsky noted in his work Folk songs of Galician and Hungarian Rus that Western Podillya in the west began from the Lypa River ,,probably Zolota Lypa” and stretched east to Kamyanets, which had long been called as Kamyanets-Podilskyi. At this time the territory consisted of Kamyanets, Ternopil, Chortkiv and a part of Berezhany ,,along the Zolota Lypa River”.41 A similar point of view on this issue is also supported by Ya. Pasternak in the article ,,Western Podillya in the beginnings of history”42 and G. Kupchanko in the work Galicia and its Rus’ inhabitants.43

37 Ya. Zhupansky, V. Krul, V. Dzhaman, ,,On the issue of the boundaries of Podillya”, in Problems of ethnography, folklore and social geography of Podillya. Scientific collection, Kamyanets-Podilskyi, 1992, p. 125. 38 M. Symashkevych, Historical-geographical and ethnographic essay of Podolia, p. 9. 39 Encyklopedia powszechna z ilustracjami i mapami, pp. 420-421. 40 Ibidem, pp. 420-421. 41 Folk songs of Galician and Hungarian Rus’ collected by Ya. Holovatsky, part 1, Dumas and opinions, Moscow, Publication of the Imperial Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University, 1878, p. 383. 42 Ya. Pasternak, ,,Western Podillya in the beginnings of history”, in Zalishchyky land in memories of emigrants, compiler and editor B. Melnychuk, Ternopil, Publishing House ,,Ternopil”, 1993, p. 3. 43 G. Kupchanko, Galicia and its Rus’ inhabitants, Vienna, Publishing House Friedrich Jaspers, 1896, p. 52.


55

As we can see, from the last quarter of the XIX century the ethnographic area of Podillya in the status of the Podillya province occupied the smallest territory, in particular in the west. From that time until the formation of the USSR ,,1922” no territorial changes occurred in Podillya. In the same status we mean Podillya province, this territory remained up to 30-ies of the XX century. Vinnytsia region of the Ukrainian SSR was formed in 1932, and Kamyanets-Podilskyi region of the Ukrainian SSR was formed in 1937 ,,named Khmelnytskyi region since 1954”. In 1939 the western lands of Podillya were reunited with Soviet Ukraine, forming the Ternopil region.44 As we see, the current administrative entity did not preserve the traditional name of ,,Podillya” therefore this ethnographic name was gradually disappearing from the folk memory in ethnographically remote places.

According to the Ukrainian ethnologist R. Kyrchiv, ,,Opillya is an original western continuation of the Podillya ethnographic area, which was part of the Precarpathian region. This concept is more known from geography than from ethnography. It defines the territory of the north-western part of the Podillya plateau in the boundaries of Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk and the central western outskirts of the Ternopil region”.45 As we see, he considered Opillya to be the western continuation of Podillya. Objects of everyday life, works of folk art, folklore, traditional crafts, calendar and family rituals being in their essence and in form more closely related to Podillya regions rather than to the neighboring ones Pokuttya, Boykivshchina, Hutsulshchyna etc., could prove this assumption. According to R. Kyrchiv the area covered the territory of the central Lviv region in the basins of the upper Bug and the left tributaries of the Dniester, adjacent areas of the western Ternopil region and the Ivano-Frankivsk region till the left bank of the Dniester area. In the southwestern part of Opillya it goes farther into the Transnistrian area of Zhydachiv and Sambir of Carpathian region ,,Pidgirya), and in the west stretches to the Peremyshl-Yavoriv Nadsiannya, which by the nature of the traditional domestic culture are peculiar sub-regions of the Carpathian region.

Evgenia Krochak-Shevchuk, a native of the village Vychilky of the Monastyrysk District ,,the territory of Podillya mentions in her memoirs that ,,those who come from the far woodless villages of Podillya are called polyany

44 A. P. Ponomariov, Ukrainian ethnography: A course of lectures, Kiev, Lybid, 1994, p. 133. 45 R. F. Kyrchiv, ,,Ethnographic zoning of Ukraine”, in Ethnography of Ukraine: Textbook, editor S. Makarchuk, Lviv, Svit, p. 134.


56

,,opolyany”.46 The Encyclopedia powszechna noted that ,,Opolyany inhabited the Western Podillya as far as the Strypa River and somewhere along the Seret River in the East”.47 In our opinion this statement is not true, because it is based on mapping by foreign historians who viewed the region according to the administrative division of Podillya Voivodeship, and not Podillya ethnographic area.

The inaccuracy of the definition of the territory of Podillya and Opillya in Eastern Galicia is mentioned in the collective work The Slavic Collection. Edition 1. It states the following: ,,Ternopil, Opillya and Chortkiv Podillya were called the breadbasket of Austria, or the Austrian Podillya”.48

Ya. Holovatsky in his work Folk songs of Galician and Hungarian Rus also gives a misunderstanding of the term ,,Opillya” apparently, he was focused on previous work. He notes in particular: ,,There is a woodless land called Opillya in the north of Podillya. It begins with the city of Kozova Ternopil region and covers the territory of Zbarazh up to Volochysk. This name was not legalized by the Polish authorities, but is very old and well-known in the Laurentian and Hypatian chronicles in the meaning of pole/field”.49 Undoubtedly, here Y. Holovatsky artificially used the reference to these two sources, because they mean ,,polyany/field people” located in completely another ethnographic area-in the central Dnieper territory.

The most accurate interpretation of the boundaries of the Western Podillya territory was given by the Galician ethnographer Grygoriy Kupchanko. In his work Galicia and its Rus’ inhabitants published in Vienna in 1896 he noted: ,,Podolyans live in the neighborhood with Hutsuls, and then to a greater extent on the plains or in the valleys north of the Prut River in Bukovyna and north of the Dniester River in Galicia in Chortkiv, Berezhany and other districts. The Podolyans also call themselves opolyans, polyans or polyanytsyas, that is, the inhabitants of the field”.50

An important factor for identifying the characteristic features of the Western Podillya region is the peculiarities in some customs and rituals, as well as their terminological specifics. In particular, before the beginning of the twentieth century in some localities in the region under

46 E. Krochak-Shevchuk, ,,To the Vychilky is a road”, in Monastyryska and environs in the memories of immigrants, compiler and editor B. Melnychuk and V. Trakalo, Ternopil, Publishing House ,,Ternopil”, 1993, p. 42. 47 Encyklopedia powszechna z ilustracjami i mapami, p. 422. 48 ,,Carpathian Rus. Geographical, statistical and historical-ethnographic essays of Galicia, northeastern Hungary and Bukovyna”, in Slavic collection. Edition 1, Saint Petersburg, 1875, pp. 12-13. 49 Folk songs of Galician and Hungarian Rus’ collected by Ya. Holovatsky, p. 383. 50 G. Kupchanko, Galicia and its Rus’ inhabitants, p. 52.


57

study there was the custom of using the fun rituals at the funeral, which had been abandoned for long in the Eastern Podillya.

Also there were popular tales and songs about the Opryshky, that were not common in the Eastern Podillya territories, as well as a number of other specific characteristic features that give grounds for a specific regional identity of the territory.

The regional consciousness is another feature in the definition of the ethnographic boundary of the region we studied and it was almost completely lost, although in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it was characteristic of many residents of Podillya land, and in particular, simple villagers. It is most preserved in the memoirs of emigrants when determining the location of their province.

Olena Kysilevska, the emigrant from the United States and the native of Monastyrysk district, noted in her memoirs: ,,My native side is Monastyrysk, Buchach, Pidhaitsi, and Berezhany, where our whole family was from; it is the boundless Podillya”.51 And Vasyl Shuya, who came from the village Olesha of the Monastyrysk district, noted: ,,The village was different only because of a hilly terrain, which is inherent in our Podillya”.52 At this time ,,we mean in the first third of the twentieth century” locals, in particular in Monastyrysk region were well aware of the boundary separating Podillya from Opillya. After all, ,,the village of Zastavtsi is located on the right side of the Koropets River, which separates Podillya from Opillya”.53

In the border area with the southern Volyn region local residents of the villages Koshlyaky, Shelpaky, Sukhivtsi, Nove Selo, Gnylychki, Golotky, Lysychyntsi in the Pidvolochysk district of the Ternopil region identify themselves with the Podolyans on the ethnographic level This is common to both the elderly and younger generation. Only in the village Koshlyaky of the Pidvolochysk district most locals call themselves Galicians. This peculiarity was emphasized by the local teacher Matsyo Vira born in 1946: ,,We are the Galicians because we have belonged to Galicia for a long time”.

In the village Kozivka in Kozova district of Ternopil region the ethnographic self-identity is a rare phenomenon. Despite the fact that the residents of the village, and especially the immigrants to the United States, called themselves ”residents on the border between Podillya and

51 O. Kysilevska, ,,My native side”, in Monastyryska and environs in the memories of immigrants, compiler and editor B. Melnychuk and V. Trakalo, Ternopil, Publishing House ,,Ternopil”, 1993, p. 18. 52 Ibidem, p. 23. 53 Ibidem, p. 24.


58

Opillya”, but according to their understanding, the villages lying closer to the city of Berezhany were already from Opillya.

Both elderly and younger villagers from Kozivka, especially teachers called themselves Galicians, although the term ,,Podolyans” is not totally unknown to them. After all, the students of the senior classes during the questioning ,,surely from the tip of the teachers enlisted themselves to the Podolyans”.

In the village Saranchuky and in the surrounding villages of Bozhykiv, Kotiv, Baznykivka in Berezhany district of the Ternopil region the locals use the ethnographic self-name ,,Galicians”. This name is equally widespread both among the adult population and among schoolchildren. This is especially noticeable among school youth, who, when questioned on the list of ethnographic names ,,Hutsuls”, ,,Lemks”, ,,Boiks”, ,,Podolyans” wrote ,,Galicians”, although the name ,,Podolyans” is familiar to them, but it has not recently been in use in the area.

There is no special ethnographic self-identity name for residents of Shybalyn, east of Berezhany. ,,We are Westerners”, said a local teacher Voloshyn Mariya born in 1959. The schoolchildren of the senior classes of the local school supported her as they did not check anything from the listed names because the name ,,Westerners” were not there.

The self-identity ,,Podolyans” is already rarely used in the southern part of the Pidvolochysk region. As G. Stronska, a teacher by profession from Kolodiyivka) born in 1948: ,,In our locality the inhabitants do not call themselves as Podolyans anymore. They rather identify themselves with dwellers of Ternopil region or we are all Galicians”. Although in the early twentieth century this area was universally called Podillya by the locals. This is stated by a well-known Ukrainian writer B. Lepky in his memoirs The Tale of My Life.54

The residents of urban areas of Grymayliv in Gusyatyn district, about 20 km from Kolodiyivka, had the same opinion about ethnographic self-identity. Here locals would rather called themselves ,,Westerners”, or more prone to the name ,,Galicians” than to the name ,,Podolyans”.

In the village Horodnytsya of the same Gusyatyn district the name Podillya was more common than other identity names, although it is also now out of use though high school students identify themselves ethnographically as Podolyans. ,,Their identity is primarily aimed at a teacher’s point of view, rather than their own awareness”. And it’s no wonder as at the

54 B. Lepky, The Tale of My Life, volume 2, Kiev, Dnipro, pp. 318-319.


59

beginning of the XIX century this land was subordinated to the Podillya province.55

The self-name ,,Podolyans” is more characteristic of the southeastern regions of West Podillya, Borshchiv, Zalishchyky, Chortkiv, and eastern Buchach. Here locals were calling themselves Podolyans up to 40 years of the twentieth century as this territory was a part of the Podillya province until the 20’s of the XX century and the socio-cultural vector was constantly directed to its metropolitan center. The direct evidence of this is the functioning of some song variants in this territory, in particular ritual ones, which, by common features, are closer to the eastern Podillya archetype than to the Western Podillya.

As you can see, ethno-regional consciousness of the population in different regions of Western Podillya is ambiguous, and in recent years it is has been introspective. All this is the result of constant changes in the boundaries both political and administrative, which became the main reason for the destruction of ethnic foundations and the creation of innovative unifications.

Thus, taking into consideration all the above-mentioned facts, which are fundamental in determining the ethnographic region, we can draft the ethnographic map of the Western Podillya, which is defined by the following boundaries: from the south of the Old Ushytsia along the Dniester River the boundary extends to the mouth of the Vereshchytsia River and goes to the west along its course as far as Gorodok. In the north the boundary goes to Shchekotiv to the Bug River within the limits of Busk, Oleskо, Plisnevsk up to the upper reaches of the Goryn River near the Old Oleksynets, Kolodno up to Shyly and Palchyntsi as far as the Zbruch River. The eastern part of the Western Podillya turns down along the Zbruch River and stretches towards Viytivtsi, Gorodok, Dunaivtsi to the Old Ushytsia.

55 History of cities and villages of the Ukrainian SSR. Ternopil region, Editorial board: S. Nechay, V. Andreev, M. Glinsky etc., Kiev, The main edition of the Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1973, p. 207.


60


61

DISCURSUL PATRIOTIC DE LA BLAJ AL PREOTULUI SIMION BÃRNUŢIU-SURSÃ DE INSPIRAŢIE PENTRU

ANDREI MUREŞANU ŞI ACT DE CONDAMNARE A UNIAŢIEI? IPOTEZE PLAUZIBILE

The Patriotic Discourse from Blaj of the Priest Simion Bãrnuţiu-Source of Inspiration for Andrei Mureşanu and Condemnation Act

of the Church Union? Plausible Assumptions

Florin I. Bojor, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Abstract: In the nineteen century the Romanians from Transylvania were facing the

danger of magyarization. In this huge risk, a Romanian revolutionary priest, Simion Bãrnuţiu preached the Romanian identity and patriotism at the Romanian National Assembly from Blaj in 1848. His sermon is the synthesis of all historical, cultural, educational, theological, legal, administrative, political and economic arguments for the Romanian national identity. His speech is a sermon due to its motivational, emblematic character, with special rhetoric and drama, and due to the fact that it is spoken in the church on Sunday, after the Divine Liturgy, by a clergyman, in the context of a ”feast” of the Romanian nation. Through the importance of Simion Bãrnuţiu’s preaching in the consciousness of the participants, it becomes the inspiration for the National Anthem of Romania, composed by his student, Andrei Mureşanu. And by analyzing and combating the Greek-Catholicism from a community perspective, the author highlights the issue of religious historical conflicts. At a time when nation consciousness was in formation, Simion Bãrnuţiu’s sermon is one of the pillars of affirmation of the Romanian identity and patriotism.

Keywords: Simion Bãrnuţiu, priest, inspiration source for Romanian hymn, patriotical preach, uniatism, Blaj, discourse, Greek-Catholics.

În Transilvania, secolul al XIX-lea este marcat de lupta pentru

emancipare naţionalã a românilor din Imperiul Habsburgic şi apoi, Austro-Ungar. În acest context, predica patrioticã este un stindard al conservãrii identitãţii naţionale, un motor de motivare al acţiunilor educative, culturale, sociale şi economice. Dacã adãugãm la acestea cenzura şi persecuţia autoritãţilor maghiare şi austriece avem toate ingredientele pentru a înţelege importanţa predicii patriotice în construirea şi consolidarea conştiinţei naţionale româneşti.

Lucrarea de faţã îşi propune sã rãspundã la patru întrebãri: a fost revoluţionarul Simion Bãrnuţiu preot? Este cuvântarea sa de la Blaj, din timpul revoluţiei de la 1848 o predicã? Este cuvântarea lui Simion Bãrnuţiu sursa de inspiraţie a Imnului Naţional al României? Şi, a condamnat Simion Bãrnuţiu uniaţia?


62

Cuvântarea patrioticã definitorie pentru poporul român din secolul al XIX-lea şi poate din toate timpurile, pânã în prezent, aparţine preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu (1808-1863) şi a fost rostitã în catedrala din Blaj, în 2/14 mai 1848 cu ocazia Marii Adunãri Naţionale din timpul Revoluţiei de la 1848. A intrat în istorie cu numele de „Discursul de la Blaj”,1 iar lucrarea de faţã doreşte sã demonstreze cã aceastã cuvântare complexã, lungã şi importantã a oratorului ardelean este, de fapt, o predicã patrioticã ţinutã mai întâi în faţa elitelor poporului român, iar apoi rezumatã în faţa simplilor cetãţeni. În fapt, vorbim de douã cuvântãri: cea dintâi, drept predicã în catedrala din Blaj şi cea de-a doua, drept discurs politic pe Câmpia Libertãţii de la Blaj.

Titlul, rostirea şi conservarea predicii2

Marea Adunare Naţionalã de la Blaj era programatã sã înceapã luni, 15 mai 1848, dupã calendarul iulian, însã românii au început sã se strângã în „Mica Romã” cu câteva zile înainte. Astfel, duminicã 14 mai, catedrala şi piaţa din Blaj erau pline de oameni. Dupã terminarea Sfintei Liturghii din catedrala din Blaj la care au participat cei doi episcopi români Ioan Lemeni (greco-catolic) şi Andrei Şaguna (ortodox), care au ieşit din catedralã de braţ, pentru ca oamenii din piaţã sã vadã fraternitatea dintre ei, a urmat predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu.3

Textul predicii îl gãsim publicat de însuşi autorul ei, în cartea Dreptul public al Românilor, Iaşi, 1867, p. 330, anexa II. Apoi, vor exista trei ediţii critice ale textului: ,,Discursul ţinut în catedrala din Blaj la 2/14 maiu 1848”, în Revista Periodicã, numãr 68-71, 1909 (ediţie care pune în paralel textul original şi cel îndreptat de cãtre Mihail Dragomirescu şi Emil Gârleanu. În plus, conţine necrologul de la solemnitatea funebrã ţinutã de cãtre Universitatea din Iaşi, şi rostit de cãtre prof. George Mârzescu, fost student de-a lui Bãrnuţiu, cu titlul „Elogiul lui Bãrnuţ”. Aici predica pãrintelui Simion Bãrnuţiu are şi un subtitlu: „despre relaţiunile Românilor cu Ungurii şi libertatea naţionalã”. Cartea poate fi

1 Simion Bãrnuţiu, ,,Discursul ţinut în catedrala din Blaj la 2/14 maiu 1848”, în Revista Periodicã, numãr 68-71, 1909. 2 Potrivit tratatelor de omileticã, termenul „predicã”, în sens restrâns, este o cuvântare asociatã întotdeauna unui act liturgic, rostitã pe parcursul unui numãr limitat de minute. În sens larg, „predicã” poate însemna şi o cuvântare mai extinsã, cum avem, de pildã, „Predica de pe Munte” a Mântuitorului, alcãtuitã, de fapt, din mai multe predici (cuvântãri) aşezate de evanghelist la un loc (Matei, cap. 5-7). 3 ***, Enciclopedia României online, ,,Adunarea Naţionalã de la Blaj”, disponibil pe www.enciclopediaromaniei.ro.


63

accesatã pe internet pe pagina Bibliotecii Virtuale BCU Cluj şi este textul utilizat în prezenta lucrare);4 Românii şi ungurii. Discurs rostit în Catedrala Blajului, 2/14 mai 1848, cu introducere şi comentar de G. Bogdan-Duicã, Cluj 1924 şi Discursul de la Blaj şi scrieri de la 1848, prefaţã de Ion Raţiu, ediţie îngrijitã de Ioan Chindriş, Cluj-Napoca, 1990.

Contextul istoric şi premizele predicii

La mijlocul secolului al XIX-lea, Şcoala Ardeleanã era la cea de-a doua generaţie, mult mai numeroasã, mai criticã şi mai ambiţioasã în lupta pentru libertatea şi demnitatea poporului român. În 1737, episcopul unit Inocenţiu Micu-Klein, întemeietorul gândirii politice româneşti moderne a mutat sediul Episcopiei Greco-Catolice de la Fãgãraş la Blaj, în centrul Transilvaniei. Pas cu pas, aici se vor ridica şcoli româneşti, unde va fi formatã intelectualitatea româneascã, iar Blajul va deveni capitala de facto a românilor din Transilvania, supranumitã „Mica Romã”.

Românii ardeleni vor gãsi în principiile Revoluţiei Franceze (1789) „libertate, egalitate şi fraternitate” afirmarea practicã, pragmaticã şi internaţionalã a aspiraţiilor şi nãzuinţelor lor naţionale. Însã, acelaşi lucru îl va vedea şi elita burghezã şi nobiliarã maghiarã care se va ridica în 1848, în contextul revoluţiilor din Europa („primãvara popoarelor”), împotriva stãpânirii habsburgice, în dorinţa de a realiza un stat naţional maghiar care sã înglobeze şi Transilvania, dupã modelul celui francez. Dar românii ardeleni nu au fost de acord cu alipirea Transilvaniei la Ungaria şi i-au sprijinit pe Habsburgi de frica maghiarizãrii.

În acest context, preotul celib greco-catolic Simion Bãrnuţiu va publica la Sibiu un manifest cu titlul de „Provocaţiune” (24-25 martie 1848), care se va rãspândi foarte repede între intelectualii români şi va aprinde flacãra redeşteptãrii naţionale: „Fraţilor români! Ungurii chiamã pe ardeleni la unire, Clujul s-au dechiarat cu mare solemnitate, cum cã vrea a se uni; aşa vor face şi secuii, poate numai saşii nu vor vrea. Dar românii ce vor face? De la deslegarea întrebãrei acestea atîrnã viaţa sau moartea românilor. Aici se cade sã-şi deschidã ochii tot românul, cã acum a venit tempul, cu care de se vor folosi bine, le vor dobîndi toate, iar de se vor folosi rãu, le vor perde toate, şi care le-au mai rãmas, adecã-şi vor perde naţionalitatea şi cu ea toate”.5

4 Simion Bãrnuţiu, ,,Discursul ţinut în catedrala din Blaj la 2/14 maiu 1848”. 5 Idem, ,,Provocaţiune”, în Sorin-Iulian Floruţ, ,,Exclusivitate: Manifestul lui Simion Bãrnuţiu „Provocaţiune” 24-25 martie 1848, Sibiu”, în Buletin de Carei on-line, din 24 martie 2014.


64

Esenţa manifestului lui Bãrnuţiu este: „Preoţilor! Spuneţi-le darã ungurilor: Noi nu vorbim nici despre unire, pînã nu se va publica în dietã şi ţarã cum cã naţia românã se cunoaşte ca naţie românã!” şi în acest sens preotul revoluţionar vine cu propunerea unei mari adunãri naţionale româneşti: „Încã o datã fraţilor! Fãrã naţie şi republica e numai un despotism afurisit; ştergerea iobãgiei, naţia românã ca naţie românã, congres naţional în care sã ne înţelegem mai întîi despre dobîndirea acestora. Nici mai mult, nici mai puţin-aceasta mai întîi, celelalte se vor adauge; fãrã aceasta şi raiul e iad. Afurisit sã fie în veci oricare român va îndrãzni a face vreo unire pînã nu va fi proclamatã naţia românã, ca naţie primitã sensu politico. Poporul român, de aceea, nu va vrea a şti numai dacã se va primi naţia, şi se va şterge iobãgia, atunci vom fi odihniţi şi fraţi cu toţi. Vivat natio romano!”.6 Astfel, preotul Simion Bãrnuţiu se va face remarcat în elita româneascã şi va deveni unul dintre organizatorii acestei mari adunãri naţionale, unde va fi invitat sã rosteascã celebra predicã pe care o analizãm.

În ciuda tuturor opreliştilor din partea guvernului maghiar de la Cluj, elita românilor ardeleni în colaborare cu episcopii au hotãrât la Sibiu sã convoace o Mare Adunare Naţionalã la Blaj, pentru luni 3/15 mai 1848. În capitala româneascã de la Blaj se vor strânge pe lângã cei doi episcopi ardeleni Ioan Lemeni (greco-catolic) şi Andrei Şaguna (ortodox), clerici, intelectuali (George Bariţiu, Timotei Cipariu, August Treboniu Laurian, Teodor Sereni, Vasile Maiorescu, Constantin Roman, Aaron Florian, etc.), soldaţi (Avram Iancu, Axente Sever, Ioan Buteanu, etc.), burghezi şi ţãrani, însumând peste 40.000 de persoane.7

Cum şi în celelalte provincii româneşti Moldova (fãrã Basarabia) şi Ţara Româneascã (fãrã Dobrogea) a izbucnit revoluţia, numitã ulterior „paşoptistã”, la Blaj vor veni şi revoluţionari din aceste regiuni: Dumitru Brãtianu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Vasile Alecsandri, Gheorghe Sion, Alecu Russo, Costache Negri, Lascãr Rosetti, Nicolae Ionescu, etc.8 Prin urmare, predica preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu va fi rostitã în faţa reprezentanţilor de seamã ai poporului român din acele vremuri.

Structurã şi idei principale: predica din catedrala de la Blaj este epopeea patrioticã, istoricã, religioasã, statalã, administrativã şi politicã a românilor din Transilvania din trecut pânã la 1848. Astfel, se structureazã dintr-o introducere scurtã, o problematizare şi un cuprins cu 10 mari pãrţi între care ultima e contopitã cu o exortare patrioticã:

6 Ibidem. 7 ***, Enciclopedia României online. 8 Gheorghe Ştefan, Momente din istoria poporului român, volum 1, Bucureşti, Editura Politicã, 1966, p. 91.


65

Introducere: Predica debuteazã cu adresarea „fraţi români” şi autorul intrã direct în dezbaterea problemei printr-o comparaţie între elementele naturii şi pericolul morţii naţionale a poporului român, semnalând cã „inima românilor a bãtut întotdeauna pentru libertate”, mai cu seamã în „epoca frãţiei şi a libertãţii” în care ascultãtorii sãi trãiesc (p. 24).

Cuprins: I. Partea politicã: Drepturi şi libertãţi din viitoarea Constituţie a Imperiului Habsburgic. Profesorul Simion Bãrnuţiu deschide conţinutul cuvântãrii sale prin informaţiile de actualitate, de care auditoriul sãu era extrem de interesat: „Constituţiunea cu drepturi şi libertãţi”. În aceasta se afirmã cãderea cenzurii, a privilegiilor, a monopolului, libertatea de a critica, transparenţa legislativã, guvernarea conform legilor, dieta reprezentativã, libertatea celor fãrã privilegii, crearea bãncii naţionale, responsabilitatea cetãţeneascã, ştergerea iobãgiei, etc.

Problematizarea şi anunţarea temei. Preotul profesor Simion Bãrnuţiu

dezvãluie tema analizei sale: „uniunea Ardealului cu ţara Ungureascã [...],

adicã contopirea [...], sã stingã toate popoarele neungureşti, ca sã facã din toate

numai o naţiune, care sã se numeascã naţiunea cea mare şi tare ungureascã [...] Ungurii leagã toate bunãtãţile vieţii constituţionale de uniunea cu Ungaria: ce sã facem?” (p. 32). Rãspunsul la întrebare va fi tratat de cãtre orator sub toate aspectele posibile: istorice, religioase, administrative, lingvistice, identitare, naţionale, etc.

II. Partea istoricã: Suferinţa românilor sub jugul maghiarilor de 944 de ani. Acum urmeazã partea cea mai sentimentalã, sensibilã şi emoţionantã din predica sa, adicã: „Sã expun pe scurt raporturile Românilor cu

Ungurii de când sunt supt domnirea ungureascã [...] 944 de ani ai umilirii Românilor” (p. 32). Astfel, se rememoreazã cu exactitate documentaristicã cele mai importante evenimente istorice prin care „Senatul şi poporul Daco-Român ţine minte: n-a uitat cã numai de la nãvãlirea ungurilor se trag toate relele, pe cari le suferã Ardelenii de o mie de ani” (p. 36).

La început ne cuceresc prin învingerea „Domnului nostru Gelou” de cãtre Tuhutum, dar erau mai toleranţi şi sunt „mai barbari astãzi”, cãci

regele Ştefan spunea: „Regnum unius linguae imbecille est [...] Ungurii chiar se fac creştini dupã legea Bisericei rãsãritului, de care ţinea toatã Biserica Românilor: fac legãturã de pace şi egalitate cu Românii” (p. 40). Dar, dupã 1291 devin tiranici prin confiscarea pãmânturilor. La 1437 românii se rãscoalã, dar nobilii maghiari în loc sã rezolve problemele sociale fac uniunea celor trei naţiuni: unguri, saşi şi secui, adicã „conspiraţiune în contra poporului român”. „Nimeni nu poate sã ne spunã relele ce s-au vãrsat din aceastã fântânã înveninatã peste tot poporul şi în parte peste naţiunea românã” (p. 42). În 1517 este emis „Tripartitum-ul lui Ştefan Werboczi” care „nimiceşte personalitatea poporului, fãcându-l şerb domnilor pentru totdeauna. Şi-i stoarce toate puterile, ca sã nu mai


66

poatã ieşi din servitute [...] Pe popor îl dezbrãca de drepturile omeneşti şi îi lua toatã puterea de a se apãra în contra cruzimii domneşti” (p. 46). Apoi, „pentru ca acest popor nefericit sã nu poatã scãpa nici într-un chip de furia domnilor, legea l-a legat de glie (glebae adscriptis), adicã îl supune domnilor pãmânteşti sã fie iobag absolut, pentru vecii vecilor” (p. 48).

Concluzia pãrţii istorice este cã „pe legi de acestea şi-au întemeiat ungurii constituţiunea lor cea faimoasã, ocrotirea privilegilor sale, pe ruinele libertãţii poporului”. Iar „ordinaţiunile şi decretele regilor ungureşti sunt documentele barbariei celei mai de jos” (p. 50).

III. Partea teologicã: problematica dezbinãrii românilor prin calvinizarea maghiarã şi uniaţia cu Roma. Oratorul este un maestru în a trece subtil de la un subiect la altul: „supt aceastã constituţiune s-a stins cu încetul şi religiunea creştinã a dragostei frãţeşti” (p. 50). Apoi, demonsterazã prin argumente istorice pertinente statutul bisericii româneşti din Transilvania de toleratã, asemenea românilor, de gintã toleratã, dar a cãror clerici sunt exploataţi la maxim, cãci „au curs râuri de lacrimi peste toatã naţiunea, şi încã mai curg” (p. 64) şi combate calvinizarea şi uniaţia sub aspect comunitar ca rupturi şi divizãri a bisericii româneşti.

IV. Partea juridicã: Ce este uniunea pentru unguri şi pentru români? Pornind de la politica de maghiarizare pe care autoritãţile ungare doresc sã o facã: „sã-i facã pe toţi unguri”, Simion Bãrnuţiu se ridicã împotriva politicii maghiare de unire a Ardealului cu Ungaria şi a condiţionãrii cã „ştergerea servituţii de azi o învenineazã cu uciderea naţionalitãţii” (p. 76). Astfel, uniunea pentru unguri nu este altceva decât realizarea „unei patrii ungureşti mari”, dar pentru români este pierderea a tot, de la identitate la proprietate, cãci „Ardealul e o proprietate adevãratã a naţiunii române, pe care a câştigat-o cu bunã dreptate acum o mie şapte sute de ani, şi de atunci pânã astãzi o ţine, o apãrã şi o cultivã cu multã sudoare şi ostenealã” (p. 120).

V. Partea culturalã: Manifest pentru o culturã naţionalã. Oratorul porneşte de la premiza: „cultura este puterea cea mai tare de pe pãmânt şi e o cetate nouã a unitãţii naţionale” (p. 156), de aceea, sunt necesare aşezãminte în limba românã (şcoli, institute, universitãţi) care creazã progres ştiinţific naţional. De asemenea, condamnã înstrãinarea lingvistricã care duce la deznaţionalizare şi afirmã unirea culturalã a românilor din toate provinciile istorice înaintea unirii naţionale.

VI. Partea lingvisticã: Pledoaria limbii române. Limba românã este baza unirii naţionale, cãci existã un drept natural al limbilor: „natura a dat fiecãrei naţiuni o limbã ca sã se foloseascã de ea în toate afacerile vieţii” (p. 160). Progresul naţional ţine de utilizarea practicã a limbii române „numai în braţele ei cresc arta şi ştiinţa, numai cu aripile artei şi ale ştiinţei sboarã industia şi negoţul, numai în aceste grãdini înfloreşte fericirea naţiunilor” (p. 170).


67

VII. Partea de teorie a statului: statul democratic poliglot egal pentru toate naţionalitãţile. De la egalitatea naturalã dintre toate limbile, oratorul ajunge la egalitatea naţionalã a comunitãţilor dintr-un stat, unde unitatea nu e uniformitate de limbã, ci egalitate de drepturi, cãci „iubire adevãratã nu pot sã aibã cetãţenii, decât numai cãtre un stat în care toţi iau parte la toate afacerile statului” (p. 180).

VIII. Partea de administraţie a statului: recunoaşterea limbii române ca limbã oficialã în stat. Despotismul lingvistic este duşmanul oratorului, pentru care combate falsa superioritate a limbii maghiare în faţa limbii române în administrarea statului prin existenţa strãveche a instituţiilor de judecatã bisericeşti: „limba cutarei naţiuni n-ar fi maturã pentru legi şi pentru guvernarea poporului” (p. 186) şi propune „jurisprudenţã în limba sa, naţiunile sã se sufere una pe alta pentru binele comun al tuturor” (p. 188), cãci „dregãtorii sunt pentru popor şi nu poporul pentru dregãtori” (p. 192) într-un stat multinaţional.

IX. Partea patrioticã şi concluzia: iubirea pentru naţiunea românã. Legitimitatea iubirii faţã de limbã şi naţie sunt datorate dreptului natural de a avea o identitate: „Naţionalitatea e îndemnul cel mai puternic spre lucrare

pentru fericirea neamului omenesc [...] ea e libertatea noastrã cea din urmã şi limanul scãpãrii noastre viitoare” (p. 202), de aceea, naţiunea românã nu se poate uni cu naţiunea maghiarã pentru a nu se contopi şi a-şi pierde existenţa: „aceasta e uniunea pentru români: pentru unguri e viaţã, moarte, pentru români; pentru unguri, libertate nemãrginitã, pentru români, şerbie eternã” (p. 204).

X. Partea practicã a adunãrii de la Blaj: afirmarea naţiunii române. Printr-o chemare retoricã, energicã, moralizatoare oratorul cere continuitatea existenţei lingvistice naţionale a românilor ardeleni şi sintetizeazã 3 orientãri practice ale Marii Adunãri Naţionale, motivul întâlnirii lor: 1. Senatul şi poporul daco-român nu-i iartã pe unguri pentru cã nu le pare rãu de relele fãcute şi le vor oferi unirea şi amiciţia, doar atunci când o vor merita; 2. Adunarea sã proclame libertatea şi independenţa naţiunii române; şi 3. Adunarea sã depunã jurãmânt de loialitate faţã de naţionalitatea românã. Apoi, urmeazã un rezumat al tuturor demersurilor de eliberare ale românilor din Transilvania, iar în finalul cuvântãrii se face apel la unitate, demnitate şi luptã naţionalã: „sã nu ne ducem la masa libertãţii ungureşti, cãci bucatele ei toate sunt înveninante, sã nu ne vindem ţara şi limba, cãci perzându-se odatã nu se mai poate câştiga” (p. 240) şi „rãmâneţi credincioşi numelui şi limbei voastre! Apãraţi-vã ca fraţii, cu puteri unite, în pace şi în rezbel!” (p. 246).

Importanţã şi stilisticã: Predica, cunoscutã sub numele de „Discursul de la Blaj” a lui Simion Bãrnuţiu este cea mai bunã sintezã a patriotismului românesc, şi punctul de referinţã a majoritãţii cuvântãrilor patriotice pânã la venirea comunismului. În aceste cuvântãri din secolul


68

al XIX-lea şi prima parte a secolului XX apare menţiunea: „dupã cum spunea (marele) Bãrnuţiu”.9

Predica preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu este extrem de complexã, foarte lungã, dar în acelaşi timp atractivã. Înaintea lecturãrii textului publicat, cititorul se gândeşte cã prin extensia ei, cuvântarea va fi plictisitoare, obositoare şi greu de urmãrit, însã splendoarea oratoricã, coerenţa, pitorescul, fluiditatea, plasticitatea exprimãrii şi fineţea argumentelor sunt atât de atractive încât este o bucurie sã citim „Discursul lui Simion Bãrnuţiu din catedrala de la Blaj”.

Despre Simion Bãrnuţiu nota Corneliu Coposu, în 1941, cu ocazia publicãrii de cãtre acesta a testamentului lui Simion Bãrnuţiu: „Semnificaţia personalitãţii şi operei acestui mare gânditor politic constã în faptul cã el a concentrat într-un sistem de doctrinã aspiraţiile încã nelãmurite pe deplin ale Ardealului. A strâns toate argumentele de drept natural şi de istoricism jurudic, care pledau în interesul românilor şi a fãcut cei dintâi paşi pentru dezbaterea publicã pe temei de

drept a cauzei noastre [...] În discursul de la Blaj, care este cartea libertãţilor Ardealului, ce se lupta pentru independenţa sa politicã, marele revoluţionar a rostit printre altele celebrul legat testamentar, pentru generaţiile viitoare”.10

Ediţia criticã a cuvântãrii lui Simion Bãrnuţiu din 1909 o numea: „cel mai însemnat monument oratoric al românilor subjugaţi: Cuvântarea ţinutã de Simeon Bãrnuţiu în Catedrala dela Blaj în 2/14 maiu 1848, care a dat temeiul întregei acţiuni politice a românismului într-unul din cele mai însemnate momente ale vieţei naţionale din afarã de regat”.11 Iar Nicolae Iorga scria despre marele om de culturã Simion Bãrnuţiu, astfel: „Cine nu ştie vestita lui cuvântare cãtre adevãratul popor, cãtre miile de sãteni doritori de a-şi afla vestea mântuirii din robie

şi nedreptate-cuvântare ţinutã în Câmpul cel nou al Libertãţii, la 3 mai 1848? [...] Peste câţiva ani, Bãrnuţiu predica la Iaşi, în lecţii de drept, crezul naţional românesc, scoţând din teoriile sale, rãbdãtor dezvoltate, încheierea cã suntem un neam şi trebuie

9 Corneliu Coposu, Actualitatea lui Simion Bãrnuţiu, spune: „nenumãrate referiri la gândirea lui Bãrnuţiu se desprind din cuvântãrile şi discursurile marilor noştri conducãtori şi oratori: Ilie Mãcelaru, Ion Brãtianu, Mihail Kogãlniceanu, C. A. Rosetti, Dimitrie Sturza, Dr. Ion Raţiu, Titu Maiorescu, Alex. Lahovari, Lascãr Catargiu, Petre Carp, Barbu Delavrancea, Nicolae Filipescu, Ionel Brãtianu, Dobrogeanu Gherea, Take Ionescu, Vasile Lucaciu, Iuliu Coroianu, Vaida Alexandru Voevod, Constantin Stere, Nicolae Iorga, C. C. Disescu, Dobrescu-Argeş, Grigore Iunian, A. C. Cuza, Nicolae Titulescu, Ştefan Cicio Pop, Mihai Pherikide, Iuliu Maniu, Ion Mihalache, Mihail Sadoveanu”. Conferinţã 15 mai 1979, Bucureşti, text publicat postum online de Ion Ivãnescu, 28 iulie 2008, pe www.caietesilvane.ro. 10 Corneliu Coposu, ,,Testamentul lui Simion Bãrnuţiu”, în Ardealul, numãr 44, 1941, p. 5, 11 Simion Bãrnuţiu, ,,Discursul ţinut în catedrala din Blaj la 2/14 maiu 1848”, p. 3.


69

sã clãdim toate ale noastre pe conştiinţa acestei fiinţi deosebite, fireşti şi legitime a neamului nostru”.12

Ca atare, avem de-a face cu predica în sine din catedrala de la Blaj (duminicã 2/14 mai 1848) cu text cunoscut şi pãstrat, şi cu un rezumat al predicii sub forma unei introduceri în hotãrârile Adunãrii pe Câmpia Liberãţii de la Blaj (luni 3/15 mai 1848) fãrã ca textul sã fie pãstrat, ci numai schiţat în mãrturiile vremii, precum în ,,Gazeta de Transilvania”.13

Simion Bãrnuţiu-un preot revoluţionar: Simion Bãrnuţiu este o uriaşã figurã a patrimoniului nostru politic din veacul al XIX-lea.14 Simion Bãrnuţiu sau Bãrnuţ a fost preot greco-catolic, jurist, istoric, jurnalist, filosof, profesor universitar şi om politic de seamã al Transilvaniei secolului al XIX-lea.

Din Enciclopedia României15 aflãm cã provenea dintr-o familie sãracã din Bocşa, Sãlaj şi a studiat la Facultatea de Teologie din Blaj, însã nu ni se spune cã fost hirotonit preot celib greco-catolic. Apoi, a intrat ca profesor la celebrul Obergymnasium din Blaj (1829), primul liceu românesc din Transilvania, unde a predat sintaxa, filosofia şi istoria universalã. A devenit prefect al seminarului şi apoi notar consistorial al episcopului unit Ioan Lemeni, cu care va intra apoi în conflict şi în proces datoritã predãrii cursurilor în limba românã. Episcopul a cedat presiunilor maghiare, de a se preda cursurile în limba maghiarã, iar Bãrnuţiu împreunã cu alţi profesori şi seminarişti s-au împotrivit. A fost demis în 1846 de la şcoala din Blaj, cu un imens scandal cu exmatriculãri în rândul seminariştilor şi se stabileşte la Sibiu, unde studiazã la Academia Sãseascã de Drept.

La momentul rostirii predicii din catedrala din Blaj, preotul Simion Bãrnuţiu avea 40 de ani (n. 1808), deci se afla în puterea maximã a vocii, a pregãtirii intelectuale şi a puterii de convingere a unui orator. Dupã Marea Adunare de la Blaj şi înfrângerea revoluţiei (1849) a fost persecutat de autoritãţile maghiare fiind nevoit sã se exileze în Italia (prin Constantinopol). La Pavia îşi va definitiva studiile juridice (doctorat în drept 1854) şi apoi va ajunge profesor universitar la Iaşi. Se îmbolnãveşte grav şi este adus în Transilvania de nepotul sãu de frate Ioan Maniu, tatãl lui Iuliu Maniu, însã pe drum moare lângã Sânmihaiu Almaşului, în 28 mai 1864 şi este înmormântat la biserica din satul natal, Bocşa.

12 Nicolae Iorga, Oameni cari au fost, volum 1, ediţia a II-a, Bucureşti, Editura pentru Literaturã, 1967, p. 198 13 Gazeta de Transilvania, numãr 39, 1848, pp. 1-2. 14 Corneliu Coposu, ,,Testamentul”, p. 5. 15 ***, Enciclopedia României online.


70

Preoţia revoluţionarului Simion Bãrnuţiu (preot celib greco-catolic) este atestatã de: funcţiile administrative deţinute în Biserica Greco-Catolicã, care erau dedicate clericilor; actul excluderii de la catedrã în urma procesului politic cu episcopul Ioan Lemeni („Procesul profesorilor”), şi trimiterea ca preot de mir la parohii: „în urmarea poruncii date de Maiestatea Sa, împãratul, prin carea episcopului se face de ştire cã pe trei profesori, adecã pe S.B. [Simion Bãrnuţiu], I.P. [Ioan Pop] şi D.B. [Dumitru Boer] trebue sã-i departe din ale lor posturi şi sã-i trimitã la parohii afarã”;16 caterisirea din vara anului 1845 în urma deciziei Consistoriului Diecezan de la Blaj: „cei trei profesori [amintiţi anterior] furã desbrãcaţi de darul sfânt al preoţiei”;17 „damnatio memoriae” prin ştergerea numelui din arhiva preoţilor greco-catolici de la Blaj, din „Şematismul veneratului cler al arhidiecesei Metropolitane Greco-Catolice Române de Alba Iulia şi Fãgãraş, pre anul Domnului 1900, de la Sfânta Unire 200”;18 faptul cã se adreseazã preoţilor, de la egal la egal, în textul manifestului „Provocaţiune” (24 - 25 martie 1848), amintit mai sus, într-un timp în care demnitatea preoţeascã era consideratã la un nivel social superior, iar în scrisoarea adresatã lui George Bariţiu în care-i cere publicarea articolului polemic: „Soborul cel mare al Episcopiei Fãgãraşului” se semneazã cu „P.” de la preot, şi apoi „profesor de filosofie” (decembrie 1842);19 cercetarea istoricilor de la acad. Gheorghe Bogdan-Duicã (1924),20 la prof. Ioan Dorin Popescu21 în zilele noastre; la care se adaugã buletinul informativ greco-catolic e-communio.ro.22

Istoriografia comunistã va epura calitatea de preot şi predicator a teologului Simion Bãrnuţiu, pentru cã idelul lor de revoluţionar dupã modelul lui Marx şi Engels trebuia sã fie ateu şi nicidecum cleric. Astfel, detaliile despre rostirea şi caracterul de predicã al cuvântãrii din catedrala

16 Gazeta de Transilvania, numãr 21, 1845, p. 1. 17 Gheorghe Bogdan-Duicã, ,,Viaţa și ideile lui Simion Bãrnuţiu”, în Studii şi Cercetãri, numãr 8, 1924, p. 64. 18 ***, Şematismul veneratului cler al arhidiecesei Metropolitane Greco-Catolice Române de Alba Iulia şi Fãgãraş pre anul Domnului 1900 de la Sfânta Unire-200, Blaj, Tipografia Seminarului Arhidiecesan, Blaj, 1900. 19 Simion Bãrnuţiu, „Document Simion Bãrnuţiu cãtre George Bariţiu”, în manuscris,

publicat de Gheorghe Bogdan-Duicã, ,,Viaţa și ideile lui Simion Bãrnuţiu”, anexa VII, p. 212. 20 Ibidem, p. 35 21 Ioan Dorin Popescu, ,,Simion Bãrnuţiu-scurtã biografie”, pe www.dacoromania-alba.ro, accesat 5.03.2019. 22 ***, ,,170 de ani de la Proclamaţia lui Simion Bãrnuţiu privind afirmarea românilor ca naţiune”, din 12 martie 2018, pe www.e-communio.ro, accesat 6.03.2019.


71

de la Blaj vor fi omise, cãci naţional-comunismul trebuia fundamentat doar pe discursuri laice.

Argumente pentru considerarea drept predicã a cuvântãrii

1. Tipologia cuvântãrii-predicã tematicã patrioticã: Discursul de la Blaj este o predicã tematicã patrioticã, care prin mãrimea şi complexitatea ei depãşeşte tipologia predicilor patriotice clasice şi devine suma teologicã a patriotismului românesc, fiind asemãnãtoare cuvântãrilor apologetice din primele secole creştine. În sine, este un cuvânt de apãrare al identitãţii româneşti: limbã şi popor. Se pare cã în spatele gândirii preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu este conştiinţa apocalipticã a judecãţii fiinale a neamurilor (gr.

„τὴν τιμὴν τῶν ἐθνῶν”, lat. „honorem gentium” Apoc. 21,1-27), cãci autorul insistã: „Ţineţi cu poporul toţi, ca sã nu rãtãciţi, pentru cã poporul nu se abate de la naturã” (p. 242) şi tot repetã în cuvântare „peirea naţiunii” drept fricã existenţialã: „ea va începe îndatã a se stinge şi a pieri ca un arbore fulgerat (p. 204).

2. Calitatea de preot predicator a oratorului, dupã cum afirmam mai sus. 3. Locul şi timpul rostirii cuvântãrii: catedrala din Blaj, duminica, dupã

Sfânta Liturghie. Am amintit anterior în analizarea contextului istoric al rostirii predicii, cã preotul Simion Bãrnuţiu a spus celebra cuvântare în biserica cea mai importantã a românilor din secolul al XIX-lea, catedrala din Blaj. Acolo, intelectuali, clerici, meşteşugari, ostaşi şi ţãrani erau strânşi pentru Marea Adunare Naţionalã a Revoluţiei de la 1848.

Prof. George Mârzescu, fost student de-a lui Bãrnuţiu, în „Elogiul lui Bãrnuţ”, relateazã momentul predicãrii din catedralã: „cu modestia şi simplitatea sa naturalã, în mijlocul celor mai cutremurãtoare aplauze, se suie pe o tribunã dinaintea altarului, şi acolo, în faţa lui Dumnezeu, ţine o cuvântare în care expune pe scurt, dar în modul cel mai sublim, dureroasa istorie a Transilvaniei; aratã raporturile Românilor cu Ungurii, cari totdeauna i-au asuprit, şi propune ca în Adunarea Naţionalã sã se proclame naţiunea Românã de naţiune liberã şi independentã. Electrizaţi de acest discurs, toţi Românii nu mai au alta nimic în minte decât ideea sfântã şi prea sfântã de naţionalitate”.23

4. Caracterul emblematic şi mobilizator al cuvântãrii. Odatã cu acest eveniment istoric, Blajul a devenit locul de pelerinaj al românismului ardelenesc, şi data de 3/15 mai ziua naţionalã a românilor ardeleni, prilej cu care erau organizate slujbe, ceremonii religioase şi serbãri unde se predica demnitatea şi libertatea poporului român. Iar predica lui Simion

23 George Mârzescu, ,,Elogiul lui Bãrnuţ”, în Simion Bãrnuţiu, ,,Discursul ţinut în catedrala din Blaj la 2/14 maiu 1848”, pp. 12-13.


72

Bãrnuţiu, cuvântarea de referinţã a patriotismului românesc. An de an, la Blaj se strângeau zeci de mii de români care, paşnic şi civic, îşi sãrbãtoreau identitatea şi cereau drepturi egale cu ale stãpânitorilor austrieci şi maghiari.

La sfatul preotului greco-catolic Basiliu Raţiu (1783-1870), aici s-a ridicat un momument pentru comemorarea Marii Adunãri Naţionale din 1848: „Piatra Libertãţii”, iar acesta a devenit altarul de predicã al naţiunii române, cãci din acel loc, luni, 3/15 mai 1848, Simion Bãrnuţiu a rostit un rezumat al predicii de duminicã, din catedrala din Blaj. Dupã cum aflãm din ziarele şi relatãrile vremii se va perfecta o agendã a zilei care începea cu slujba din Catedrala de la Blaj, la care participau împreunã greco-catolici şi ortodocşi, apoi predicile „erudice” din catedralã, asemenea celei rostite de Simion Bãrnuţiu „amenti meritele lui Bãrnuţiu”,24 iar apoi predicile „divulgative” care erau trasmise mulţimii sub formula medievalã a oratorului şi divulgatorilor pe cercuri de transmitere, iar în final balul, adicã petrecerea tradiţionalã româneascã.

A predica la Blaj era o onoare naţionalã, dupã cum vedem într-o scrisoarea din 1 iunie 1865 trimisã de cãtre profesorul de teologie Ioan Micu Moldovan (1833-1915) redactorului ,,Gazetei Transilvaniei”, Iacob Mureşianu (1812-1887), în care acesta îl informeazã despre „frumoasa cuvântare ţinutã de Aurel Mureşianu (1847-1909) pe Câmpul Libertãţii la 15 mai”.25

Cu ocazia unei astfel de sãrbãtori s-a emis, aici, în 1868 celebrul „Pronunciament de la Blaj” care a avut o mare influenţã asupra dezvoltãrii luptei patriotice româneşti şi a dus la un val de persecuţii şi arestãri în rândul clericilor şi teologilor români, predicatori ai libertãţii şi demnitãţii poporului român: Basiliu Raţiu (canonic şi preposit), Elie Vlassa (canonic), Ioan Micu Moldovan (profesor), Gavriil Pop (profesor), Alexandru Micu (profesor), Dumitru Farago (profesor) şi Iacob Mureşanu (profesor şi redactor).26

La 1911, aceastã Sãrbãtoare de la Blaj şi-a atins punctul maxim, dupã cum vedem în culegerea dedicatã evenimentului: „Serbãrile dela Blaj. 1911: o paginã din istoria noastrã culturalã” publicatã în acelaşi an de „Despãrţãmântul XI. Blaj” al Asociaţiunii ASTRA (Asociaţiunea Transilvanã pentru Literatura Românã şi Cultura Poporului Român). Din

24 Federaţiunea, numãr 73, 12/24 mai 1868, pp. 1-2. 25 Ioan Micu Moldovan, ,,Document Ioan Micu Moldovan cãtre Iacob Mureşianu”, manuscris numãr 01255, Fond Muzeul Casa Mureşenilor, Braşov, disponibil la www.clasate.cimec.ro, accesat 2.03.2019. 26 Teodor V. Pãcãţian, ,,Pronunciamentul de la Blaj”, în Transilvania, numãr 1, 1928, pp. 26-37.


73

cuvântul înainte al culegerii dedicate evenimentului aflãm cã „Dela

Vlãdicã pãnã la opincã [...] şi-au încãlzit cu toţii sufletul la flacãra aceea sfântã, care nu trebuie sã se stingã niciodatã, cãci stângerea ei ar însemna perirea noastrã”.27 La aceste sãrbãtori naţionale ale românilor participã şi scriitorul maghiar Karoly Kos, care impresionat fiind de cele vãzute şi auzite va scrie predica: „Levél a balázsfalvi gyűlésről”, adicã, „Scrisoare de la Adunarea din Blaj (1911)”.28

Astfel, predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu, mai întâi detaliatã şi complexã în catedralã, iar apoi rezumatã şi divulgativã pe Câmpia Libertãţii devine model de predicare a demnitãţii naţionale româneşti.

5. Aspectele teologice ale cuvântãrii. Predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu este un tratat de istorie civilã şi bisericeascã, expus oral, în care pentru prima datã se analizeazã istorico-critic de cãtre un preot greco-catolic, de la amvonul catedralei greco-catolice din Blaj unirea românilor cu Roma în Biserica Greco-Catolicã.

Partea a III-a a predicii sale este dedicatã cu precãdere problemelor religioase, precum calvinizarea şi uniaţia. Fãrã a intra în probleme dogmatice, oratorul face o analizã a comportamentului religios-moral al maghiarilor atât catolici, cât şi calvini, precum şi încercarea acestora de maghiarizare prin religie şi combate lipsa dragostei faţã de popor: „nu afli la unguri niciun Ambroziu, niciun Crisostom, care sã apere proprietatea poporului şi

a vãduvelor în contra împãraţilor şi a aristocraţilor [...] Cine nu ştie cã curţile episcopilor catolici sunt locuri privilegiate de torturã?” (p. 52). „Pe popor îl încarcã cu greutãţi şi-l dã legat în mâinile aristocraţilor, ca pe o vitã! Iatã în ce stã frãţia ungurilor, cã şi credinţa şi chiar pe Dumnezeul fratelui sãu îl declarã numai tolerat,

ca unul ce crede în Dumnezeul tuturor neamurilor, nu în Dumnezeul Ungurilor [...] Fraţii noştri de secta aceea” (p. 68). La acestea se adaugã comportamentul brutal al conducãtorilor calvini faţã de clericii români: „fãceau pe popii români sã ierneze câinii domnilor, şi protopopii purtau pe umeri pe intendentul superior calvinesc” (p. 78) sau martiriul mitropolitului Sava Brancovici: „îl bãteau cu toiage şi cu vânã de bou” (p. 82). Apoi, centrul pãrţii teologice îl reprezintã divizarea românilor prin uniaţie, cum vom vedea mai jos.

6. Expunerea de valori creştine morale: binele comun, libertatea, dreptatea, egalitatea religioasã, etc. şi combaterea pãcatelor: pãcatul robirii, al trufiei naţionale şi al egoismului, etc. Prin predica sa, Simion Bãrnuţiu comunicã o serie de valori de inspiraţie creştinã, începând cu libertatea personalã, care este

27 ***, Serbãrile dela Blaj 1911: o paginã din istoria noastrã culturalã, Blaj, Tipografia Seminarului Teologic Greco-Catolic, p. 4. 28 Karoly Kos, Scrisoare de la Adunarea din Blaj (1911), trad. Antal Burján şi Tudor Duicã, disponibil la www.corbiialbi.ro, accesat 26.02.2019.


74

strâns legatã de comunitatea mare, adicã de naţiune, astfel: „libertatea oricãrui om e legatã de persoana lui cu cea mai strânsã legãturã, e proprietatea lui cea

mai personalã, şi poartã chipul persoanei fiecãrui om [...] libertatea naţiunii e şi ea legatã strâns cu persoana ei, ca şi a persoanelor fireşti, dacã nu chiar mai strâns; libertatea naţiunii şi ea poartã chipul naţiunii” (p. 130); „libertatea cea adevãratã a

oricãrei naţiuni nu poate fi decât naţionalã [...] nu existã libertate atunci când nu-ţi

poţi pãstra şi afirma liber naţionalitatea [...] libertatea fãrã naţionalitate nu se poate înţelege la nici un popor de pe pãmânt.” (p. 128); „fãrã naţionalitate nu e libertate, nici luminã nicãierea, ci pretutindeni numai lanţuri, întuneric şi amorţire” (p. 200).

Întreagul demers oratoric are în centru binele comun, iar Simion Bãrnuţiu repetã mereu „binele public”, „binele naţiunii”, „binele comun al tuturora”, etc. Nevoia de dreptate este un alt fir roşu care strãbate pledoaria naţionalã a lui Simion Bãrnuţiu, astfel: „Dreptatea nu depinde numai de la legi bune, ci şi de la judecãtori buni şi drepţi”, cãci „în deşert vorbesc despre independenţa judecãtorilor, pentru cã fiecare judecãtor va judeca totdeauna dupã plãcerea şi în folosul celui ce l-a aşezat, temându-se ca sã nu-l rãstoarne”. La care se adaugã nevoia de egalitate religioasã, care este exprimatã atât în comparaţiile repetate între drepturile superioare ale clericilor reformaţi maghiari şi cele inferioare ale clerului românesc, cât şi în politica de maghiarizare prin cultul divin: „deputaţii unguri din Cluj stau de episcopii românilor, ca sã traducã numai decât cãrţile bisericeşti pe limba maghiarã” (p. 146).

Predicatorul înfiereazã prin comparaţii biblice robirea, „anatema iobãgiei eterne şi a despotismului înfricoşat”, exploatarea laboralã a românilor: „Dacã nu-şi poate închipui cineva greutãţile, pe cari le suferea Iudeii pe vremuri de la Faron în Egipt, sã se uite la Faraonii din Ardeal, cum nu se mai mulţumesc acum cu ziua de lucru, ci dau cu ruptul clãile, de e silit ţãranu a face ziuã din noapte, şi a lucra cu toatã casa sa, ca sã poatã împlini numãrul cel peste mãsurã, sunt şi aristocraţi cari îi bagã în jug pe oameni şi grãpeazã cu ei” (p. 74). Şi combate pãcatul trufiei naţionale care este cauza asupririi şi dorinţei de asimilare a celuilalt: „pofta domnirii peste celelalte naţii nu e o nevoie adevãratã, ci e numai paroxism de friguri, care când va trece, şi acea poftã necuratã de a înghiţi pe alte naţiuni va peri” (p. 198). La care se adaugã condamnarea pãcatului egoismului personal care face rãu naţiunii: „pe cel ce nu-l trage inima sã lucreze, nici mãcar pentru gloria şi fericirea naţiunii sale, acela nu e decât un egoist perdut pentru umanitate, de care e pãcat cã l-a împodobit natura cu forma de om” (p. 202).

7. Retorica şi dramatismul cuvântãrii. Preotul Simion Bãrnuţiu doreşte prin cuvântarea sa sã arate „ce legãturã este între naţionalitatea şi libertatea, cultura, chemarea şi toatã viaţa unui popor, ca de aici sã cunoaştem ce sã judecãm despre Uniune şi ce sã judecãm despre libertatea ce ne-o promit Ungurii preţ pentru naţionalitate” (p. 34).


75

Prin talentul oratoric şi conceptual deosebit, prin sistematizarea clarã, captivantã a informaţiei, prin creşterea tensiunii emoţionale, pas cu pas, pânã la un dramatism maxim, cuvântarea preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu depãşeşte caracterul de discurs politic sau de conferinţã academicã. Sunt suficiente, doar câteva citate pentru a demonstra dramatismul predicii sale: „O! De v-ar face cuvântul meu ca sã simţiţi cei 944 de ani ai umilirii Românilor, aşa cum simte şerbul o zi de domnesc, în care a lucrat de dimineaţa pânã seara flãmând, ars de soare şi bãtut. O! De v-aţi înfiora de aceastã amorţire lungã a naţiunii noastre” (p. 34); „Sã ne întoarcem cãtre acel mormânt, ce se numeşte „Aprobate şi Compilate” în care zace naţiunea noastrã din Ardeal, sã culegem câteva flori galbene din florile morţilor, cari cresc pe acest mormânt înfiorãtor, ca sã le dãm Românilor ce vreau sã vândã limba şi naţionalitatea românã pentru bunãtãţile uniunii ungureşti” (p. 54); „O timpuri barbare! O tiranii neauzite! Periţi din istorie, stingeţi-vã din memoria oamenilor, ca sã nu mai creadã viitorimea cã familia omeneascã ar putea degenera pânã la asemenea sãlbãticii!” (p. 82).

În cuvântarea lui Simion Bãrnuţiu regãsim cele mai dure cuvinte dintr-o predicã din biserica româneascã: „Dupã ce vãzu lumina zilei acest advocat al tiraniei [Ştefan Werbőczy], care n-ar fi trebuit sã iasã niciodatã din iad, cele trei naţiuni îndatã îl cuprinserã cu braţele deschise şi sãrutarã legile lui ca evanghelia dreptãţii pe pãmânt; dar poporul se îmbrãcã în jale, cãci Tripartitul pentru popor nu e evanghelie de bucurie, ci îngerul morţii celei mai ruşinoase în jugul aristocraţilor” (p. 44).

8. Sfat omiletic pentru preoţii predicatori români. În calitate de profesor şi orator experimentat Simion Bãrnuţiu identificã una dintre cauzele eşecului omiletic: studiul superficial într-o limbã strãinã, diferitã de cea în care se predicã mai apoi: „e lucru cunoscut, cã preoţii Ungurilor reformaţi sunt mai buni oratori decât ai catolicilor şi ai Românilor, pentru cã ei învaţã ştiinţele şi arta retoricã în limba naţionalã, din tinereţe” (p. 165).

9. Formula de încheiere sub forma unei cuvântari procesuale din timpul persecuţiilor împotriva creştinilor. Deşi jurist, preotul Simion Bãrnuţiu nu utilizeazã în încheierea cuvântãrii sale celebra formulã a lui Cicero „ipse dixit” sau simplu „dixit”, ci formula creştinã: „Dixi et salvavi animam meam” (p. 246), adicã am zis şi mi-am mântuit sufletul meu, care este parafrazarea a douã versete biblice: „Iar dacã tu vei înştiinţa pe cel rãu (...) Iar dacã tu vei înştiinţa pe cel drept (...) îţi vei mântui şi tu sufletul tãu” (Iezechiel 3,19 şi 21) şi care are o încãrcãturã moralã de discurs extrem, de viaţã şi moarte, asemenea primilor martiri creştini, care-l mãrturiseau pe Hristos înaintea prigonitorilor pãgâni.

10. Receptarea predicii lui Simion Bãrnuţiu. Acum apare întrebarea fireascã: cum a reacţionat auditoriul preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu? Enumeram în analiza contextului istoric capetele luminate şi importante


76

ale culturii şi istoriei poporului român, care au participat la Marea Adunare de la Blaj şi care au fost ascultãtorii cuvântului învãţãtoresc rostit de preotul profesor Simion Bãrnuţiu. Aşadar, nivelul de pregãtire intelectualã a acestora era unul foarte ridicat: elita intelectualã a societãţii româneşti din Ardeal, din Moldova şi din Ţara Româneascã. În articolul din Enciclopedia Românã dedicat evenimentului de la Blaj se precizeazã: „Simion Bãrnuţiu a ţinut o lungã cuvântare, expunând motivele pentru care românii resping unirea Transilvaniei cu Ungaria, fiind atât de elocvent şi aducând asemenea

argumente, încât acei intelectuali români care erau favorabili unirii au amuţit [...], iar mulţimea a comentat favorabil discursul lui Bãrnuţiu”.29

11. Actualitatea predicii în Europa secolului XXI. Predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu, deşi identitarã, nu este extremistã, populistã şi instigatoare la urã. El este de acord cu statul multinaţional, poliglot, însã este împotriva maghiarizãrii şi cere egalitate lingvisticã, religioasã, politicã, juridicã, civilã, de oportunitãţi şi socialã a naţiunii române cu cea maghiarã şi austriacã din Imperiul Habsburgic. Astfel, uniunea maghiarã „subt masca

libertãţii şi a frãţiei [...] nu acoperã pentru noi nici libertate, nici frãţie, ci numai servitute şi o fiarã sãlbaticã, care mãnâncã naţiuni” (p. 128). Nu acelaşi lucru puntem sã spunem azi despre Uniunea Europeanã, care are la bazã tocmai echilibrul şi respectul naţional pe care Simion Bãrnuţiu îl predica la 1848.

Condamnarea Uniaţiei şi provocarea unirii între creştini pentru generaţiile urmãtoare în predica preotului

greco-catolic Simion Bãrnuţiu

Predica preotului greco-catolic Simion Bãrnuţiu are o importanţã deosebitã în înţelegerea motivelor pentru care Biserica Ortodoxã din Transilvania a trecut la greco-catolicism şi implicaţiile de naturã socialã şi naţionalã ale acestei uniri în contextul timpului sãu. În calitate de profesor de istorie, mãrturiseşte disensiunile familiare şi sociale nãscute în urma trecerii românilor ortodocşi la greco-catolicism, subliniind pe de o parte, situaţia umilitoare şi degradantã a clericilor şi a poporului român şi pe de altã parte, înşelãciunea prestatã de emisarii iezuiţi şi realizãrile Şcolii Ardelene, vãzute ca modice în comparaţie cu aşteptãrile lor naţionale, întrebându-se retoric, dacã a meritat aceastã uniaţie?

Astfel, „românii, ca sã scape de batjocurile cele multe se plecarã de primirã aceastã uniune” (p. 84), care „sã zicem, în fine cã i-a înviat pe români din leşinare,

uniunea i-a deşteptat din somn şi le-a însuflat spirit de vieaţã [...] dar sã nu uitãm

29 ***, Enciclopedia României online.


77

însã a pune în cumpãnã şi rãnile înfipte naţiunii noastre prin uniune” (p. 90). Apoi se întreabã: „Ce a pãcãtuit Biserica noastrã-întrebãm şi noi cu episcopul Inocenţiu-dacã cumva n-a pãcãtuit unindu-se, de se pedepseşte cu infamia dezertorului? Cu Uniunea deodatã a intrat o urã între români, care a ţinut mai bine de 80 de ani” (p. 94). Pentru ca în final sã condamne uniaţia: „Acum ce vom zice de toate Uniunile acestea şi de toate bunãtãţile lor, când vedem, cum cã toate acestea au fost numai nişte laţuri, cu cari ne-au prins; furii, cu care ne-au încãierat; spaime, cu cari ne-au înfricoşat; şerpi, cu cari ne-au otrãvit” (p. 104).

Teza proprie a lui Simion Bãrnuţiu asupra uniaţiei este „cã, sã nu se teamã (slujitorii bisericii) cã voiesc cumva sã mã ating de natura dogmaticã a uniunii, cãci eu o privesc numai din punct de vedere politic, ca un raport profan între Unguri şi Români; numai despre uniune, în acest înţeles, zic eu cã Strigoniul [Esztergom-primatul Bisericii Romano-Catolice din Ungaria] a fãcut-o în favoarea bisericii ungureşti şi spre subjugarea şi cãderea celei române: Strigoniul a plantat-o în inima împãratului Leopold şi a Românilor; Strigoniul a udat-o prin iezuiţi; Strigoniul a

crescut-o [...] Strigoniul conducea toate lucrurile uniunii la Curte [Viena] şi la Roma şi, fãrã influenţa şi voia lui, nu se fãcea nimic în lucrurile Bisericii Române, cum nu se face nici astãzi” (pp. 84-88).

Faptul cã aceastã analizã istorico-criticã o gãsim expusã de un cleric greco-catolic în faţa elitelor intelectuale clericale greco-catolice şi primirea şi acceptarea predicii sale, aratã echilibrul şi luciditatea pe care generaţia a II-a a Şcolii Ardelene o avea. Frica cea mare a lui Simion Bãrnuţiu era ca disensiunile confesionale sã nu zdrobeascã unitatea naţionalã: „scopul meu nu este a chema pe români la uniune confesionalã, ci la uniune naţionalã” (p. 222), iar prozelitismul religios este pentru el „o crimã în contra pãcii naţionale” (p. 226) şi-i cheamã pe români la jurãmânt pentru o „frãţie îngereascã” indiferent de confesiune, cu conştiinţa cã „românii erau uniţi între ei şi atunci, când nu erau pe pãmânt formele religiunilor cele de astãzi, şi vor fi şi când nu vor mai fi acestea” (p. 224). Filosoful Simion Bãrnuţiu crede în soluţionarea în viitor a greco-catolicismului, dupã ce naţiunea românã va fi suficient de educatã: „îndatã ce se vor îndeplini aceste condiţiuni necesare ale

vieţei naţionale [...] spre a deslega aceastã problemã se cer toate puterile naţiunii, chiar de ar mai fi împãrţitã în de douã ori douã confesiuni” (p. 228). Aşadar, preotul Simion Bãrnuţiu face o provocare pentru generaţiile urmãtoare pentru unirea dintre greco-catolici şi ortodocşi.

Sursa de inspiraţie pentru Imnul Naţional al României

În catedrala din Blaj a ascultat predica preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu şi elevul sãu, teologul şi prietenul Andrei Mureşanu, care a auzit îndemnul dramatic din finalul predicii: „Ce condei poate sã descrie durerea celui îngropat de


78

viu? Iatã, el se deşteaptã în mormânt, îşi muşcã buzele şi îşi roade mânile de desnãdejde, cã nu-i luceşte nicio razã de scãpare în fundul mormântului: durerea acestui nefericit e scurtã, dar durerea unei naţiuni ce merge spre peire, va trece împreunã cu istoria din secol în secol şi de la generaţiune la generaţiune” (p. 210). De altfel, întreaga predicã este un apel la deşteptarea poporului român: „care naţiune de pe pãmânt nu s-ar ridica, de la mic pânã la mare, când îşi vede numãrate zilele vieţei?” (p. 238).

Nu putem sã nu ne gândim la asocierea dintre ceea ce spune profesorul Bãrnuţiu, elevului Mureşanu şi versurile cu care ucenicul îşi începe poezia „Rãsunet”: „Deşteaptã-te, române, din somnul cel de moarte”. Poezie, pe care o va compune la câteva zile dupã auzirea importantei predici, şi o va publica cu litere chirilice în nr. 25, din 21 iunie 1848, în revista lui George Bariţiu: „Foaie pentru minte, inimã şi literaturã”30 cu pseudonimul „a. m....u”, şi care va deveni rapid marşul revoluţionarilor români transilvãneni, iar astãzi este Imnul Naţional al României.

Mai mult, ideile din predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu coincid cu ideile din majoritatea versurilor Imnului Naţional, astfel:

Predica de la Blaj a preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu

Imnul Naţional al teologului Andrei Mureşanu

„Glorie pe care noi, în loc sã o mãrim, am micşorat-o, am întunecat-o, am vândut-o, şi, împreunã cu naţiunea am îngropat-o în anul 1848!? Deci, sã socotim bine, dacã nu voim a lãsa atâta jale dupã noi, sã considerãm cum pãrinţii şi strãbunii noştri au petrecut sub domnia ungureascã” (p. 212)

I B. Acum ori niciodatã, croieşte-ţi altã soarte, La care sã se-nchine şi cruzii tãi duşmani.

„Sã mãrturiseascã cum cã pietrele au, cãtre memoria celei mai însemnate naţiuni ce a fost odatã în lume, mai multã simţire de veneraţiune decât milioanele de legionari, pe cari ne-au aşezat aici Traian, ca sã pãzim nemuritoare gloria numelui de roman” (p. 212)

II. Acum ori niciodatã sã dãm dovezi la lume Cã-n aste mâni mai curge un sânge de roman, Şi cã-n a noastre piepturi pãstrãm cu falã-un nume Triumfãtor în lupte, un nume de Traian!

„Cum au fost Corvinii, cum a fost Mihai Viteazul, Ştefan cel Mare, şi alţi români, de cari s-au mirat şi parte s-au temut contimporanii, se mirã şi se va mira toatã posterioritatea; cu unii ca aceştia s-a putut mândri pe drept naţiunea [românã]” (pp.

IV A. Priviţi, mãreţe umbre, Mihai, Ştefan, Corvine, Româna naţiune, ai voştri strãnepoţi,

30 Andrei Mureşanu, ,,Rãsunet”, în Foaie pentru minte, inimã și literaturã, numãr 25, 1848, p. 8.


79

60-62)

Libertatea oricãrui popor e bunul lui cel mai înalt, şi naţionalitatea e libertatea lui cea din urmã: ce preţ mai are viaţa lui dupã ce şi-a perdut tot, ceea ce-l face demn ca sã mai fie pe pãmânt? În mâna acestei Adunãri [naţionale] e pusã viaţa şi moartea, soarta prezentã şi viitoare, nu a unui om, ci a unei naţiuni întregi” (pp. 238-240)

IV B. Cu braţele armate, cu focul vostru-n vine, Viaţa-n libertate ori moarte!” strigã toţi.

„Jurãmântul acesta nu este decât simbolul Uniunii, cu care mama naturã a legat pe toţi fiii naţiunii noastre, atunci când le-a dat aceeaşi limbã, arãtându-le, cã precum sunt uniţi prin limbã, aşa se cade sã fie uniţi şi cu inima la toate lucrurile, cari sunt spre luminarea, libertatea şi binele naţiunii” (p. 220)

V B. Dar noi, pãtrunşi la suflet de sfânta libertate, Jurãm cã vom da mâna, sã fim pururea fraţi!

[dupã o întreagã aplogie a limbii române] „cum i-au asuprit şi cum i-au batjocorit ungurii pe români (...) cum i-au oprit de la şcoale, ca sã rãmânã orbi (...) Închipuiţi-vã încã o datã, cum cã aceastã mie de ani ai tiraniei ungureşti e numai o zi în viaţa cea dureroasã a naţiunii noastre; închipuiţi-vã, cã dimineaţa ne-au bãgat în jug, toatã ziua ne-au mânat, şi acum, când veni seara ca sã ne odihnim, nu ne iau jugul de pe grumaz decât ca sã ne omoare. (p. 238)

IX N-ajunse despotismul cu-ntreaga lui orbie, Al cãrui jug din seculi ca vitele-l purtãm; Acum se-ncearcã cruzii, în oarba lor trufie, Sã ne rãpeascã limba, dar morţi numai o dãm!

„Uniţi-vã cu poporul toţi, preoţi, nobili, cetãţeni, ostaşi, învãţaţi, şi vã sfãtuiţi într-un cuget asupra mijloacelor reînvierii naţionale, pentru cã toţi sunteţi fii ai aceleaşi mame şi cauza este comunã.” (pp. 240-242)

X A. Români din patru unghiuri, acum ori niciodatã Uniţi-vã în cuget, uniţi-vã-n simţiri!

[imaginea din catedrala din Blaj: Bãrnuţiu predica, înainte erau preoţii şi apoi reprezentanţii poporului, iar predica lui este o apologie a libertãţii] „pentru libertate îşi pune averea şi vieaţa, libertatea e coarda inimei ei cea mai personalã, proprietatea ei cea mai naţionalã, inima ei, sufletul ei, podoaba ei!” (p. 132)

XI. A. Preoţi, cu crucea-n frunte cãci oastea e creştinã, Deviza-i libertate şi scopul ei preasfânt.

„Vedeţi cum ne-am luptat noi pentru limba şi romanitatea noastrã: luptaţi-vã şi voi şi le apãraţi ca lumina ochilor voştri (...) ca sã vã încoroneze cu laurul nemuririi pentru constanţa şi bãrbãţia voastrã!” (p.

XI c. Murim mai bine-n luptã, cu glorie deplinã,


80

246)

„Nu este tot una şi nu ne poate fi tot una de-ar fi (pãmântul) al românilor, ori al ungurilor, iar românii sã fie iarãşi numai toleraţi în pãmântul lor (...) apendicele altor naţiuni,” [apoi vorbeşte despre şerbia românilor] (p. 120)

XI d. Decât sã fim sclavi iarãşi în vechiul nost'pãmânt!

Inspiraţia poeziei lui Andrei Mureşanu din predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu este evidentã. Putem vorbi inclusiv de un subconştient de inspiraţie al Imnului Naţional în mintea poetului Andrei Mureşanu, care, porneşte de la deviza grãnicerilor din jud. Bistriţa-Nãsãud „Virtus Romana Rediviva”, adicã, virtutea romanã reînviatã, redeşteptatã, cãci el era originar din Bistriţa; se continuã cu şcoala de la Blaj, unde Simion Bãrnuţiu i-a fost profesor; şi îşi are momentul de coagulare al inspiraţiei în ascultarea predicii lui Simion Bãrnuţiu. Aici nu se poate include inspiraţia din articolul-program al ziarului lui George Bariţiu „Gazeta de Transilvania”, unde se spune: „deşteaptã-te şi tu, române, pãşeşte împreunã cu noi, primeşte şi cultivã în inima ta iubirea de dulcea noastrã patrie”,31 cãci acest articol a fost publicat în 1838, deci cu 10 ani înaintea poeziei lui Andrei Mureşanu.

Inspirarea Imnului Naţional de cãtre predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu nu contravine afirmaţiei generalizate, cã poetul Andrei Mureşanu ar fi compus imnul dupã o searã de discuţii cu mai mulţi revoluţionari intelectuali, între care unii au fost prezenţi la Marea Adunare Naţionalã şi au ascultat predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu. Conform mãrturiei profesorului George Moroianu (1870-1945), preluatã în toate articolele pe aceastã temã, care într-o conferinţã din 1927 de la Cluj, spunea: „Mi-a povestit în mai multe rânduri Suzana Mureşianu (adicã, soţia lui Andrei Mureşianu) cum a scris Andrei Mureşianu celebrul sãu imn naţional „Deşteaptã-te, române”, spunea cã prin a doua jumãtate a lunii mai 1848 erau adunaţi în Braşov mai mulţi fruntaşi români din Principate, între care Bãlcescu, unul sau amândoi fraţii Brãtianu, Magheru, Alecsandri, Golescu, Cezar Bolliac, George Sion… şi alţii, din care unii se înapoiaserã de la Adunarea Naţionalã din Blaj, la care luaserã parte. În Braşov aceşti fruntaşi din ţara veche se întâlneau adeseori cu fruntaşii locali ai românilor, care erau cei doi Mureşeni – Iacob şi Andrei – cu Bariţiu, cu protopopul Popazu şi cu Pavel Vasici… De la o asemenea întâlnire, îmi povestea rãposata Suzana Mureşianu, s-a întors odatã pe la fiinea lui mai (1848), bãrbatul ei, târziu, dupã miezul nopţii, fiind foarte agitat. El nu s-a culcat, ci s-a aşezat la masa de scris şi a scris pânã târziu dupã ce se fãcuse ziuã, mai sculându-se din când în când de la masã

31 George Bariţiu, ,,De la Redacţie (pentru foae aceasta)”, în Gazeta de Transilvania, numãr 1, 1838, pp. 3-4.


81

şi plimbându-se prin odaie, citind din ceea ce scrisese. Erau strofe din Deşteaptã-te române”.32

Însã, pânã acum, comentatorii nu au mers mai departe, sã se întrebe: ce au discutat intelectualii revoluţionari, încât Andrei Mureşanu sã fie atât de pãtruns de actul poetic? Posibilul rãspuns are legãturã cu predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu de la Marea Adunare Naţionalã, cãci urmând firul logic al evenimentelor e firesc ca ei sã fi comentat predica impactantã a preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu, de vreme ce, acesta era liderul revoluţionar din Transilvania şi personalitatea de bazã a Marii Adunãri Naţionale de la 1848, iar intelectualii au o mare afinitate în a analiza cuvântãrile care i-au impresionat.

Cât priveşte cealaltã interpretare: rãspunsul, ecoul, replica lui Andrei Mureşanu la poezia lui Vasile Alecsandri „Cãtre români”, publicatã în „Foaie pentru minte, inimã şi literaturã”, în numãrul 21, din 25 mai 1848,33 aceastã interpretare este extrem de simplistã şi vãzutã în afara contextului istoric, ci mai degrabã în compararea talentelor poetice. Ambii poeţi au ascultat în catedrala din Blaj predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu, iar din simpla comparare a textelor celor douã poezii observãm cã rãspunsul, ecoul, replica este la predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu şi nu la poezia lui Vasile Alecsandri. Mai mult, descoperirile în domeniu semnaleazã cã poezia lui Alecsandri circula încã din luna februarie 1848 sub forma unei foi volante,34 deci dacã Andrei Mureşanu s-ar fi inspirat din ea, ar fi scris mai demult poezia sa „Deşteaptã-te, române”.

Discursul preotului Simion Bãrnuţiu este o cuvântare complexã, lungã, profundã, bine documentatã şi o predicã patrioticã manifest, o cuvântare apologeticã a identitãţii naţionale. Datoritã faptului cã este rostitã în bisericã, duminica, dupã Sfânta Liturghie, de un cleric, în contextul unui „praznic” al naţiunii române şi datoritã caracterului ei motivaţional, emblematic, cu o retoricã şi un dramatism special primeşte calificativul de predicã. Datoritã argumentãrii sale exhaustive, sintetizãrii tuturor argumentelor istorice, culturale, educaţionale, teologice, juridice, administrative, politice şi economice într-un cadru bisericesc este predica care echivaleazã cu suma teologicã a patriotismului românesc. Este alcãtuitã în logica Predicii de pe Munte a Mântuitorului Iisus Hristos (Mt.

32 Valer Rus, ,,Povestea Imnului Naţional”, pe www.muzeulmuresenilor.ro,accesat 03.03.2019. 33 Vasile Alecsandri, ,,Cãtre români”, în Foaie pentru minte, inimã și literaturã, numãr 21, 1848, p. 161. 34 Maria Lambuca, Emil Micu, ,,Vasile Alecsandri, Costache Negruzzi şi alţi cãrturari români, colaboratori ai Foii pentru minte, inimã şi literaturã”, în Cumidava, an 12, numãr 1, 1979-1980, p. 397.


82

5-7), adicã o cuvântare care sintetizeazã toate aspectele din jurul conceptului de naţiune, pe care autorul le reformuleazã în logica iubirii faţã de poporul român şi ţarã.

Prin importanţa predicii lui Simion Bãrnuţiu în conştiinţa participanţilor, devine sursa de inspiraţie a Imnului Naţional al României, compus de elevul sãu Andrei Mureşanu. Iar prin analiza şi combaterea uniaţiei, a greco-catolicismului din perspectivã comunitarã autorul evidenţiazã problema conflictelor religioase în istorie. Într-un timp în care conştiinţa de naţiune era în formare, predica lui Simion Bãrnuţiu este unul dintre stâlpii afirmãrii identitãţii şi a patriotismului românesc.


83

ORAŞUL CARANSEBEŞ-SCURTE REPERE DE SPIRITUALITATE BÃNÃŢEANÃ

Caransebeş Town-Short Landmarks of Banat Spirituality

Daniel Aron Alic ,,Eftimie Murgu” University, Reşiţa, Romania

Abstract: Among Banat cities, Caransebeş comes into attention as a centre of

Romanian culture and spirituality. Lived by Romanian people, the city and its neighbourhoods have passed through the vicissitudes of the history keeping pure the authentic of the area. Since the second half of the XIXth century, after the re-foundation of Caransebeş Diocese, national and cultural flag have been kept with care by the clergyman of the institution and the professor who contributed to the formation of the priests and teachers that, at their turn, contributed to the spread of religious feeling and alphabetization of the majority of Banat villages. In this town where also the most important personalities that contributed to the Great Union and later development of the province lived. All of these allows us to consider Caransebeş as the historical capital of Banat culture and spirituality.

Keywords: Caransebeş, Banat, culture, Romanian spirituality, historical development.

Banatul, ţinutul de la marginea imperiilor, unde s-au contopit

civilizaţii şi culturi, a fost pe rând, prin diversele sale zone, o provincie disputatã de regalitatea Ungariei, de ţaratul bulgar, de formaţiuni pre-

statale şi statale româneşti, fiind cu frontierele mereu expuse:1 „[...] existã în cazul acestei regiuni o specificitate care a participat la constituirea unei fizionomii distincte şi de care au trebuit sã ţinã cont toate administraţiile, toate autoritãţile politice: Banatul a fost de la începutul existenţei sale o provincie de frontierã”.2 Cucerit în secolele X-XI dinspre nord spre sud, dinspre câmpie spre munte, de ungurii care au gãsit aici români şi slavi, acesta a fost integrat treptat autoritãţii statului medieval ungar. Populaţia a rãmas însã tot timpul în majoritate româneascã. Aici, la graniţa dunãreanã mereu expusã, au trebuit admise autonomii şi cutume româneşti de neimaginat în interiorul regatului.

Caransebeşul, strãveche vatrã de civilizaţie, aflat printre cele mai vechi aşezãri din Banat, stã mãrturie în faţa vremurilor despre oamenii care sfinţesc locul prin hãrnicie, pasiune şi determinare.

Aşezat la poalele a trei trainici strãjeri, martori tãcuţi a multor transformãri, munţii Poiana Ruscã, Semenic şi Godeanu, aceastã

1 Adriana Babeţi, Banatul-un paradis între frontiere, articol publicat pe site-ul www.memoriabanatului.ro. 2 Valeriu Leu, Istoria ca suport al regionalizãrii-„Banatul imperial”, articol publicat pe site-ul www.memoriabanatului.ro.

http://www.memoriabanatului.ro/

http://www.memoriabanatului.ro/


84

localitate a dãinuit peste veacuri în depresiunea ce se aflã la confluenţa râurilor Timiş şi Sebeş. De la cel din urmã nume se pare cã provine şi denumirea oraşului, dupã cum susţinea Francesco Griselini în binecunoscuta sa lucrare legatã de ţinutul Banatului, „Caransebeşul, numit astfel dupã micul râu Sebeş, care trece pe acolo”,3 iar în Monografia lor, Andrei Ghidiu şi Iosif Bãlan susţin cã termenul „Cãran” a fost un târg, care a existat dincolo de Timiş, pânã în veacul al XVII-lea.4

Datoritã zonei ce cuprinde toate formele de relief, cu climã blândã şi multe şi neştiute bogãţii ale subsolului, Caraş-Severinul este un veche şi vie vatrã de istorie româneascã. Cercetãrile arheologice din secolul XIX, au scos la ivealã vrednice dovezi ale existenţei şi evoluţiei societãţii umane pe aceste meleaguri. De o însemnãtate majorã sunt cele care dau mãrturie despre locuirea acestui spaţiu încã din paleoliticul superior, confirmând acest aspect descoperirea mai multor silexuri. Ulterior acestei perioade, au mai fost gãsite importante vestigii ce presupun existenţa unei aşezãri dacice în aceastã zonã, iar mai târziu a unei aşezãri daco-romane, având în vedere cã spaţiul de locuire a dacilor din aceastã zonã a constituit poarta de acces spre lumea romanã. Descoperirile geto-dace de la Tibiscum demonstreazã cã teritoriul oraşului fãcea parte din vasta arie de locuire a strãmoşilor noştri şi cã aici s-a dezvoltat o înfloritoare civilizaţie. Drumurile romane descoperite, din Caraş-Severin şi pânã la nord de Mureş, pun în evidenţã rolul castrului roman de la Tibiscum. Procesul de romanizare de dupã retragerea aurelianã a continuat în teritoriu, dovadã fiind tezaurele numismatice descoperite ce dateazã din secolele III-V.5

În perioada marilor migraţii, populaţia autohtonã din Banat s-a constituit în obşti sãteşti, sãpãturile arheologice fãcute la Caransebeş scoţând la ivealã numeroase vestigii din secolele VII-X. La cumpãna dintre primele douã milenii, teritoriul bãnãţean era încadrat în formaţiunile prestatale ale lui Glad, şi ulterior, Ahtum, cel care a pus o puternicã rezistenţã regatului maghiar.6 În ciuda acestui fapt, zona Banatului a fost inclusã treptat regatului maghiar; în anul 1200 este amintit pentru prima datã într-un document comitatul Caraş, iar în 1230 Banatul de Severin. Datoritã puternicelor structuri administrativ-politice

3 Francesco Griselini, Încercare de istorie politicã şi naturalã a Banatului Timişoarei, Timişoara, Editura Facla, 1984, p. 41. 4 Andrei Ghidiu, Iosif Bãlan, Monografia Caransebeşului, Timişoara, Editura Mirton, 2000, p. 14. 5 Arhivele Naţionale ale României, Istorie şi culturã în arhivele Caraş-Severinului, Bucureşti, 1997, p. 3. 6 Ibidem, p. 4.


85

şi militare, stãpânirea maghiarã şi-a impus cu greu organizarea, astfel cã în Caraş-Severin s-au creat districte româneşti autonome, care se bucurau de privilegii primite de la regalitatea maghiarã. Cea mai importantã cetate din punct de vedere administrativ, politic şi militar era cea a Caransebeşului, unde îşi aveau reşedinţa banii de Severin, conducãtorii celor opt districte româneşti.7

Dupã Ioan Bartolomei, prima menţiune despre Caransebeş s-a fãcut într-o consignaţie de zeciuialã papalã din secolul al XII-lea.8 Regele Ladislau al IV-lea Cumanul viziteazã cetatea în anul 1289 şi revine aici în 1290, când pe 29 aprilie într-un document este menţionat numele de Caransebeş, aceasta fiind consideratã prima atestare documentarã a oraşului. Caransebeşul este numit Opidum (târg), la fel ca şi în registrele dijmelor papale din anii 1332-1337.

În toatã perioada Evului Mediu, Caransebeşul a fost un oraş românesc de graniţã ce adãpostea numeroase pãturi sociale, de la nobili cnezi, la meşteşugari şi târgoveţi şi a continuat sã se dezvolte datoritã poziţiei sale geografice propice, a înfloririi negoţului şi meşteşugurilor, a breslelor, cât şi a faptului cã avea posibilitatea apãrãrii în faţa invadatorilor datoratã cetãţii şi oraşului fortificat.

De o deosebitã importanţã pentru dezvoltarea urbanã a oraşului este documentul din 30 iunie 1498, acordat la intervenţia voievodului Ştefan Stoica, prin care Caransebeşului i se acordã aceleaşi privilegii de care se bucura oraşul Buda, privilegii care fuseserã recunoscute de Sigismund de Luxemburg şi Matei Corvin. Din anul 1654, 29 septembrie, se pãstreazã un foarte important document, prin care principele Transilvaniei, Gheorghe Rákóczi, la cererea lui Acaţiu Barcsay, comitele Hunedoarei şi banul Caransebeşului şi Lugojului, acordã privilegii bãnãţenilor.9 Toate aceste privilegii vor determina o dezvoltare deosebitã a oraşului în special în secolele XVI-XVII, când deţinea o poziţie însemnatã în comerţul Transilvaniei şi a sud-estului european.

Mãrturiile cãlãtorilor strãini dovedesc calitatea vieţii din Caransebeş în comparaţie cu alte zone. Astfel, Giovan Andrea Gromo spunea cã este „capitalã a Vlahiei de dincoace de Carpaţi”, un alt italian, Antonio Possevino îl numea „reşedinţã a nobililor”, iar iezuitul Valentin Lado confirmã cã oraşul a fost întotdeauna românesc, cu locuitori români ce vorbeau româneşte deoarece a trebuit sã „ţinã predica pe româneşte, limba lor”. Din anul 1603 se pãstreazã mãrturia cronicarului Szamosközy: „Locuitorii sunt

7 Ibidem, p. 5. 8 Andrei Ghidiu, Iosif Bãlan, Monografia Caransebeşului, p. 14. 9 Ionel Gal et alii., Mãrturii ale trecutului-album de documente, Direcţia Generalã a Arhivelor Statului, Bucureşti, 1981, p. 104.


86

români, însã ca onestitate, culturã şi practicarea meşteşugurilor sunt deosebiţi şi trãiesc mai cu gust decât alţi locuitori”.10

În secolele XVI-XVII, a fost unul dintre cele mai înstãrite oraşe

din Principatul Transilvaniei datoritã faptului cã se afla la intersecţia drumurilor comerciale, având totodatã şi un rol strategic important. S-a dezvoltat din punct de vedere economic şi a reprezentat un reper important pentru cei care traversau zona înspre Europa Centralã şi cea de sud-est, mai mult de atât fiind menţionat în anul 1449, de istoricul Pesty Frigyes, ca un oraş comercial recunoscut de primã clasã.

Istoriografia consemneazã cã: ,,Dupã mai bine de trei secole de stãpânire maghiarã, în 1552 turcii iau în stãpânire Banatul, înfiinţând paşalâcul Timişoarei. Suveranitatea otomanã dureazã 164 ani pânã în 1716 când întreg Banatul intrã definitiv în stãpânirea Curţii de la Viena. Între anii 1688-1716 statutul politic al Banatului este incert datoritã deselor conflicte între cele douã mari imperii. Desele rãzboaie dintre ele desfãşurate pe parcursul secolului XVIII confirmã importanţa strategicã a acestei zone de contact”.11

În ultimele decenii ale secolului XVIII, Banatul era nu numai o regiune în care prosperau meşteşugurile şi comerţul, dar şi una în care societatea manifesta o preocupare crescândã pentru şcoalã, pentru carte.12 Astfel, trebuie menţionat faptul cã fiii nobililor români din

10 Petru Bona, Caransebeş-contribuţii istorice, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Întreprinderea Poligraficã Cluj, 1989, pp. 30-32. 11 Sebastian Ştefãnucã, Graniţa şi grãnicerii bãnãţeni. O abordare socio-istoricã, Bucureşti, 2010, p. 132. 12 Victor Neumann, Identitate şi culturã-studii privind istoria Banatului, Bucureşti, Editura Academiei Române, 2009, p. 26.


87

Banatul de sud frecventau universitãţile din Viena şi Polonia. Datoritã protopopului Andrei Ghidiu care, în anul 1900, a fãcut o donaţie importantã de obiecte de patrimoniu, se pãstreazã la Academia Românã un Octoih slavon din secolul XIII, cunoscut sub numele de Octoihul de la Caransebeş. Sub influenţa propagandei calvine ce diviza Europa în acea perioadã şi care a avut un ecou puternic şi în Transilvania, în anul 1582 este scrisã Palia de la Orãştie, o traducere a Vechiului Testament în limba românã. La traducerea acesteia, datoritã acordãrii unei importanţe deosebite culturii limbii române în zona Banatului, apare ca şi firesc faptul cã doi dintre traducãtorii acesteia au fost din Caransebeş: Efrem Zãcan şi Ştefan Herce. Tot în aceastã perioadã s-au format şi învãţaţii George Buitul, teolog umanist şi filozof şi Gavril Ivul, care a predat matematicã, filosofie şi teologie la Viena şi care au fãcut cunoscutã cultura bãnãţeanã în centrul Europei. Şcoala de cântãreţi bisericeşti amintitã în 1582 la Caransebeş avea ca profesor pe Efrem Zãcan, şcoalã-model de pregãtire a preoţilor, preluat şi de şcoala româneascã din Transilvania.

În secolul al XVII-lea Caransebeşul era un important centru cultural românesc, cu şcoli bine organizate, unde se scria româneşte cu litere latine. Nume reprezentative al acestei perioade de dezvoltare culturalã, care au susţinut latinitatea limbii române sunt cel al lui Mihail Halici-tatãl şi cel al lui Mihail Halici-fiul, primul fiind autorul unui dicţionar român-latin, iar cel de-al doilea autorul primei ode scrise în limba românã cu litere latine.13

Din secolul al XVIII-lea Banatul se confruntã cu o nouã formã de viaţã politicã, specificã acestei zone-graniţa militarã, mai exact Regimentul de Graniţã Româno-Bãnãţean nr. 13 Caransebeş, care a impus zonei o vieţuire rigidã, militãreascã, cu impact asupra dezvoltãrii Caransebeşului pe mai multe planuri, dar care poartã alãturi numele unor personalitãţi marcante ce au contribuit la cultura şi ştiinţa româneascã: episcopii Ioan Popasu, Nicolae Popea, Miron Cristea, profesorii Iosif Iuliu Olariu, Petru Barbu, Enea Hodoş. În secolele urmãtoare personalitãţi demne de menţionat sunt: Vasile Goldiş, Vasile Loichiţa, Vasile Mândreanu, episcopul Iosif Traian Bãdescu, Dimitrie Cioloca, Filaret Musta, generalul Traian Doda, Moise Groza, Ioan Dragalina şi mulţi alţii.

Perioadei de dinaintea Marii Uniri, zonelor Transilvania şi Banat, le sunt caracteristice manifestãrile sociale şi culturale ce aveau ca substrat dorinţa de realizare a unitãţii naţionale. Începând cu anul 1885 rolul

13 Arhivele Naţionale ale României, Istorie şi culturã în arhivele Caraş-Severinului, p. 5.


88

cultural al oraşului Caransebeş a crescut neîncetat, situându-se printre cele mai importante centre de culturã româneascã din Banat, de unde iradia cultura românã, atât prin intermediul tipãriturilor, dar şi al intelectualilor care au activat aici în cadrul episcopiei şi a celor douã institute, teologic şi pedagogic, „cei doi ochi ai Episcopiei”.14

Institutul Teologic Diecezan din Caransebeş, inaugurat la 10 noiembrie 1865, a avut un rol covârşitor în viaţa spiritualã şi culturalã româneascã, reprezentând „un focar de ştiinţã teologicã şi un gardian veşnic treaz al limbii româneşti, deoarece singurã a stat aceastã şcoalã, singura în care nici o iotã ungureşte nu se propunea”.15 Singura, care turna suflet românesc şi în care se fãureau armele spirituale contra atacurilor duşmanului rãpitor de limbã şi credinţã.16

Institutul Pedagogic Diecezan din Caransebeş,17 inaugurat la 13 septembrie 1876, la care au activat profesori de prestigiu ca Ştefan Velovan sau Patriciu Drãgãlina, care au reuşit sã creeze la Caransebeş un învãţãmânt pedagogic de elitã de nivel european sau, mai târziu, Constantin Diaconovici-Loga şi Ioan Tomiciu, care au dezvoltat pe lângã învãţãmântul de excepţie şi opere de o valoare inestimabilã pentru cultura Caransebeşului.18 Pe lângã cele douã institute, au mai funcţionat în perioada antebelicã o Şcoalã Confesionalã Greco-Ortodoxã Românã, transformatã în Şcoala Elementarã de Stat, o unitate dedicatã învãţãmântului preşcolar, Şcoala Civilã de Bãieţi şi Fete, cât şi Liceul de Stat.

În jurul directorului Institutului Pedagogic Diecezan din Caransebeş, Ştefan Velovan, la sfârşitul secolului XIX, începutul secolului XX, a existat un puternic curent promemorandist. În luna august 1896, mişcarea culturalã de la Vest de Carpaţi s-a bucurat de un moment unic: ASTRA şi-a creat despãrţãminte şi în Banat. ASTRA, Asociaţiunea Transilvanã pentru Literatura Românã şi Cultura Poporului Român, pãstrãtoarea spiritului românesc, reprezenta o modalitate de luptã a românilor împotriva stãpânirii dualiste şi totodatã a luptei de eliberare naţionalã şi mijloc de realizare a unitãţii tuturor românilor. În acest scop

14 Foaia Diecezanã, an XII, numãr 38, 1987, p. 5. 15 Vasile Petrica, Institutul Teologic Diecezan Ortodox Român Caransebeş (1865-1927), Caransebeş, Editura Episcopiei Caransebeşului, 2005, p. 25. 16 Dimitrie Cioloca, ,,Suprimarea Academiei Teologice din Caransebeş”, în Foaia Diecezanã, an XLIV, numãr 17, 1929, p. 4. 17 Pentru mai multe detalii, a se vedea: Daniel Aron Alic, ,,Institutul Pedagogic Diecezan din Caransebeş (1876-1920). Scurte consideraţii istorice”, în Astra Salvensis, an V, numãr 9, 2017, pp. 161-172. 18 Constantin Brãtescu, Oraşul Caransebeş între 1865-1919-file de monografie, Caransebeş, Editura Dalami, 2011, pp. 102-104.


89

se organizau festivitãţi naţionale, muzee şi expoziţii la locuri istorice, unde se reuneau români din toate pãturile sociale. Deosebit de importante erau adunãrile generale care în fiecare an aveau loc în altã localitate pentru ca toţi oamenii sã poatã participa la rãspândirea culturii româneşti. O astfel de adunare a avut loc în anul 1900 la Bãile Herculane şi una în 1896 la Lugoj, unde a participat o mãreaţã delegaţie caransebeşeanã în frunte cu episcopul din acea perioadã, Nicolae Popea. Acesta a ţinut o cuvântare de îmbãrbãtare, fãcând apel la datinile şi obiceiurile române care mereu au fost ,,reazimul cel mai puternic al neamului nostru românesc pe acest pãmânt”. De menţionat cã, soţia renumitului Ştefan Velovan, Ana Velovan, aflatã în fruntea asociaţiei Reuniunea Femeilor Române din Caransebeş, în anul 1891 organizeazã prima expoziţie de etnografie şi folclor din ţarã.19

Au fost înfiinţate societãţi culturale ce desfãşurau o activitate naţional-româneascã, feritã în mare parte de supravegherea atentã a puterii dualiste. Pânã în anul 1918 în Caransebeş au funcţionat mai multe societãţi culturale precum: Reuniunea Învãţãtorilor Români din Dieceza Caransebeşului (1860); Reuniunea Românã de Lecturã (1863); Asociaţia Cultivatoare a Învãţãtorilor din Şcolile Naţionale Române din Confiniul Regimentului Româno-Bãnãţean pentru Înfiinţarea unei Biblioteci în Caransebeş (1865); Societatea Agronomicã (1868); Societatea pentru Fond de Teatru Român (1873); Reuniunea Românã de Cântãri şi Muzicã (1876); Societatea Femeilor pentru Regularea şi Înfrumuseţarea Cimitirului Greco-Oriental Român din Caransebeş (1883); Casina Românã (1886); Societatea Elevilor de la Institutul Pedagogic din Caransebeş pentru Ajutorarea Elevilor Bolnavi (1886); Societatea de Lecturã ,,Ioan Popasu” (1887); Societatea Coralã a Meseriaşilor (1888); Reuniunea Preoţimii din Protopresbiteriatul Caransebeş (1891); Despãrţãmântul ASTRA (1896); Societatea „Tinerimea Românã”(1914),20 despre activitatea cãreia se aprecia cã „nicãieri în spaţiul românesc de la V de Carpaţi spiritul junimist nu s-a impus aşa de vizibil ca la Caransebeş”.21

Nevoia de carte româneascã, de publicaţii şi manuale şcolare, de calendare şi anuare, ca o componentã a progresului cultural pe raza eparhiei Caransebeş, s-a resimţit încã de la înfiinţarea episcopiei. Având în vedere cele douã institute diecezane din localitate, care anual atrãgeau zeci de studenţi, cât şi problemele de facturã financiarã, lipsa de manuale

19 Ibidem, pp. 166-168. 20 Liviu Groza, Caransebeşul şi Marea Unire, Lugoj, Editura Dacia Europa Nova, 2003, p. 57. 21 Constantin Brãtescu, Episcopul Ioan Popasu şi cultura bãnãţeanã, Timişoara, Editura Mitropoliei Banatului, 1995, p. 141.


90

didactice, cât şi cele de naturã politicã, loviturile de deznaţionalizare, episcopul Ioan Popasu s-a vãzut nevoit sã înfiinţeze tipografia luându-şi asupra sa rãspunderea spiritualã şi culturalã asupra românilor ortodocşi din Banat.22

Astfel, în tipografia diecezanã a fost tipãritã gazeta ,,Foaia Diecezanã”, „organ al Eparhiei greco-orientale româneşti a Caransebeşului”. Bazându-se pe profesionalismul celor mai mulţi dintre colaboratori, teologi, profesori de pedagogie, literaturã, ştiinţele naturii sau arte, redactorii ,,Foii Diecezane” au transformat acest organ al eparhiei Caransebeşului într-o adevãratã revistã de culturã şi ştiinţã.23 Tot aici au apãrut peste 50 de cãrţi din colecţia ,,Biblioteca Noastrã”, îngrijitã de profesorul Enea Hodoş, în premierã fiind publicate volumele Câteva poezii de Mihai Eminescu şi Versuri şi prozã de George Coşbuc. Caransebeşul, prin munca profesorului de la Institutul Pedagogic Diecezan, Enea Hodoş, a fost primul oraş din Transilvania şi Banat în care s-a tipãrit parte din operele celor doi mari poeţi români. În aceeaşi colecţie s-au înscris şi importantele lucrãri de istorie Din istoria Banatului Severin de Patriciu Drãgãlina, cât şi monografia dedicatã lui Iancu de Hunedoara scrisã de Iosif Bãlan. Alte publicaţii aparţinãtoare acestei tipografii sunt şi ,,Calendarul românului” (1888-1948) şi ,,Lumina” (1918). Datoritã acestei tipografii, oraşul Caransebeş a devenit unul dintre cele mai importante centre tipografice româneşti, alãturându-se Sibiului, Aradului, Blajului.

Tot la începutul anului 1886 a fost înfiinţatã Librãria Diecezanã, instituţia care a difuzat cãrţi si publicaţii româneşti, îndeosebi literaturã românã şi reviste recunoscute naţional, precum ,,Convorbiri literare”, ,,Neamul Românesc”.24

În timpul Primului Rãzboi Mondial, mulţi dintre preoţii şi învãţãtorii bãnãţeni, avuţi în vedere de conducerea maghiarã din cauza sentimentelor naţionaliste şi a necolaborãrii cu aceasta, au fost închişi în lagãrele din Ungaria. Guvernul de la Budapesta avea pregãtite mãsuri drastice pentru opozanţii români,25 dar pe care Consistoriul Diecezan din

22 Constantin Brãtescu, Oraşul Caransebeş între 1865-1919, pp. 184-185. 23 Ibidem, p. 197 24 Pentru mai multe detalii, a se vedea: Daniel Aron Alic, ,,Librãria Diecezanã din Caransebeş (1885-1918). Rãspândirea cãrţii româneşti în Banat”, în Astra Salvensis, an IV, numãr 7, 2016, pp. 189-201. 25 Pentru mai multe detalii, a se vedea: Sebastian Stanca, Contribuţia preoţimii române din Ardeal la Rãzboiul pentru Întregirea neamului (1916-1919), ediţie, studiu introductiv, note şi indici de Mihai-Octavian Groza şi Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan, Deva/Cluj-Napoca, Editura Episcopiei Devei şi Hunedoare/Editura Argonaut, 2015; Mihai-Octavian Groza, ,,Din istoria mai puţin cunoscutã a Marelui Rãzboi. Instituirea ,,graniţei


91

Caransebeş, episcopul Miron Cristea le-a înfruntat susţinându-şi în continuare cu argumente juridice şi istorice, necesitatea promovãrii continue a limbii române şi a dreptului la culturã naţionalã. În perioada pãstoririi episcopului Elie Miron Cristea, dintre 1910-1919, în eparhia Caransebeşului s-a desfãşurat o intensã activitate culturalã datoritã asociaţiilor culturale, a despãrţãmintelor ASTRA şi Reuniunii Învãţãtorilor din Învãţãmântul Diecezan, promovând un repertoriu de muzicã coralã şi teatru cu puternice mesaje naţionaliste. În anul 1913, s-a reuşit aducerea la Caransebeş a câtorva spectacole de teatru conduse de Victor Antonescu din Bucureşti, care a prezentat pentru prima oarã în spaţiul bãnãţean piesele lui I. L. Caragiale, O noapte furtunoasã şi Nãpasta, adunând în jurul sãu pe unii dintre cei mai valoroşi oameni politici români ai momentului din spaţiul transilvãnean şi bãnãţean, precum Iuliu Maniu, Octavian Goga, Valeriu Branişte, Emanuil Ungureanu. Împreunã cu matematicianul Traian Lalescu, episcopul Miron Cristea au pus bazele Asociaţiei Culturale din Banat cu scopul de a ajuta şcolile, astfel încât în anul 1920 aceastã asociaţie a donat în Banat peste 17.000 de cãrţi, acoperind nevoia de carte româneascã din şcolile primare, gimnaziale şi medii.

Un merit deosebit l-a avut episcopul Miron şi în ceea ce priveşte Marea Unire, susţinând prin toate eforturile împlinirea mãreţului vis de unitate naţionalã. A participat şi încurajat mulţimile strânse la Alba-Iulia, având un discurs înãlţãtor în faţa a celor 100.000 mii de români adunaţi pentru a susţine dezideratul românesc. Dupã Unire, Banatul a devenit cu adevãrat o provincie aparţinãtoare statului român abia în iulie 1919. Astfel, un merit deosebit şi necunoscut pe deplin l-a avut biserica strãmoşeascã din provincie, identificatã în cea mai mare parte cu eparhia Caransebeşului. Pentru meritele sale deosebite, episcopul Elie Miron Cristea a fost ales în scaunul de mitropolit primat al României.26

În perioada interbelicã, oraşul Caransebeş a evoluat, în special dupã recunoaşterea tuturor tratatelor de pace de dupã rãzboi, iar în anul 1918 în Caransebeş exista decât o singurã şcoala primarã confesionalã româno-ortodoxã şi Institutul Teologic-Pedagogic Diecezan, ambele cu predare în limba românã. Un moment deosebit îl reprezintã „naţionalizarea” liceului de stat cu limba de predare maghiarã, atunci când, „la 1 iunie 1919 un steag tricolor a fost sfinţit în biserica catedralã. Mulţimea

culturale”, arestarea, încarcerarea şi deportarea preoţilor români transilvãneni în Ungaria (1916-1918)”, în Astra Salvensis, an III, numãr 6, 2015, pp. 43-61. 26 Daniel Aron Alic, Eparhia Caransebeşului în perioada pãstoririi episcopului Miron Cristea (1910-1919). Bisericã şi societate, Cluj-Napoca/Caransebeş, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã/Editura Episcopiei Caransebeşului, 2013, pp. 361-380.


92

participantã la slujbã s-a îndreptat apoi cãtre liceu, unde tinerii îmbrãcaţi în costume naţionale au arborat steagul tricolor şi emblema Regatului Român pe clãdirea care va adãposti de acum un liceu românesc, botezat atunci „Traian Doda”, în semn de recunoştinţã pentru cel care a militat în timpul vieţii pentru înfiinţarea la Caransebeş

a unui liceu românesc […] Elevii au fost conduşi de cãtre foştii lor profesori de religie şi limba românã: dr. Vasile Loichiţa, dr. Dimitrie Cioloca şi dr. Cornel Corneanu, care pe parcursul anilor le insuflaserã speranţa cã Banatul se va uni cu ţara şi cã limba românã va triumfa oriunde în provincie”.27

Dupã acest moment, se poate vorbi în Caransebeş la nivel de învãţãmânt de Liceul de Stat „Traian Doda”, Gimnaziul de Fete, Şcoala Primarã de Stat, Şcoala Normalã de Învãţãtori, Institutul Teologic, Academia Teologicã Ortodoxã Românã, Şcoala Comunalã de Ucenici Industriali şi Comerciali, Şcoala de Menaj şi Industrie Casnicã.

Au apãrut noi asociaţii culturale care, alãturându-se celor deja înfiinţate, au contribuit în mod special la sprijinirea învãţãmântului care încã suferea din cauza lipsei de manuale. Totodatã, au avut loc mari momente culturale, precum jubileul de 50 de ani de la înfiinţarea Societãţii Cultural-Literare „România Junã” din Viena, construirea internatului Liceului „Traian Doda”, dezvelirea monumentelor lui Ioan Popasu şi dr. Iosif Iuliu Olariu, adunarea generalã a ASTREI din 1930, înfiinţarea Cãminului Cultural.

Din puţinele detalii prezentate mai sus, cred cã se poate trage o concluzie clarã: Biserica, asemenea unei mame bune, s-a jertfit şi şi-a apãrat cu preţul vieţii „fiica”-şcoala, pe care a sãdit-o şi a crescut-o în sânul ei ca mai apoi, împreunã, puternice, sã lase o moştenire de netãgãduit peste veacuri. Istoria zonei, cu patrimoniul ei arheologic şi etnografic, este astãzi ilustratã prin grija Episcopiei Caransebeşului, dar şi a altor instituţii de culturã care, printr-o politicã editorialã susţinutã, au oferit istoriografiei naţionale valoroase tomuri de istorie şi spiritualitate bãnãţeanã.

27 Constantin Brãtescu, Oraşul Caransebeş între 1865-1919, p. 60.


93

PERIODICALS AND MILITARY CENSORSHIP DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR: MILITARY SECRETS AND THE

FREEDOM OF INFORMATION PROBLEM Valery Fedorovich Blokhin, Irina Viktorovna Alferova, Julia Nikolaevna Ustinova, Ekaterina Sergeevna Fisher Bryansk State University, Bryansk, Russian Federation

Abstract: The article reveals some of the problems that arose between military

censors and the media during the First World War. The article is written on the basis of the military censorship materials of the Supreme Commander headquarters of the Russian army, the censorship department of the Minsk military district and the materials of the periodical press. The authors conclude that the conflict was predetermined both by the imperfection of the censorship legislation, which provided an opportunity for the censors to evaluate the publications of newspapers and magazines at their own discretion, and by the censorship omissions of the media, which printed inaccurate news and placed information that the enemy could use. The result was ineffective military censorship and the failure of the press to fulfill its important mission: to contribute to the formation of public opinion in the rear in the interests of the state.

Keywords: World War I, military censorship, periodical press, propaganda, military secrets, public opinion.

The First World War is impressive not only for its scale, military

technical innovations and an unprecedented number of casualties. In addition to the military sphere, it demonstrated new factors of political, cultural and educational influence on the mood prevailing in the theater of operations and inside the country, mastered the new tools of subordinating public sentiments to national and military goals. The periodical press acted as an active participant in this process, which served as an intermediary between the front and rear, shaped the image of the enemy and had to convince the population to bravely endure the inevitable difficulties, to be ready for voluntary military service.1

One of the largest Russian newspapers, Russkiye Vedomosti, reported to its readers in 1914: ,,The head of the Main Department of Press Affairs, Count S.S. Tatishchev notifies the editors of periodicals and those, who are responsible for publications, that the military censorship is introduced from 7 pm on August 3 in St. Petersburg. Materials to be provided for censorship must be delivered to the premises of the St. Petersburg Press Committee (Teatralnaya, 3)”.2 This

1 V. F. Blokhin, ,,Heroic" on the pages of the illustrated magazine ,,Lukomorye" 1914-1917. Russia in the era of political and cultural transformations. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference ,,Printing and Censorship in the History of Russia", Bryansk, ,,Italics”, 2016, p. 37. 2 Russkiye Vedomosti, 5th of August (179), (1914), p. 4.


94

meant that the system of prior censorship was returning to the practice of relations between the government and the press.

Military censorship was introduced ,,in full”3 in all territories declared martial law; it was envisaged to view all private correspondence both internal and international, including telegrams, on the basis of the Temporary Statute on Military Censorship, which came into effect on July 20, 1914. The abolished preliminary censorship of "print publications, prints, drawings, photographs, abstracts of public speeches and reports" was returned.4 Responsibility for publishing something contrary to the resolution of the military censorship or without its permission entailed the imposition of a fine in the amount of 500 to 10,000 rubles or imprisonment for up to one year. In case of a repeated criminal act, the periodical publication could be suspended for a period from one month to one year.5

The introduction of ,,partial censorship” was envisaged for the rest of the localities. For periodicals, this meant that only publications that could contain military secrets were subject to verification by military censors.6 However, a system of fines was also provided for periodicals in these territories.

During the war years, the press was forced to work closely with the military censorship, on which the fullness of the information provided depended. Moreover, there was general agreement between the military authorities and the press that censorship of news related to military operations was necessary inevitability. However, the execution of this agreement constantly encountered a lack of understanding of the peculiarities of the preservation of military information by the press.

For example, with the beginning of the war, publications, with the aim of satisfying the curiosity of the readers, were filled with articles about military actions with the assessment of various weapons, both Russian and enemy. Various characteristics and methods of use were cited, and references were made to the ,,weaknesses of our enemies”, that is, such information that could serve the enemy to correct their own shortcomings. In addition, materials were placed that helped to navigate the terrain, take into account the state of the weather in the area of military operations, other details that could harm the warring army.

3 Russian State Military Historical Archive (RSMHA), (2019), Op. 1. D. 715. L. 1. 4 ,,Collection of laws and orders of the government. Section I”, in Provisional provision on military censorship, Ch. I. Art. 2, (192), (1914). 5 RSMHA. F. 2067. Op. 1. D. 2956. L. 9. 6 ,,Collection of laws and orders of the government”, Ch. I. Art. 6


95

The chairman of the military-censorship commission at the headquarters of the Petrograd military district often received "signals" from the quartermaster general of the Western Front general staff about the appearance in the press of information about the location and number of military units. For example, in No. 14422 of the well-known Petrograd newspaper, Novoye Vremya (1915), the correspondence indicated the location of the 31st corps and its approximate number.7 The telegram, published in No. 14431 of the same newspaper (1915), indicated the location of the Lebedinsky regiment of the Western Front.8 The information of this newspaper, which represented Suvorinsky publishing houses, one of the largest in Russia, could not be unnoticed either by the general reader or by those interested in searching for such information in print.

Periodicals were regularly punished and continued to print prohibited messages not only at the beginning of the war, but also in subsequent years. So, the chairman of the Petrograd military censorship commission, Major General Adabash, drew attention to the fact that ,,the names of military units and individual military ranks began to appear again in print” at a regular meeting held on January 10, 1916.9 He spoke of the ,,thanks” of combatants for the Christmas gifts that came at that time in large numbers to the front from the rear areas of the country. These ,,thanks” provided the enemy with the opportunity, according to Adabash, to obtain the necessary information about the location of individual units of the Russian army. It should be noted that the concerns had grounds.

The Russian State Military Historical Archive preserved the censorship case related to the publication in the famous Russian newspaper Russkoye Slovo on January 8, 1916, describing the trip of the famous doctor and public figure S.V. Puchkova with holiday gifts from Moscow to Minsk, and then at the location of several armies of the Western Front.10 The note had a number of subtitles ,,General A.N. Kuropatkina”, ,,General V.F. Dzhunkovsky” and ,,with a list of commanding officers in Minsk, numbers of the visited divisions of their chiefs and locations”.11 When viewing newspaper pages, the military censor, Lieutenant Colonel Lyashevsky noted and crossed out all geographic names, a list of military units and officials that were found in the text. Nevertheless, he missed a

7 RSMHA. F. 2048. Op. 1. D. 907. Part 1. L. 148. 8 RSMHA. F. 2048. Op. 1. D. 907. Part 1. L. 148. 9 Russian State Historical Archive (RSHA). F. 778. Op. 1. D. 8. L. 128. 10 ,,Gifts of Moscow. Trip of S. V. Puchkova”, in Russian word, (5), (1916). 11 RSMHA. F. 2048. Op. 1. D. 907. Part 1. L. 12-13.


96

line, which, despite the vagueness of the wording, indirectly indicated the specifics of the reconnaissance of the location of the 20th artillery corps of the 10th Army: ,,The positions of this corps are among the marshes. In some places, it is impossible to even dig trenches here”.12 The censor, who missed this information to the press, after a short trial, was punished and was dismissed.

In the same newspaper, Russkoye Slovo, a note, in which information containing military secrets was disclosed in plain text, was published on March 10, 1916. It was about the intensification of military operations of the Russian army in the sector of the front, where "the famous Sventsiansky breakthrough broke out last fall" (as part of the Vilna operation). The note reported: ,,The line of active combat clashes goes from Lake Drisvyaty through the town of Twerech and Lake Myadziol and rests on the defile between the lakes Naroch and Vishnevsky”.13 The offensive of the Russian army, begun on March 5, 1916, was carried out by the forces of the Western and Northern fronts and was, on the basis of requests from the French command, to ensure the weakening of the German forces on the approaches to Verdun. As a result of the intensification of actions, it was planned to knock out the enemy from the territory of the Western Russian provinces back to East Prussia.

The text of the newspaper article indicated the direction of the strikes of the military units operating in the operation and their ultimate goal: ,,to break the enemy position on the Vilno-Dvinsk line”.14 The note was discovered by the Chief of Staff of the 67th Infantry Division and handed over to the Chief of Staff of the 35th Army Corps on March 16, 1916 with the following postscript: ,,I present the Russkoye Slovo newspaper No. 57 dated March 10 of this year, in which information disclosing military secrets are marked with green pencil”.15

Moreover, the criminal ,,negligence” in the publication was characteristic not only of the rear periodicals, but also of publications at the front headquarters. The newspaper of the North-Western Front, Nash Vestnik, for example, on May 26, 1915, placed on its pages information taken from a secret report, which practically revealed ,,human intelligence, which was established with difficulty” as reported by the quartermaster general of the front.16

12 RSMHA. F. 2048. Op. 1. D. 907. Part 1. L. 13. 13 Russkoye Slovo, no. 57, March 10, 1916. 14 Ibidem. 15 RSMHA. F. 2048. Op. 1. D. 907. Part 1. L.102. 16 RSMHA. F 2048. Op. 1. D.910. L. 104.


97

The situation with the preservation of military secrets during the publication of reports from the front only worsened after the February events of 1917. The abolition of the Provisional Government of the General Directorate of Press Affairs, and then the adoption of new laws "On Press" and "On Press Agencies" of April 27, 1917, which proclaimed freedom of the media and abolished administrative penalties in relation to them,17 were understood by the newspaper makers as an exemption from the institution of military censorship as a whole. The military censors of the Kiev district informed the quartermaster general of the headquarters of the South-Western Front commander-in-chief that ,,now there is no printed material for them” already in May 1917. The editors of local newspapers explained this circumstance in some cases precisely by the fact that ,,newspapers are not subject to military censorship”, in other cases they offered to transfer, at their own discretion, instructions received from the censorship agency.18

In this connection, the quartermaster general reported to the chief of staff of the Kiev district on May 16, 1917: ,,Will there be any specific order of the Commander-in-Chief of the front about the need to enforce the Temporary Provision on military censorship or on the abolition of military censors, receiving involuntarily daily money, because it are powerless to prevent the appearance in the newspapers of information dangerous from a military point of view”.19

Indeed, correspondence from the armies involved in the summer offensive was posted in the Kievskaya Mysl newspaper in the ,,Latest News” section on June 19, 1917. The report listed all the units involved in the hostilities of June 18, the sectors of the front on which they were located and indicated the junction between the 10th and 11th armies. According to the commander of the 11th Army, Lieutenant-General I.G. Erdeli, published information that ,,greatly facilitates the enemy to take into account our forces, and, consequently, counteract our strike” were ,,tantamount to betrayal”.20 After the subsequent investigation, it turned out that the information in the newspaper came directly from the Petrograd Agency, whose telegrams, as a government one, were not subject to military censorship.21 The meeting of the Kiev Society of Periodicals and Literature Figures, on June 27, 1917 on the occasion of the incident, adopted a resolution that vividly demonstrated the attitude to censorship restrictions that had taken shape at that time in newspaper circles. The

17 Collection of laws and orders of the government, Department I, Art. 597, 598. (109), (1917). 18 RSMHA. F. 2067. Op. 1. D. 2957. L. 43. 19 RSMHA. F. 2067. Op. 1. D. 2957. L. 43. 20 RSMHA. F. 2067. Op. 1. D. 2957. L. 53. 21 RSMHA. F. 2067. Op. 1. D. 2957. L. 53.


98

resolution stated that ,,the society condemns the charges of treason, betrayal of the press workers, seeing in it the frivolous charges, <…> remnants of years of impunity negligent attitude to publications not yet eliminated <…> it protest against counter-revolutionary attempts to revive the system of massacres prevailing during tsarism with periodicals by forcibly ending them”.22

Considered on the example of Russia, the situation in the relations of the periodical press and military censorship was also characteristic of other warring states. From Edward Cook’s memoirs about the activities of the Press Bureau in the UK, it follows that the patriotic press was sympathetic to the limitations of military censorship, but it still made serious mistakes that were used by the enemy. An episode from an abandoned brewery located near the front line was given as an example in the author’s book. The soldiers adapted its stoves to organize a bath and laundry, and one of the newspapers told about this "soldier wit." Printed material appeared in the morning, and after lunch, the German artillery, having received an accurate guide from the newspaper, destroyed the brewery, depriving the enemy of the desired at the forefront comfort.23

With the outbreak of hostilities, the majority of countries involved in the world war had a situation that was accurately characterized by the example of Germany by an American journalist, William G. Shepherd, who was a war correspondent: ,,In the early days of the war, when everything was new and every word was news, the censor was the correspondent ’s open enemy. The censors made no bones about it. They were afraid of correspondents and-well, the correspondents were afraid of the censors” .24 The commonality of views, which both sides hoped for, turned into open differences that were irresistible: the military censors tried to act ,,with a reserve”, limiting even such information that did not carry the potential threat of divulging military secrets and actively invading their official reports about the course of military events. The press was often poorly oriented in the nuances of the admissibility of information, and most often took care of attracting potential readers, sometimes going to a conscious confrontation for the sake of posting "hot" messages from the front on their pages.

22 RSMHA. F. 2067. Op. 1. D. 2957. L. 72. 23 E. T. Cook, The press in war-time, with some account of the Official press bureau, London, 1920, p. 93. 24 William G. Shepherd, Confessions of a war correspondent , New York, London, 1917, p. 22.


99

For example, on August 14, 1914, the St. Petersburg mayor suspended the publication of the newspaper ,,Last Telegrams” for the entire period of martial law in St. Petersburg, on the basis of clause 14 of article 19 of the rules on locality declared on martial law. The punishment was followed by repeated communication of fictional news from the theater of operations, as it was established, the text of which was drafted by the editors themselves ,,for the purpose of exploiting the public”.

The metropolitan newspaper ,,Birzhevye vedomosti”, better known than the one mentioned earlier, which was distinguished by a much higher level of its information, also failed to avoid the temptation to place unverified or made-up facts. It was said in the article ,,The Disappearance of Turkish Consuls” that the Turkish consuls to be expelled abroad (due to the participation of Turkey in the war on the side of the opponents of Russia) arrived in Petrograd from Odessa The semi-detective story was set forth further: ,,... a car with Turkish consuls from the Tsarskoye Selo railway station headed for Finland: along Gorokhovaya, Morskaya and Palace Embankment, and, passing by the Turkish embassy, the car turned into Liteyniy Prospekt and along Nevsky Prospect headed toward Smolensky”.25 The next day, according to the newspaper, the name of the owner of the car that carried the Turkish consuls became known, but he mysteriously disappeared. Following this, the refutation was published in the ,,Birzhevye vedomosti”: ,,A note under the title: ,,The Disappearance of Turkish Consuls was published ,,In the newspaper ,,Birzhevye vedomosti” (evening edition of November 19 of this year). The article contained information that the Turkish consuls, who had arrived from Odessa to Petrograd, were to be deported abroad while hiding on cars from Tsarskoye Selo station disappeared and measures were taken to search for them. The indicated message was fictional”.26

The result for the Russian press was deplorable. In the summer of 1915, the New York Tribune reprinted information about the severity of the Russian censorship from a Danish newspaper, which contained statistics from 1914, demonstrating how many of the issues that were of temporary or permanent importance for covering military events were closed by the censorship. According to this information, censorship prevented the publication of 465 articles in periodicals and 230 in non-periodicals. Of these, the ban was only temporary in 96 cases in periodicals and in 24 cases in non-periodicals. As a result of the activities of the Russian military censorship, 44 newspapers, because of the

25 ,,Disappearance of the Turkish consuls”, in Birzhevye vedomosti, (14505), (1914). 26 ,,Denial”, in Birzhevye vedomosti, (14549), (1914).


100

placement of unwanted information on their pages, were forced to close.27

It should be noted that the censorship severity had practically no effect on the growth of circulation of published media. Thus, in the article ,,War and Newspapers”, published in October 1914 in the Petrograd newspaper ,,Birzhevye vedomosti”, it was noted that ,,exciting military events” increased public interest in the daily press. Before the war, the number of registered newspaper reporters, that is, persons who were engaged in the spread of the press did not exceed 4,000, then with the start of the war there were more than 6,000 people. According to the newspaper, the total daily circulation of all metropolitan newspapers reached at least 4 million during the war years.28

Such statistics have a completely logical explanation: on the one hand, the country’s military interests demanded protection against penetration of dangerous information into the press, and on the other hand, the censors’ excessive zeal should not lead to unreasonable restrictions on the media that played a special role in the war.

Therefore, the command of the Russian army aimed military censors at a balanced assessment of information published in newspapers and magazines. In August 1915, the Supreme Commander drew attention to ,,the increasing incidence of incorrect actions by the military censors, indicating that not all military censors are aware of their duties and understand them correctly, and often allow arbitrariness in their attitudes to the press”.29

Newspapers and magazines not only transmitted news from the front, but also carried out extensive propaganda that helped shape public opinion in the rear. Cinema, poster, other visual methods of influencing people’s consciousness became widespread only by 1916; at the beginning of the hostilities, the periodical press performed these important functions, providing a link between the front and the rear.

Acknowledgements: The article was written with the support of

the RFBR grant, the project ,,The First World War. Daily life of the Minsk Military District (on the example of the Mogilev districts and Oryol province. 1915 - 1917)” No. 17-21-01010-OGN.

27 Russian newspapers suffer from censor, New York Tribune, 1915, p. 3. 28 ,,War and newspapers”, in Birzhevye vedomosti, (14419), (1914). 29 RSHA. F. 778. Op. 1. D. 8. L. 83.


101

ÎNSEMNÃRI MEMORIALISTICE REFERITOARE LA ACTIVITATEA LEGIUNII ROMÂNE DIN PRAGA (1918)

Memoirs regarding the Activity of the Romanian Legion from Prague (1918)

Mihai-Octavian Groza

,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Abstract: The Romanian Legion from Prague, founded on the 30th of October, 1918, on the background of the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian army and monarchy, was an organism that brought its contribution to supporting the actions coordinated by the Czech national-political militants, as well as to organizing the Romanian soldiers and officers of the Second Regiment Braşov, the 51st Cluj and the 37th Oradea, quartered in the Bohemian capital. Through the present study with the aim of providing the academic comunity with research material and not only with a series of fragments scored in the autumn and winter of the year 1918, especially in Prague, where a legion consisting of the former Romanian soldiers and officers of the Austro-Hungarian army was born, we analyze and restore three annotations of memoirs written by Gavril Câmpeanu, Gheorghe Repede and Horia-Petra Petrescu (members of the Romanian Legion from Prague), less known authors of memoirs. From our point of view, the three fragments of memoirs represent essential texts for studying the activity of the Romanian Legion from Prague which outline the contribution of this national organism to the proclamation and defence of the Czechoslovak state, founded in the autumn of the year 1918, and also the action of concentrating, organizing and sending to Transylvania the Romanian soldiers and officers of the former Austro-Hungarian army.

Keywords: memoirs, Romanian legion, Prague, soldier, officer.

Anii ‘90 ai secolului trecut, prin istoricii Valeriu Leu şi Carmen

Albert, au impus în istoriografia româneascã un nou concept, acela de ,,memorialisticã mãruntã”, în încercarea de surprindere a contribuţiei ,,lumii tãcute” la Marele Rãzboi şi la realizarea Marii Uniri din 1918,1 concept dezvoltat de regretatul istoric Nicolae Bocşan.2 Astfel, a fost

1 Valeriu Leu, Carmen Albert, Banatul în memorialistica ,,mãruntã” sau istoria ignoratã (1914-1919), Reşiţa, Muzeul de Istorie al Judeţului Caraş-Severin, 1995; Valeriu Leu, Studii istorice bãnãţene, Reşiţa, Editura Banatica, 1997; Carmen Albert, ,,Scrisori din Marele Rãzboi. Corespondenţa unui soldat de pe frontul din Galiţia”, în Banatica, numãr XXIV, 2014, p. 461. 2 A se vedea: Marele Rãzboi în memoria bãnãţeanã (1914-1919), antologie, ediţie, studii şi note de Valeriu Leu, Nicolae Bocşan, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2012; Marele Rãzboi în memoria bãnãţeanã (1914-1919), volum II, Memoriile lui Pavel Jumanca, antologie, ediţie, studii şi note de Valeriu Leu, Nicolae Bocşan, Mihaela Bedecean, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã/Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2013; Marele Rãzboi în memoria bãnãţeanã (1914-1919), volum III, antologie, ediţie, studii şi note de Valeriu Leu, Nicolae Bocşan, Mihaela Bedecean, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã/Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2015.


102

deschis drumul spre cercetarea unui aspect mai puţin cunoscut, acela al contribuţiei celor mulţi, tãcuţi, al sentimentelor, emoţiilor şi trãirilor celor care au umplut tranşeele Primului Rãzboi Mondial, o istorie culturalã realizatã prin studierea însemnãrilor memorialistice (jurnale, memorii, amintiri, autobiografii), care pun în discuţie destine umane.3

Odatã cu izbucnirea şi desfãşurarea Primului Rãzboi Mondial, mai pregnant în perioada imediat urmãtoare, şi-a fãcut apariţia un personaj nou, necunoscut pânã atunci, ţãranul/muncitorul/soldatul memorialist care, prin însemnãrile mãrunte lãsate, completeazã tipul de memorialisticã redactat de principalii actanţi politici şi militari, acest aspect constituind unul dintre ,,elementele ce dau unicitate memorialisticii Primului Rãzboi Mondial”.4 Toţi cei care şi-au consemnat experienţa belicã, au fãcut-o convinşi fiind de faptul cã au trãit evenimente majore ce trebuiesc consemnate pentru posteritate.5 De-a lungul ultimelor decenii, de cele mai multe ori în devãlmãşie şi într-un mod total neprofesionist, astfel de însemnãri, încadrabile genului ,,memorialisticii mãrunte”, au vãzut lumina tiparului, însã, majoritatea surprind experienţe şi evenimente consumate în intervalul 1914-1918 şi mai puţin contribuţia românilor transilvãneni şi bãnãţeni la realizarea actului de la 1 decembrie 1918. Din acest considerent, prin prezentul material, în dorinţa de a oferi spre cercetare comunitãţii academice şi nu numai o serie de fragmente referitoare la evenimentele consumate în toamna şi iarna anului 1918, cu precãdere la Praga, unde a luat naştere o legiune formatã din foştii soldaţi şi ofiţeri români ai armatei austro-ungare, recuperãm trei însemnãri memorialistice (douã publicate în perioada interbelicã şi una ineditã), elaborate de Gavril Câmpeanu (secretar al Legiunii Române din Praga), Gheorghe Repede şi Horia-Petra Petrescu (membri ai Legiunii Române din Praga), memorialişti mai puţin cunoscuţi. Prezenţa celor trei memorialişti în structurile legiunii române constituite în capitala Boemiei nu este întâmplãtoare, aceştia fiind fie încadraţi în regimentele austro-ungare cantonate în oraş (Gavril Câmpeanu, Gheorghe Repede), fie încadraţi unor misiuni umanitare (Horia Petra-Petrescu venit în Praga,

3 Nicolae Bocşan, ,,Memorialişti români din Banat despre Marele Rãzboi. Motivaţia redactãrii scrierilor”, în volumul Primul Rãzboi Mondial. Perspectivã istoricã şi istoriograficã, coordonat de Ioan Bolovan, Gheorghe Cojocaru, Oana Mihaela Tãmaş, Cluj-Napoca, Centrul de Studii Transilvane/Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2015, p. 42. 4 Rodica Bãluţiu, ,,Atitudinea soldaţilor români faţã de Primul Rãzboi Mondial”, în Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai. Historia, an XLVI, numãr 1-2, 2001, p. 108. 5 Mihai-Octavian Groza, ,,Pagini din ,,memorialistica mãruntã” a Primului Rãzboi Mondial. Însemnãrile lui Radu Mãrgean”, în Astra Salvensis, an II, numãr 3, 2014, p. 89.


103

bolnav fiind, pentru recuperare, calitate din care a vizitat spitalele militare, oferind cãrţi şi cuvinte de încurajare rãniţilor).

Sfârşitul Primului Rãzboi Mondial, prãbuşirea fronturilor şi dizolvarea armatei austro-ungare a deschis drumul organizãrii soldaţilor pe criterii naţionale, la aceasta contribuind şi lansarea celebrului manifest ,,Cãtre popoarele mele credincioase”, prin intermediul cãruia împãratul Carol îşi încuraja supuşii sã îşi constituie consilii şi senate militare.6 Astfel, în lunile octombrie-noiembrie 1918, la Viena, Praga şi Pola, au luat naştere şi au funcţionat Senatul Militar Român Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor (31 octombrie-27 noiembrie 1918),7 Legiunea Românã din Praga (30 octombrie-24 noiembrie 1918)8 şi Garda Naţionalã a Marinarilor de la Pola (30 octombrie-22 noiembrie 1918),9 organisme create cu scopul concentrãrii, organizãrii şi expedierii spre Transilvania a soldaţilor români din fosta armatã austro-ungarã.

Înfiinţarea Legiunii Române din Praga, asupra cãreia ne-am oprit atenţia, trebuie pusã în legãturã directã cu prãbuşirea monarhiei austro-ungare, cu proclamarea independenţei ceho-slovacilor, precum şi cu necesitatea apãrãrii acestei independenţe în lipsa unei forţe armate naţionale ceho-slovace. Formatã din soldaţii români încadraţi în Regimentul 2 Braşov, Regimentul 51 Cluj şi Regimentul 37 Oradea,10 la care se vor adãuga şi prizonieri români eliberaţi din lagãrele germane, Legiunea Românã din Praga şi-a adus contribuţia la menţinerea ordinii pe

6 István Deák, Mai presus de naţionalism. O istorie politicã şi socialã a corpului de ofiţeri habsburgi, 1848-1918, traducere din limba germanã de Eugenia Bârlea, Cluj-Napoca, Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2009, p. 242; pentru textul manifestului ,,Cãtre popoarele mele credincioase”, a se vedea: Bogdan Murgescu (coordonator), Istoria României în texte, Bucureşti, Editura Corint, 2001, pp. 279-280. 7 Despre activitatea acestui organism, a se vedea: Mihai-Octavian Groza, Senatul Militar Român Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor din Viena (31 octombrie-27 noiembrie 1918), Cluj-Napoca, Editura Argonaut, 2015; Mihai-Octavian Groza, Diana-Maria Dãian, Iuliu-Marius Morariu, Romanians defending Vienna. The Romanian Central Military Senate of the Officers and Soldiers, Saarbrücken, Éditions Universitaires Européennes, 2017. 8 Despre activitatea acestui organism, a se vedea: Mihai-Octavian Groza, ,,Românii apãrând Praga. Fragmente din activitatea Legiunii Române din Praga (30 octombrie-24 noiembrie 1918)”, în volumul Fragmente din trecut. Tinerii cercetãtori şi istoria, coordonat de Anamaria Macavei, Diana-Maria Dãian, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2015, pp. 235-242. 9 Despre activitatea acestui organism, a se vedea: Idem, ,,Activitatea Gãrzii Naţionale Române a Marinarilor de la Pola (30 octombrie-22 noiembrie 1918)”, în Apulum, numãr LIV, 2017, pp. 239-264. 10 Ioan I. Şerban, ,,Din lupta voluntarilor transilvãneni pentru Unire. Senatul Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor Români din Viena şi Legiunea Românã de la Praga”, în Sargeţia. Acta Musei Devensis, numãr XV, 1981, pp. 278-280.


104

strãzile oraşului Praga, la sprijinirea acţiunilor desfãşurate de unitãţile militare ceho-slovace (în special în Slovacia, ameninţatã de trupele maghiare),11 la lucrãrile pentru întãrirea şi fortificarea cazãrmilor militare, precum şi a altor puncte importante ale oraşului, pregãtindu-le pentru o eventualã intervenţie armatã de represiune etc.12 De asemenea, au fost depuse eforturi considerabile în vederea concentrãrii şi organizãrii soldaţilor români, efectivele legiunii ajungând la 1 noiembrie 1918 la 1425 soldaţi şi ofiţeri.13 Dupã o cãlãtorie cu peripeţii prin Austria şi Regatul Sârbo-Croato-Sloven, dupã ce unitãţile româneşti au suferit umilinţa de a fi oprite şi dezarmate la Zagreb, Legiunea Românã din Praga a ajuns, la Cluj, în data de 2 decembrie 1918, la o zi dupã Marea Adunare Naţionalã de la Alba-Iulia, ofiţerii şi soldaţii români punându-se în slujba gãrzilor şi consiliilor naţionale.14

Un prim text, asupra cãruia ne-am oprit atenţia, pãstrat în manuscris,15 poartã semnãtura sublocotenentului Gavril Câmpeanu, secretarul Legiunii Române din Praga. Nãscut la 13 decembrie 1896, în localitatea Bãlan, comitatul Sãlaj, în familia unor ţãrani greco-catolici,16 Gavril Câmpeanu şi-a început pregãtirea intelectualã pe plan local, continuatã la Şcoala Civilã din Zalãu17 şi Institutul Pedagogic din cadrul Seminarului Andreian din Sibiu (absolvind primul curs în anul 1917, iar al doilea în anul 1919).18 În momentul izbucnirii Primului Rãzboi Mondial a fost înrolat în armata austro-ungarã, în cadrul Regimentului 51 Infanterie Cluj; la 20 octombrie 1914, alãturi de alţi camarazi, a fost capturat de trupele ţariste şi internat în Siberia, de unde s-a întors de abia în primãvara anului 1918.19 Pe fondul prãbuşirii armatei şi monarhiei austro-ungare a activat în cadrul Legiunii Române din Praga, iar dupã momentul repatrierii, în cadrul Gãrzii Naţionale Române din Cluj (pânã la 15 ianuarie 1919) şi Gãrzii Naţionale Române din Jibou.20 Datoritã

11 Maria Krajčovičová, ,,Consiliul Naţional Slovac din anul 1918”, în Annales Universitatis Apulensis. Series Historica, numãr 2-3, 1998-1999, p. 69. 12 Ionel Penea, ,,Activitatea Legiunii Române din Praga”, în Acta Musei Porolissensis, numãr VIII, 1984, pp. 450-451. 13 Mihai-Octavian Groza, ,,Românii apãrând Praga. Fragmente din activitatea Legiunii Române din Praga”, p. 238. 14 Ibidem, p. 242. 15 Serviciul Judeţean Sãlaj al Arhivelor Naţionale, Colecţia Personalã Gavril Câmpeanu, numãr inventar 145, dosar 7, f. 57-59 (în continuare S. J. S. A. N.). 16 Ibidem, dosar 1, f. 35. 17 Ibidem. 18 Ibidem, f. 18, 20. 19 Ibidem, dosar 7, f. 49-54. 20 Ibidem, f. 59-61.


105

activitãţii depuse în cadrul Legiunii Române din Praga, a fost decorat cu Crucea Comemorativã a Rãzboiului 1916-1918 cu baretele 1919 (1 octombrie 1922)21 şi cu Medalia ,,Victoria” a Marelui Rãzboi pentru Civilizaţie 1916-1921 (3 ianuarie 1937).22 Dupã realizarea Marii Uniri, a activat în structurile armatei române pânã la 1 iulie 1923, când a fost hirotonit preot pe seama parohiei Gãlpâia, fiind trecut în registrul special al confesorilor de rezervã.23 În anul 1921 a obţinut diploma de învãţãtor din partea Şcolii de Normã din Zalãu,24 iar în anul 1932 a absolvit cursurile Academiei Teologice Ortodoxe din Cluj,25 completate, în anul 1939, prin obţinerea certificatului de capacitate preoţeascã.26

Experienţa trãitã în capitala Boemiei, în toamna anului 1918, a fost expusã în paginile volumului memorialistic rãmas în manuscris, intitulat Cartea mea (datat 1954), într-o manierã succintã, pe parcursul a trei file.27 Pe lângã ordinele de zi ale Legiunii Române din Praga,28 pasajul memorialistic avut în vedere prezintã contextul constituirii acestui organism, precum şi mici rezumate ale ordinelor de zi (ordinul de zi numãr 5/9 noiembrie 1918, ordinul de zi numãr 13/17 noiembrie 1918, ordinul de zi numãr 20/24 noiembrie 1918).

Întors din Siberia în primãvara anului 1918, Gavril Câmpeanu a revenit la unitatea sa, cantonatã în Praga, asistând la evenimentele care au premers prãbuşirea armatei şi monarhiei austro-ungare, precum şi la proclamarea independenţei cehilor, la 28 octombrie 1918.29 Succesul actului politic asumat de liderii cehi în toamna anului 1918 trebuia asigurat şi de sprijinul unei forţe militare, capabile sã opunã rezistenţã unei eventuale acţiuni represive. În lipsa unei asemenea forţe, pânã la constituirea unei armate naţionale (începutã deja sub coordonarea militantului Iosif Scheiner, preşedintele organizaţiei sportive a socolilor, devenitã organizaţie revoluţionarã), reprezentanţii cehilor, mizând pe un

21 Ibidem, dosar 3, f. 48. 22 Ibidem, f. 60. 23 Ibidem, dosar 7, f. 67. 24 Ibidem, dosar 3, f. 23. 25 Ibidem, f. 50. 26 Ibidem, f. 52. 27 Ibidem, dosar 7, f. 57-59; pentru mai multe detalii, a se vedea: Vasile Marian Pop, ,,Activitatea Legiunii Române din Praga reflectată în colecţia personală Gavril Câmpeanu”, în Buletinul Muzeului Militar Naţional, an I, numãr 2, 2003, pp. 276-283. 28 S. J. S. A. N., Colecţia Personalã Gavril Câmpeanu, numãr inventar 145, dosar 4, f. 1-13. 29 Elena Mannová, Scurtã istorie a Slovaciei, traducere din limba slovacã şi indice de Eva Mârza, Radu Mârza, Bucureşti, Editura Enciclopedicã, 2011, p. 329.


106

anumit spirit de solidaritate, au apelat la trupele româneşti concentrate în Praga.30

Într-o atare conjuncturã, ce oferea prilejul concentrãrii şi organizãrii soldaţilor români aflaţi în Praga, la 30 octombrie 1918, a luat naştere legiunea românã, moment surprins de Gavril Câmpeanu în însemnãrile sale: ,,[…] Noi militarii români gãsiţi în Praga, din regimentele austro-ungare staţionate în capitala boemã: ofiţeri, subofiţeri şi soldaţi de rând, la iniţiativa iscusiţilor: cãpitan Alexandru de Simon şi locotenent Zeno de Herbay, ne-am organizat în gruparea numitã ,,Legiunea Românã din Praga”. Scopul urmãrit ne-a fost: sã ne strângem rândurile toţi cei aflaţi în oraş, ca şi cei sosiţi aici, de pe diferite fronturi, sub comanda legiunii, pentru o plecare acasã, în scumpul nostru Ardeal, în mod demn şi deplin disciplinat”.31

Conform mãrturiei sublocotenentului Gavril Câmpeanu, autoritãţile pragheze au recunoscut imediat acest organism, punând la dispoziţia conducerii acestuia localul şcolii germane din oraş (Kaiserlisch und Königlich Staatsgymnasium), cu birouri, dormitoare, sãli de şedinţe şi curte, necesare încãrtiruirii soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor români. În acelaşi timp, pentru a asigura o mai bunã comunicare între cele douã pãrţi, pe lângã Legiunea Românã din Praga au fost ataşaţi doi ofiţeri de legãturã cehi, locotenentul Ruffer şi sublocotenentul Raimon, care ,,[…] sã ne înlesneascã împlinirea cererilor de lipsã, între ori şi ce împrejurãri ivite”.32

În continuare, însemnãrile sublocotenentului Gavril Câmpeanu prezintã constituirea resorturilor Legiunii Române din Praga (Gavril Câmpeanu fiind însãrcinat cu gestionarea cancelariei legiunii), adoptarea însemnelor naţionale (,,[…] panglica: ,,Legiunea Românã” cusutã în faţã pe chipiu”), stabilirea legãturilor cu Senatul Militar Român Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor din Viena (,,[…] de unde am primit ordine de rigoare şi instrucţiunile necesare”).33 Pe aceeaşi linie, sunt prezentate şi avansãrile dispuse de Legiunea Românã din Praga, cu aprobarea Senatului Militar Român Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor din Viena, prin ordinul de zi numãr 13/17 noiembrie 1918: ,,[…] Cu ordinul de zi n[umã]r[ul] 13, din 17 noiembrie 1918, urmãtorii elevi din corpul Legiunii Române, au fost avansaţi, cu aprobarea Senatului Român din Viena, la gradul de elevi plutonieri (kadet aspiranţi): 1) d[octo]r Horia Petra-Petrescu; 2) Octavian Buhãţel; 3) Vasile Durgheş; 4) Liviu Budişan; 5) Victor Petean; 6) Simion Turcu; 7) Gavril

30 Muzeul Naţional al Unirii Alba-Iulia, Colecţia de documente, manuscris numãr 6449/1, Legiunea Românã din Praga. Cum au trecut regimentele româneşti la 28 octombrie de partea muncitorilor cehi, f. 1 (în continuare M. N. U. A. I.). 31 S. J. S. A. N., Colecţia Personalã Gavril Câmpeanu, numãr inventar 145, dosar 7, f. 57-58. 32 Ibidem, f. 58. 33 Ibidem.


107

Câmpeanu; 8) Octavian Urdea; 9) Victor Chiffa; 10) Virgil Trufaşiu şi 11) Cornel Mureşan”.34

Pregãtirile pentru plecare, emoţia despãrţirii din dupã-amiaza zilei de 25 noiembrie 1918, precum şi momentul dizolvãrii Legiunii Române din Praga, sunt descrise pe larg în textul sublocotenentului Gavril Câmpeanu, ocupând, disproporţional cu relatãrile anterioare, spaţiul unei întregi file: ,,[…] Cu ordinul de zi n[umã]r[ul] 20 din 24 noiembrie 1918, s-a comunicat plecarea Legiunii Române din Praga, dându-mi-se urmãtoarele dispoziţiuni de plecare spre patrie: ,,Mâine, la orele 13, va sta legiunea în curte, gata de plecat la garã. Toţi ofiţerii, subofiţerii şi soldaţii sã fie de faţã. Bolnavii, sub comanda stegarului Cozma vor pleca la garã la orele 12. Înainte de plecare, comandanţii de companii îşi vor pregãti unitãţile şi-şi vor instrui soldaţii pentru o plecare demnã, în cea mai perfectã ordine ostãşeascã-exemplarã. Legiunea va pleca sub conducerea locotenentului Zeno de Herbay, subcomandantul ei” […] Plecarea la garã a fost de-o rarã frumuseţe impunãtoare. Aliniaţi pe companii câte 4 soldaţi în rânduri, cu drapele şi steguleţe naţionale române şi cehe, în cântãri patriotice, însoţiţi de-o companie cehã de onoare în frunte cu muzicã militarã. A fost o mãrşãluire de-o rarã splendoare de neuitat. Pânã la garã ne-a însoţit şi popor mult de toate vârstele. Aici, din nou, cuvântãri alese de rãmas bun, cu îmbrãţişãri şi prieteneşti strângeri de mâini. Trenul special pus la dispoziţia legiunii a plecat din garã în necontenite strigãte de frãţeşti urale şi fâlfâiri de steguleţe şi batiste albe, luni 12/25 noiembrie 1918, orele 19:45. Miercuri 14/27 noiembrie (n. a. corect: 2 decembrie 1918) am sosit la Cluj. Aici am fost aşteptaţi şi primiţi la ,,Comenduirea Gãrzilor Naţionale Române”, de sub cârmuirea Senatului Român din Cluj. Aici Legiunea Românã din Praga şi-a ajuns scopul final pentru care s-a organizat. Membrii şi-au primit laudã şi mulţumiri pentru comportarea lor demnã de ostaşi-legionari, români vrednici. S-au declarat eliberaţi şi liberi în acţiunile lor. Cei care au dorit din voia lor liberã s-au înscris membri voluntari în garda naţionalã românã, iar ceilalţi au plecat la vetrele lor în ordinea cuvenitã”.35

Cel de-al doilea text memorialistic, intitulat ,,Legiunea Românã la Praga”, semnat de Gheorghe Repede, a fost publicat în anul 1938 cu ocazia celebrãrii celor douã decenii scurse de la Marea Unire, în paginile volumului Douãzeci de ani de la Unire. Monografie comemorativã a Unirii, volum I, Cum s-a fãcut Unirea, coordonat de Tiron Albani. Despre parcursul biografic al autorului acestui text se cunosc puţine lucruri; cunoaştem faptul cã, în toamna anului 1918, a activat în cadrul Legiunii Române din Praga, iar în perioada interbelicã în cadrul Ministerului de Externe, calitate din care în anul 1933, la 15 ani de la proclamarea independenţei

34 Ibidem. 35 Ibidem, f. 58-59.


108

cehilor, a participat la festivitatea dezvelirii unei plãci omagiale, în cinstea soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor români, pe clãdirea Ministerului de Rãzboi din Praga.36

Spre deosebire de fragmentul precedent, textul semnat de Gheorghe Repede face o serie de trimiteri la iniţiativa constituirii Legiunii Române din Praga, precum şi la constituirea efectivã a acesteia, subliniind, totodatã, şi faptul cã acest organism naţional românesc a fost primul constituit în toamna anului 1918: ,,[…] Tot în ziua de 30 octombrie, din iniţiativa preotului cãpitan Laurenţiu Curea, de la Reg[imen]t[ul] 51, s-au întrunit în casa sa ofiţerii şi intelectualii români de la Regimentele 2 şi 5 Infanterie constituindu-se în Consiliul Naţional Român şi a hotãrât organizarea Legiunii Române, care sã dea mânã de ajutor cehilor în acele zile mari de renaştere naţionalã şi pe urmã, ajunşi acasã, sã lupte pentru dezrobirea Ardealului şi Banatului. Iniţiatorii acestei acţiuni au adus apoi la cunoştinţa soldaţilor de prin cazãrmi şi spitale hotãrârea luatã şi vineri 1 noiembrie soldaţii români s-au adunat în faţa spitalului n[umã]r[ul] 2, vis-à-vis de ,,Rudolphium” (acum parlamentul cehoslovac) şi conduşi de socoli au plecat la localul şcolii germane din Praha-Smichov, pe care au ocupat-o şi în seara aceleiaşi zile s-a ţinut şedinţa de organizare a Legiunii Române din Praga. Comandant al legiunii a fost proclamat d[octo]r Alexandru Simon, cãpitan în Reg[imen]t[ul] 2 Infanterie. Aceastã legiune a fost prima unitate de armatã româneascã ce s-a organizat din cadrele fostei armate austro-ungare şi pe teritoriul monarhiei descompuse”.37

Pe aceeaşi linie, este consemnat serviciul de poliţie asigurat de membrii Legiunii Române din Praga, în vederea asigurãrii liniştii şi ordinii publice pe strãzile oraşului ([…] Cât timp a stat acolo a fãcut servicii de poliţie şi de asistenţã pentru menţinerea ordinii),38 precum şi serviciul divin sãvârşit de preoţii militari ai legiunii cu ocazia sfinţirii drapelului românesc (,,[…] În duminica de la 3 noiembrie preoţii militari Virgil Cioban, Laurenţiu Curea şi Leon Munteanu au fãcut un serviciu divin în limba românã în sala de gimnasticã a şcolii. Cu acest prilej s-a sfinţit drapelul legiunii şi atunci soldaţii români s-au dezlegat ceremonial de jurãmântul prestat steagului austro-ungar şi au jurat credinţã steagului roman”).39

36 M. N. U. A. I., Colecţia de documente, manuscris numãr 6019/5, ***, Legiunea Românã din Praga. Cum au trecut regimentele româneşti la 28 octombrie de partea muncitorilor cehi, f. 1; Cristian Mareş, ,,Revoluţia din Ardeal din 1918 şi gãrzile naţionale române (I)”, în Eroii neamului, an III, numãr 4, 2011, p. 9. 37 Gheorghe Repede, ,,Legiunea Românã la Praga”, în volumul Douãzeci de ani de la Unire. Monografie comemorativã a Unirii, volumul I, Cum s-a fãcut Unirea, editat de Tiron Albani, Oradea, Institut de Arte Grafice ,,Grafica”, 1938, p. 320. 38 Ibidem. 39 Ibidem, p. 321.


109

Potrivit estimãrilor lansate de Gheorghe Repede, în momentul plecãrii soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor Legiunii Române din Praga, efectivele acesteia numãrau 18 ofiţeri, 81 subofiţeri şi 492 soldaţi;40 un total de 591 de membri, cifrã vehiculatã şi de însemnãrile publicistului Horia Petra-Petrescu.41

Textul memorialistic semnat de Gheorghe Repede ne prezintã şi traseul urmat de membrii Legiunii Române din Praga în drumul lor spre casã. Astfel, la 25 noiembrie 1918, legionarii români au pãrãsit Praga, trecând peste teritoriul Austriei, Croaţiei (unde, la Zagreb, au fost dezarmaţi), la 2 decembrie 1918 ajungând în gara oraşului Cluj.42

Sub titlul ,,Când lucrau legionarii români din Praga mânã în mânã cu sokolii”, poate fi regãsit cel de-al treilea fragment memorialistic avut în vedere, publicat în paginile revistei ,,Transilvania”, în anul 1926, de cãtre publicistul Horia Petra-Petrescu. Nãscut în anul 1884, la Braşov, Horia Petra-Petrescu a fost gazetar, prozator şi traducãtor, cu studii efectuate la universitãţile din Viena, Budapesta şi Leipzig43 (din partea ultimei obţinând, în anul 1910, titlul de doctor în filologie pentru o lucrare dedicatã vieţii şi activitãţii lui Ion Luca Caragiale),44 secretar literar al Asociaţiunii ASTRA, redactor al calendarelor acesteia (,,Amicul poporului”-în perioada 1924-1933, ,,Calendarul sãteanului”-în perioada 1924-1933, ,,Calendarul ASTRA”-în perioada 1925-1928, 1930-1936),45 redactor al revistei braşovene ,,Revista teatralã”, organ al ,,Societãţii pentru Fond de Teatru Român”.46 Alãturi de activitatea gazetãreascã, a desfãşurat şi o bogatã activitate editorialã (în calitate de coordonator al

40 Ibidem. 41 Horia Petra-Petrescu, ,,Când lucrau legionarii români din Praga mânã în mânã cu sokolii”, în Transilvania, an LVII, numãr 7, 1926, p. 377. 42 Gheorghe Repede, ,,Legiunea Românã la Praga”, p. 321. 43 Andreea Dãncilã, ,,Ipostaze ale elitei culturale româneşti din Transilvania începutului de secol XX: generaţia ,,Luceafãrului” (1902-1914)”, în Annales Universitatis Apulensis. Series Historica, numãr 14/I, 2010, p. 230, n. 5. 44 Publicatã la Leipzig în anul 1911, tradusã în limba românã în anul 2004. A se vedea: Horia Petra-Petrescu, Ion Luca Caragiale. Leben und Werke/Ion Luca Caragiale. Viaţa şi opera, traducere de Orlando Balaş, Veronica Buciuman, Ruxandra Chişe, Denisa Magheru, Elena Pop, Ioana Sarca, Magdalena Stark, Teodora Ştefãnescu, Ştefan Sassenberg, ediţie îngrijitã de Ioan Derşidan şi Rudolf Windisch, prefaţã de Ioan Derşidan, postfaţã de Klaus Bochmann, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Casa Cãrţii de Ştiinţã, 2004. 45 Antonina Silvia Frandeş (Andone), ,,The Role of Interwar Religious Calendars in the Culturalization of the Masses”, în Journal of Romanian Literary Studies, numãr 9, 2016, p. 636. 46 Valentin Sandu, ,,Rolul bãnãţenilor în cadrul Societãţii pentru un Fond de Teatru Român (1870-1914)”, în Banatica, numãr 21, 2011, p. 351.


110

,,Bibliotecii poporale a Asociaţiunii ASTRA”) şi publicisticã (fiind autorul unor volume de poezie, teatru, traduceri).47

Însemnãrile, semnate Horia Petra-Petrescu, voluntar al Legiunii Române din Praga,48 prezintã evenimentele consumate în Praga în intervalul 1-25 noiembrie 1918, de la stabilirea sediului Legiunii Române din Praga în localul şcolii germane, pânã în momentul pãrãsirii oraşului.

Un prim moment semnificativ reţinut de Horia Petra-Petrescu a fost acela al sfinţirii drapelului românesc şi al prestãrii jurãmântului de credinţã faţã de acesta, precedate de un serviciu divin oficiat de preoţii militari Virgil Cioban, Laurenţiu Curea şi Leon Munteanu, eveniment consumat la 3 noiembrie 1918, în cadrul unei întâlniri solemne: ,,[…] În sala de gimnasticã a şcolii germane (,,Kais[erlich] Königl[ich] Staatsgymnasium”) din Praga-Smihov ne-am adunat românii la ora 9. Serviciu bisericesc (pãr[intele] d[octo]r V. Cioban, L[aurenţiu] Curea, Muntean) sfinţirea steagului românesc şi dezlegarea bisericeascã de jurãmânt. Am fost cu lacrimile în ochi toţi, când am sfinţit steagul legiunii. Pãr[intele] Cioban, pãr[intele] Curea şi cu mine am vorbit celor adunaţi. Pe edificiul şcolii flutura steagul românesc”.49

La 4 noiembrie 1918, a sosit la Praga o delegaţie formatã din cãpitanii Petru Popovici şi Emil Colbazi, trimisã de conducerea Senatului Militar Român Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor din Viena pentru a aduce la cunoştinţa soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor români constituirea acestui organism şi a pune bazele unei formaţiuni similare, moment reţinut de însemnãrile lui Horia Petra-Petrescu: ,,[…] Spre marea noastrã bucurie, soseşte o deputãţie de 5 din Viena, în frunte cu sublocot[enentul] Colbazi şi Petru Popovici. Deputãţia e trimisã de Senatul Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor Români din Viena şi avea misiunea sã ne organizeze. Apelul Senatului ne-a gãsit organizaţi. Veşti bune din Viena”.50 Întrucât unitãţile româneşti din Praga erau deja organizate, conducerea legiunii române şi-a trimis un delegat la Viena, în persoana locotenentului Zeno de Herbay, care a prezentat o declaraţie de subordonare, din acel moment între cele douã organisme existând o legãturã permanentã.51

47 Academia Românã, Dicţionarul general al literaturii române, volum V (P-R), Bucureşti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2006, vocea ,,Horia Petra-Petrescu”. 48 S. J. S. A. N., Colecţia Personalã Gavril Câmpeanu, numãr inventar 145, dosar 3, f. 77. 49 Horia Petra-Petrescu, ,,Când lucrau legionarii români din Praga mânã în mânã cu sokolii”, p. 375. 50 Ibidem. 51 Biblioteca Facultãţii de Teologie ,,Sfântul Andrei Şaguna” Sibiu, Fond Varia, numãr inventar 53, ,,Procesele verbale ale adunãrilor ofiţerilor şi soldaţilor români din Viena”, f. 21.


111

Alãturi de cãpitanul Alexandru Simon, comandantul Legiunii Române din Praga, Horia Petra-Petrescu, a participat şi la depunerea jurãmântului primelor unitãţi militare cehe. Data aleasã pentru depunerea jurãmântului nu a fost una întâmplãtoare, ci coincidea cu comemorarea celor 298 de ani scurşi de la înfrângerea cehilor în bãtãlia de la Muntele Alb (prima bãtãlie a Rãzboiului de Treizeci de Ani), iar locaţia aleasã, primãria veche a oraşului Praga, reprezenta locul unde, la 21 iunie 1621, au fost executaţi 27 de nobili cehi din ordinul împãratului romano-german Ferdinand al II-lea:52 ,,[…] Şi pentru Boemia e o zi însemnatã azi: depunerea jurãmântului soldaţilor cehi. Am fost într-o deputaţie de 10, cu cãp[itanul] Simon în frunte, ca delegaţi români, la festivitate. Tocmai sub balconul primãriei celei vechi. Înaintea noastrã locul de supliciu al boemilor (cehilor), decapitaţi în 1621, acum împodobit cu flori. De aceea a şi fost aleasã ziua de azi: ca o revanşã pentru nedreptatea de la Muntele Alb (8 noiembrie). D[omnu]l Simon a vorbit în faţa monumentului lui Huss, publicului adunat, în franţuzeşte, binecuvântând noua republicã. Comandantul sokolilor, d[octo]r Scheiner, i-a rãspuns. A fost un entuziasm mare. Mari simpatii pentru noi. O excursie monstrã, sute de mii!, la Muntele Alb, dupã prânz. Bucuria nu mai cunoaşte margini. Cântece şi fete vesele pretutindeni. Dupã 300 de ani de sclavie şi-a recãpãtat poporul drepturile”.53

În continuare, este prezentatã vizita ministrului pentru lucrãri publice, Francisc Staniek, fostul lider al deputaţilor cehi din Parlamentul de la Viena, precum şi plecarea soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor români din Praga. Spre deosebire de alte texte memorialistice relative la activitatea Legiunii Române din Praga, textul semnat de Horia Petra-Petrescu este singurul care aminteşte prezenţa soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor armatei române, foşti prizonieri în lagãrele din Germania şi Austro-Ungaria, eliberaţi din captivitate, în structurile legiunii române: ,,[…] Sosesc la legiune, primiţi cu mare bucurie, 12 soldaţi din România, prizonieri în Germania. Toţi deştepţi şi inimoşi. Ne bucuram cã ne vom învãţa comanda româneascã. Vorbesc o româneascã frumoasã. Bieţii de ei, câte au suferit în prinsoare”.54

Deşi restrânse ca întindere, cele trei fragmente memorialistice analizate ne înfãţişeazã un adevãrat capitol de istorie trãitã în capitala Boemiei care, în contextul celebrãrii centenarului Marii Uniri, se cerea recuperat şi valorificat. Ne aflãm, aşadar, în faţa unor fragmente memorialistice de referinţã pentru studierea activitãţii Legiunii Române din Praga, care subliniazã contribuţia acestui organism naţional la

52 Sorin Mitu, Introducere în istoria Europei moderne (secolele XVII, XVIII, XIX), Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2000, pp. 17-18. 53 Horia Petra-Petrescu, ,,Când lucrau legionarii români din Praga mânã în mânã cu sokolii”, pp. 375-376. 54 Ibidem, p. 376.


112

proclamarea şi apãrarea integritãţii teritoriale a noului stat cehoslovac, precum şi acţiunea de concentrare, organizare şi expediere spre Transilvania a soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor români din fosta armatã austro-ungarã. Dintre numeroasele fragmente de memorialisticã mãruntã elaborate în timpul, dar mai ales dupã Primul Rãzboi Mondial, cele semnate de Gavril Câmpeanu, Gheorghe Repede şi Horia Petra-Petrescu, membrii activi ai Legiunii Române din Praga, se disting prin extraordinara capacitate de sintezã, prin episoadele prezentate şi aspectele mai puţin cunoscute, prin surprinderea comportamentului soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor români din fosta armatã austro-ungarã, precum şi prin mesajul transmis. Pentru a întãri cele prezentate mai sus, dar mai ales concluziile prezentului material, redãm transcrise şi adaptate normelor ortografice actuale, sub forma unei anexe documentare, fragmentele memorialistice avute în vedere.


113

ANEXÃ DOCUMENTARÃ

GAVRIL CÂMPEANU Cartea mea (1954)

Luni 28 octombrie 1918, ne-am pomenit pe la orele 14:30, cu

imense manifestaţii pe strãzile oraşului Praga, capitala Boemiei. Bucuria cehilor era la culme. Sunau clopotele la toate bisericile şi lumea alerga veselã în toate pãrţile, în cântece naţionale şi dansuri de mare amploare. Au apãrut la geamuri steguleţe tricolore naţionale cehe şi sus pe toate clãdirile drapele naţionale. Strigãte în toate pãrţile: ,,Trãiascã pacea!”, ,,S-a terminat rãzboiul!”, ,,Ura, ura, ura!”. Tranvaiurile împodobite cu flori şi steguleţe albe-simbolul pãcii. O lume nouã dintr-odatã, cu atmosfera ei de mare sãrbãtoare, cu multã voie bunã peste tot.

Soldaţii de pe diferite fronturi, roiau în grupuri mai mari sau mai mici, care cum puteau, cu tren, cu camioane, orice alte mijloace de transport, sau pe jos. Soseau trenuri încãrcate cu fel de fel de materiale de rãzboi. Rãzboiul s-a sfârşit! Trãiascã pacea!

Legiunea Românã din Praga

Noi militarii români gãsiţi în Praga, din regimentele austro-ungare staţionate în capitala boemã: ofiţeri, subofiţeri şi soldaţi de rând, la iniţiativa iscusiţilor cãpitan Alexandru de Simon şi locotenent Zeno de Herbay, ne-am organizat în gruparea numitã: ,,Legiunea Românã din Praga”. Scopul urmãrit ne-a fost: sã ne strângem rândurile toţi cei aflaţi în oraş, ca şi cei sosiţi aici, de pe diferite fronturi, sub comanda legiunii, pentru o plecare acasã, în scumpul nostru Ardeal, în mod demn şi deplin disciplinat. Autoritãţile militare şi civile cehe, au aprobat cu frãţeascã loialitate planul şi dorinţele noastre şi ne-au sprijinit cu toatã bunãvoinţa. Ne-au pus la îndemânã o clãdire corespunzãtoare: Şcoala ,,Staaten Gymnazium”, din ,,preslava ulice”-sectorul ,,Schmichor”, prevãzutã cu toate cele necesare: birouri, dormitoare, salã de şedinţe, curte spaţioasã etc., ca sã putem fi, în mod satisfãcãtor încãrtiruiţi pânã la plecare. Ne-au ataşat doi ofiţeri de legãturã, cunoscãtori de limba românã, care sã ne înlesneascã împlinirea cererilor de lipsã, între ori şi ce împrejurãri ivite. Numele acestor doi ofiţeri: locotenent Ruffler şi locotenent Raimon-spre amintire, laudã şi recunoştinţã.

În primele zile de organizare, legiunea noastrã s-a pus în legãturã cu Senatul Român din Viena, de unde au primit ordine de rigoare şi instrucţiunile necesare.


114

Pentru bunul mers al întregii noastre acţiuni am înjghebat, încã din prima zi, ,,cancelaria” legiunii, pentru înregistrãri, rapoarte, ordine de zi, evidenţe etc. Cu data de 5 noiembrie 1918 s-a şi întocmit primul ,,ordin de zi”. Ordinele de zi se citeau regulat în fiecare searã premergãtoare înainte de cinã, în curtea cazãrmii, de cãtre ofiţerul de serviciu.

Am avut bucuria, ca sã fiu eu însãrcinat cu conducerea cancelariei legiunii.

Cu ordinul de zi n[umã]r[ul] 5 am primit de ajutor în cancelaria legiunii-curieri, pe (voluntarul soldat) elevul Aurel Dogariu şi pe elevul sergent Vasile Durgheş.

În ziua de 9 noiembrie, cu ordinul de zi n[umã]r[ul] 5 s-a dispus ca toţi ofiţerii, subofiţerii şi soldaţii sã poarte panglica ,,Legiunea Românã” cusutã în faţã pe chipiu.

În ziua de 16 noiembrie 1918 am fost fotografiaţi în curtea cazarmei toţi ofiţerii, subofiţerii şi soldaţii legiunii.

Cu ordinul de zi n[umã]r[ul] 13, din 17 noiembrie 1918, urmãtorii elevi din corpul Legiunii Române, au fost avansaţi, cu aprobarea Senatului Român din Viena, la gradul de elevi plutonieri (kadet aspiranţi): 1) d[octo]r Horia Petra-Petrescu; 2) Octavian Buhãţel; 3) Vasile Durgheş; 4) Liviu Budişan; 5) Victor Petean; 6) Simion Turcu; 7) Gavril Câmpeanu; 8) Octavian Urdea; 9) Victor Chiffa; 10) Virgil Trufaşiu şi 11) Cornel Mureşan.

Cu n[umã]r[ul] 27/1918, comandantul Legiunii Române, mi-a eliberat o adeverinţã despre avansarea mea la gradul de elev-plutonier (kadet aspirant).

Ordinul de zi despre avansarea elevilor de mai sus (n[umã]r[ul] 13) s-a citit în curtea cazarmei, în faţa întregii legiuni, ofiţeri, subofiţeri şi trupã, în cadrul unei solemnitãţi pline de avânt şi dragoste româneascã şi cu aplauze de mare însufleţire.

Cu ordinul de zi n[umã]r[ul] 20 din 24 noiembrie 1918, s-a comunicat plecarea Legiunii Române din Praga, dându-mi-se urmãtoarele dispoziţiuni de plecare spre patrie: ,,Mâine, la orele 13, va sta legiunea în curte, gata de plecat la garã. Toţi ofiţerii, subofiţerii şi soldaţii sã fie de faţã. Bolnavii, sub comanda stegarului Cozma vor pleca la garã la orele 12. Înainte de plecare, comandanţii de companii îşi vor pregãti unitãţile şi-şi vor instrui soldaţii pentru o plecare demnã, în cea mai perfectã ordine ostãşeascã-exemplarã. Legiunea va pleca sub conducerea locotenentului Zeno de Herbay, subcomandantul ei”.

,,În numele tuturor ofiţerilor, subofiţerilor şi soldaţilor din legiune, aducem mulţumiri frãţeşti domnului locotenent F. Ruffler şi d[omnu]lui sublocotenent Raimon şi prin ei, întregului popor ceh şi autoritãţilor militare şi civile din capitalã, pentru


115

dragostea şi sprijinul frãţesc de care ne-au împãrtãşit legiunea noastrã în timpul de-o lunã petrecutã în Praga”.

Plecarea la garã a fost de-o rarã frumuseţe impunãtoare. Aliniaţi pe companii câte 4 soldaţi în rânduri, cu drapele şi steguleţe naţionale române şi cehe, în cântãri patriotice, însoţiţi de-o companie cehã de onoare în frunte cu muzicã militarã. A fost o mãrşãluire de-o rarã splendoare de neuitat. Pânã la garã ne-a însoţit şi popor mult de toate vârstele. Aici, din nou, cuvântãri alese de rãmas bun, cu îmbrãţişãri şi prieteneşti strângeri de mâini. Trenul special pus la dispoziţia legiunii a plecat din garã în necontenite strigãte de frãţeşti urale şi fâlfâiri de steguleţe şi batiste albe, luni 12/25 noiembrie 1918, orele 19:45. Miercuri 14/27 noiembrie am sosit la Cluj. Aici am fost aşteptaţi şi primiţi la ,,Comenduirea Gãrzilor Naţionale Române”, de sub cârmuirea Senatului Român din Cluj. Aici Legiunea Românã din Praga şi-a ajuns scopul final pentru care s-a organizat. Membrii şi-au primit laudã şi mulţumiri pentru comportarea lor demnã de ostaşi-legionari, români vrednici. S-au declarat eliberaţi şi liberi în acţiunile lor. Cei care au dorit din voia lor liberã s-au înscris membri voluntari în garda naţionalã românã, iar ceilalţi au plecat la vetrele lor în ordine cuvenitã. Sursã: S. J. S. A. N., Colecţia Personalã Gavril Câmpeanu, numãr inventar 145, dosar 7, f. 57-59.

❖

GHEORGHE REPEDE Legiunea Românã la Praga

Încã de la începutul rãzboiului mondial, comandamentul austro-

ungar, ca sã preîntâmpine fraternizarea soldaţilor români cu populaţia din Ardeal şi a soldaţilor cehi cu populaţia din Boemia şi Moravia, a plasat regimentele româneşti în Boemia şi Moravia, iar regimentele cehe în Ardeal şi Ungaria. Astfel, au ajuns regimentele cezaro-regale n[umã]r 2 Infanterie din Braşov şi n[umã]r 51 din Cluj la Praga, capitala Boemiei. Aceste regimente au fost compuse numai din români. Astfel, zilele memorabile ale proclamãrii independenţei statului cehoslovac (28 octombrie-1 noiembrie 1918) au apucat aici pe românii care compuneau aceste regimente.


116

Dupã victoria generalului italian Diaz55 de la Vittorio-Veneto din 27-28 octombrie 1918, armata Austro-Ungariei a intrat în descompunere, aşa cã la 3 noiembrie, când se încheia armistiţiul de la Padua monarhia nici nu mai exista.

Telegraful transmiţând acest eveniment în ziua de 28 oct[ombrie] 1918, s-a proclamat la Praga independenţa Boemiei. În acest moment de covârşitoare importanţã istoricã, împrejurãrile au vrut ca şi românii sã joace un rol de seamã.

Pentru ca proclamarea independenţei sã devinã un act definitiv, patrioţii cehi aveau nevoie de forţã armatã cu care sã ocupe sediul autoritãţilor principale şi sã poatã respinge eventualele încercãri de opoziţie armatã a statului în descompunere, care mai încerca sã se menţinã. Serviciul la adãpostul cãruia se începea organizarea statului ceh, îl fãceau ofiţerii şi soldaţii români din Regimentele 2 şi 51 Infanterie, care se gãseau în acel moment în garnizoanã la Praga. Astfel, ca un fel de prevestire a legãturilor strânse de alianţã ce urmau sã închege cele douã popoare, într-un organism politic internaţional de importanţa Micii Înţelegeri, d[octo]r Iosif Scheiner, preşedintele socolilor cehi, s-a prezentat în ziua de 29 octombrie 1918 în palatul comandamentului din Praga, pentru a prelua comanda supremã, ofiţerii şi soldaţii români, care fãceau serviciu de gardã, n-au opus rezistenţã, ci la consemnul profesorului d[octo]r C. Stanca, în aclamarea freneticã a imensei mulţimi, care asista la acest act istoric, garda comandatã de locotenentul Morariu, a predat serviciul socolilor şi a plecat la cazarmã.

În zilele de 29-31 octombrie s-a constituit ,,Vybor-ul” (Consiliul Naţional Cehoslovac). Pentru a se putea constitui şi a prelua puterea politicã şi administrativã trebuia sã aibã siguranţa cã regimentele germane-maghiaro-române din garnizoanã nu vor opune rezistenţã. În acest scop, au avut loc tratative între d[octo]r Scheiner, preşedintele socolilor şi d[octo]r V. Cioban, d[octo]r Gheorghe Repede şi Laurenţiu Curea, comandanţii români ai regimentelor româneşti din garnizoanã. Românii au dat mânã liberã cehilor şi i-au asigurat de concursul lor la o eventualã rezistenţã din partea ungurilor. Se ştie cã în Praga se mai aflau şi Regimentul 68 Infanterie din Szolnok, compus din maghiari şi un regiment german de artilerie. Mai mult chiar, românii au pus la dispoziţia

55 Armando Vittorio Diaz (1861-1928): militar italian, cu origini spaniole, din 1917 şef al Marelui Stat-Major, comandant al trupelor care au blocat ofensiva austro-ungarã la Piave, mai târziu cea de la Vittorio Veneto; ministru de rãzboi, senator, înnobilat de regele Victor Emmanuel al III-lea (a se vedea: Doru Dumitrescu, Mihai Manea, Mirela Popescu, Mica enciclopedie a Marelui Rãzboi (1914-1918), Bucureşti, Editura Corint Educaţional, 2014, pp. 16-17).


117

socolilor, încã în ziua de 30 octombrie, o mare cantitate de arme şi muniţiuni ce se aflau în depozitul Regimentului 2 Infanterie. Astfel, socolii s-au putut înarma la timp.

Tot în ziua de 30 octombrie, din iniţiativa preotului cãpitan Laurenţiu Curea, de la Reg[imen]t[ul] 51, s-au întrunit în casa sa ofiţerii şi intelectualii români de la Regimentele 2 şi 5 Infanterie constituindu-se în Consiliul Naţional Român şi a hotãrât organizarea Legiunii Române, care sã dea mânã de ajutor cehilor în acele zile mari de renaştere naţionalã şi pe urmã, ajunşi acasã, sã lupte pentru dezrobirea Ardealului şi Banatului.

Iniţiatorii acestei acţiuni au adus apoi la cunoştinţa soldaţilor de prin cazãrmi şi spitale hotãrârea luatã şi vineri 1 noiembrie soldaţii români s-au adunat în faţa spitalului n[umã]r[ul] 2, vis-à-vis de ,,Rudolphium” (acum parlamentul cehoslovac) şi conduşi de socoli au plecat la localul şcolii germane din Praha-Smichov, pe care au ocupat-o şi în seara aceleiaşi zile s-a ţinut şedinţa de organizare a Legiunii Române din Praga. Comandant al legiunii a fost proclamat d[octo]r Alexandru Simon, cãpitan în Reg[imen]t[ul] 2 Infanterie.

Aceastã legiune a fost prima unitate de armatã româneascã ce s-a organizat din cadrele fostei armate austro-ungare şi pe teritoriul monarhiei descompuse.

Legiunea românã a fost întreţinutã de cãtre Consiliul Naţional Cehoslovac ,,Narodni Vybor” pânã în ziua de 25 noiembrie, când a plecat din Praga. Cât timp a stat acolo a fãcut servicii de poliţie şi de asistenţã pentru menţinerea ordinii. În duminica de la 3 noiembrie preoţii militari Virgil Cioban, Laurenţiu Curea şi Leon Munteanu au fãcut un serviciu divin în limba românã în sala de gimnasticã a şcolii. Cu acest prilej s-a sfinţit drapelul legiunii şi atunci soldaţii români s-au dezlegat ceremonial de jurãmântul prestat steagului austro-ungar şi au jurat credinţã steagului român.

Legiunea românã a plecat luni 25 noiembrie spre Ardeal, în ţinutã de campanie, admirabil înzestratã şi echipatã de cãtre armata cehoslovacã, în semn de recunoştinţã pentru ajutorul ce i l-a dat. Scopul ei era, ca sosind în Ardeal sã lupte pentru înfãptuirea idealului naţional prin unirea Ardealului şi Banatului cu România. Legiunea a plecat sub comanda destoinicului locotenent d[octo]r Virgil Mircea din Regimentul 2 Infanterie. Cãpitanul Alexandru Simon şi locotenentul Zeno Herbai rãmânând în Praga, pe lângã Vybor-ul cehoslovac.

Dupã mai multe peripeţii, legiunea a ajuns la 2 decembrie la Zagreb, unde a fost dezarmatã de trupele sârbeşti şi despuiatã de echipament a sosit a treia zi la Cluj, unde s-a dizolvat.


118

La plecarea din Praga se aflau în legiune 18 ofiţeri, 81 subofiţeri şi 492 soldaţi. Legiunea a primit în ziua de 4 noiembrie o delegaţie de 5 ofiţeri din Viena în frunte cu sublocotenentul Colbazi, trimisã de Senatul Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor Români din Viena. Delegaţia a venit cu misiunea de a organiza şi în Praga un fel de consiliu sau senat ca cel din Viena, dar aceastã delegaţie a gãsit legiunea perfect organizatã.56

Sursã: Gheorghe Repede, ,,Legiunea Românã la Praga”, în Tiron Albani (ed.), Douãzeci de ani de la Unire. Monografie comemorativã a Unirii, volumul I, Cum s-a fãcut Unirea, Oradea, Institut de Arte Grafice ,,Grafica”, 1938, pp. 318-322.

❖

HORIA-PETRA PETRESCU Când lucrau legionarii români din Praga mânã în mânã cu sokolii

Praga, vineri, în 1 noiembrie 1918. La 3 ore ne-am întâlnit, soldaţii

români, înaintea spitalului de rezervã n[umãr]ul 2 faţã în faţã cu ,,Rudolphinul”. De acolo am pornit, conduşi de o gardã de ,,sokoli”, spre noua locuinţã, oferitã nouã din partea ,,Vybor-ului” (Consiliul Naţional Cehoslovac). Trecând pe cheiul Moldavei, pe la Teatrul Naţional Ceh, peste pod, în Smichov, la şcoala germanã (,,Kais[erlich] Königl[ich] Staatsgymnasium” spune firma datã jos şi pãstratã în sala de gimnasticã) am fost pãrtaşi de ovaţii generale, pe stradã.

,,Sokolii” cântau cântece naţionale, noi le rãspundeam, nu-i vorbã, mai slãbuţ, fiindcã nu eram instruiţi (pe coriştii, care s-au produs de curând, i-a prins revoluţia în concediu, pe acasã).

Şcoala pãrãsitã. În odaia directorului şi a corpului profesoral documente, cãrţi, hãrţi, claie pe grãmadã, pe mese, pe jos, pe fotoliuri. Le-am adunat toate şi le-am închis în câteva odãi, predând cheile directorului.

Un steag frumos, românesc, vom cãpãta mâine. Deocamdatã avem culorile noastre în butonierã şi drept cocardã, pe chipiu.

56 Nota finalã a autorului: ,,În anul 1933 guvernul cehoslovac a ridicat o placã de bronz pe palatul comandamentului militar din Praga, pe care scrie: În aceastã clãdire s-a preluat imperiul cehoslovac, cu preţiosul concurs al soldaţilor români din armata poporului aliat. La dezvelire a luat parte, ca trimis al foştilor luptãtori români la Praga, d[omnu]l d[octo]r Gheorghe Repede, notar public în Caransebeş. D[omnia] sa a fost rugat de reprezentanţii poporului cehoslovac sã tãlmãceascã poporului român mulţumirea şi dragostea poporului cehoslovac pentru ajutorul dat de soldaţii români în timpul de renaştere naţionalã”.


119

Ţin minte cum a chemat la ordine un sokol pe un bãieţaş, care ne îngâna cântecul. Ruşine pe capul bãiatului!

2 noiembrie, sâmbãtã: Soldatul Matei Panciu din Bonţida îmi povesteşte cã a primit în

1914 pedeapsã, ca sã fie legat douã ceasuri, fiindcã a spus cã o sã ţinã rãzboiul trei ani de zile. Cãpitanul, care-l pedepsise atunci, întâlnindu-l în timpul din urmã, i-a dat 50 de coroane cinste, aducându-şi aminte de pedeapsa dictatã.

3 noiembrie, duminicã: Excursia social-democraţilor la Muntele Alb. O demonstraţie

pacinicã, mostrã. Sute de mii de oameni, cu steaguri, cu embleme, în costume naţionale. Într-un sicriu, pe care sta scris Austro-Ungaria, îngropau monarhia urgisitã. Mulţi italieni eliberaţi. Seara au trecut cete de socialişti pe dinaintea primãriei celei vechi şi au dat jos statuia Maicii Domnului, ridicatã, dupã opinia publicã, drept mulţumitã, de dinastia de Habsburg, cã a învins pe poporul ceh acum 300 de ani, la Muntele Alb.

În sala de gimnasticã a şcolii germane (,,Kais[erlich] Königl[ich] Staatsgymnasium”) din Praga-Smihov ne-am adunat românii la ora 9. Serviciu bisericesc (pãr[intele] d[octo]r V[irgil] Ciobanu, L[aurenţiu] Curea, [Leon] Munteanu) sfinţirea steagului românesc şi dezlegarea bisericeascã de jurãmânt. Am fost cu lacrimile în ochi toţi, când am sfinţit steagul legiunii. Pãr[intele] Cioban, pãr[intele] Curea şi cu mine am vorbit celor adunaţi.

Pe edificiul şcolii flutura steagul românesc. De pretutindeni ni se aratã dragoste nefãţãritã.

4 noiembrie 1918, luni: Spre marea noastrã bucurie, soseşte o deputãţie de 5 din Viena, în

frunte cu sublocot[enentul] Colbazi şi Petru Popovici. Deputãţia e trimisã de Senatul Central al Ofiţerilor şi Soldaţilor Români din Viena şi avea misiunea sã ne organizeze. Apelul Senatului ne-a gãsit organizaţi. Veşti bune din Viena.

O tãieturã de ziar: Ministerul de Rãzboi din Viena este de aici înainte un oficiu comun de lichidare a naţionalitãţilor din fosta Austro-Ungarie.

8 noiembrie 1918, vineri: Şi pentru Boemia e o zi însemnatã azi: depunerea jurãmântului

soldaţilor cehi. Am fost într-o deputaţie de 10, cu cãp[itanul] Simon în frunte, ca delegaţi români, la festivitate. Tocmai sub balconul primãriei celei vechi. Înaintea noastrã locul de supliciu al boemilor (cehilor), decapitaţi în 1621, acum împodobit cu flori. De aceea a şi fost aleasã ziua de azi: ca o revanşã pentru nedreptatea de la Muntele Alb (8 noiembrie).


120

D[omnu]l Simon a vorbit în faţa monumentului lui Huss, publicului adunat, în franţuzeşte, binecuvântând noua republicã. Comandantul sokolilor, d[octo]r Scheiner, i-a rãspuns. A fost un entuziasm mare. Mari simpatii pentru noi.

O excursie monstrã, sute de mii!, la Muntele Alb, dupã prânz. Bucuria nu mai cunoaşte margini. Cântece şi fete vesele pretutindeni. Dupã 300 de ani de sclavie şi-a recãpãtat poporul drepturile.

Seara citesc câtorva soldaţi, în coridorul luminat, pagini din Amintirile lui Creangã. Cum a furat pupãza satului şi scenele cu tata şi cu mama. Ce hohote de râs sãnãtoase! Îţi râdea inima de bucurie. Uitau bieţii oameni necazul (cã sunt departe de ai lor)!

10 noiembrie 1918, duminicã: Serviciu bisericesc în sala de gimnasticã: pãrintele Curea şi pãrintele

Muntean. Predicã pãrintele Muntean, apoi (vorbeşte) cãpitan Simon… În Germania a izbucnit revoluţia. Pe piaţa lui Venceslau (din Praga) plimbau, în mijlocul ilaritãţii generale, o pãpuşã spânzuratã-Wilhelm.

Joi, 14 noiembrie: Kramarci a proclamat republica cehoslovacã. Preşedintele Tomas

Masaryk. Vineri, 15 noiembrie: Ministrul pentru Lucrãrile Publice, Francisc Staniek, fostul

preşedinte al deputaţilor cehi din parlamentul austriac, viziteazã gimnaziul german din Smihov, unde ne aflam, ca sã-l adapteze trebuinţelor ministerului sãu. Ne întreabã, foarte afabil, dacã suntem dispuşi sã predãm câteva odãi. Fireşte, ne-am învoit. A vorbit mai multe cu conducãtorul nostru şi dupã ce i-am strigat un ,,Na zdar!”, ne-a poftit, plin de curtoazie un ,,trãiascã legiunea românã”.

Sâmbãtã, 16 noiembrie: Sosesc la legiune, primiţi cu mare bucurie, 12 soldaţi din România,

prizonieri în Germania. Toţi deştepţi şi inimoşi. Ne bucuram cã ne vor învãţa comanda româneascã. Vorbesc o româneascã frumoasã. Bieţii de ei, câte au suferit în prinsoare!

Legionarii lucrã pe la fabrici şi în cazãrmi. Duminicã, 17 noiembrie: Serviciu bisericesc în sala de gimnasticã a şcolii germane din

Smihov. La sfârşitul slujbei vorbeşte pãrintele Cioban, apoi eu, binecuvântând pe cei din România şi citind o poezie: ,,Imnul dreptãţii”.

Luni seara (25 noiembrie) au plecat legionarii români din Praga spre casã, conduşi de pãrintele Cioban, Curea, Muntean şi ofiţerii români, afarã de cãpitanul Simon şi locotenentul Herbay, care au fost reţinuţi


121

anume din Viena, ca sã poatã aduce servicii comitetului naţional în Praga, cu legãturile lor în cercurile cehe.

În 19 noiembrie se aflau în Legiunea Românã din Praga: 18 ofiţeri, 81 ofiţeri şi 492 soldaţi. Sursã: Horia Petra-Petrescu, ,,Sokolii. Cu un adaos. Când lucrau legionarii români din Praga mânã în mânã cu sokolii”, în Transilvania, an LVII, numãr 7, 1926, pp.


122


123

ORGANIZAREA ROMÂNILOR DIN CERCUL VÂRŞEŢULUI ÎN TOAMNA ANULUI 1918

Organization of the Romanians in the Vârşeţ Circle in the Autumn of 1918

PhD. Maria Alexandra Pantea

„Vasile Goldiş” West University, Arad, Romania

Abstract: In the Autumn of 1918 we find in Banat a society deeply marked by the tragedy of the war, but also a world of divided ethnic and cultural diversity, the Banat being claimed by both Romanians and Serbs. The organization of the Romanians in the Vârşeţ area in the Autumn of 1918 is proof that there was a Romanian elite in the villages in the area, formed mostly by lawyers. Some of them stated themselves as true Romanian leaders and were involved in the Autumn events of 1918.

Keywords: Romanians, Vârşeţ, organization, union, order.

Evenimentele din toamna anului 1918 au avut un puternic impact

şi asupra societãţii bãnãţene, o societate marcatã de diversitate etnicã şi confesionalã, dar şi de mari pagube suferite în anii rãzboiului. Sfârşitul rãzboiului şi organizarea Consiliului Naţional Român Central au dus la schimbãri profunde, care au demarat odatã cu organizarea românilor.

În toamna anului 1918 asistãm la întoarcerea soldaţilor de pe front, dar şi la o serie de neînţelegeri, deoarece Banatul era revendicat atât de români, cât şi de sârbi. În acest context, românii din Vârşeţ şi împrejurimi au început sã se organizeze încã de la începutul lunii noiembrie, pentru a putea sã fie asiguratã ordinea şi liniştea publicã. Un rol important l-au avut avocaţii românii din Vârşeţ şi protopopul Traian Oprea. În noiembrie 1918 în cercul Vârşeţului s-au format Consiliile Naţionale Locale şi Gãrzile Naţionale.

La începutul lunii noiembrie 1918, avocatul Petru Zepeneag şi protopopul Traian Oprea fãceau demersuri în privinţa organizãrii românilor. Sunt cei care au lansat apelul prin care, în 4 noiembrie 1918, românii din satele limitrofe Vârşeţului erau chemaţi la sediul Bãncii

,,Luceafãrul”, arãtându-se cã intelighenţia românã din Vârşeţ are „[...] datoria sã iniţieze organizarea acestor sate”.1 În apel se mai precizeazã cã se are în vedere susţinerea pãcii şi ordinii publice în satele româneşti din jurul Vârşeţului. Documentul era semnat de avocatul Petru Zepeneag şi protopopul Traian Oprea.

1 Serviciul Judeţean Arad al Arhivelor Naţionale, Fond Consiliul Naţional Român Arad, dosar 14/1918, f. 1 (în continuare S. J. A. A. N.).


124

La 4 noiembrie 1918 s-au întrunit în Vârşeţ liderii românilor şi reprezentaţii soldaţilor şi ofiţerilor români din garnizoana din oraş. S-a

constituit „[...] Consiliul Militar Naţional Român prin care soldaţii şi ofiţerii stau la dispoziţia Consiliului Naţional Român cãruia se alipesc cu credinţã neclintitã”.2 În documentul adoptat cu acest prilej se mai aratã cã sunt gata a conlucra pentru „asigurarea ordinii”. Documentul era semnat de Gavril Mihailov, în calitate de „president”, dar şi de cãpitan dr. Iustin Iuga, locotenent Romulus Molin, iar printre aderenţi îi gãsim pe medicul Luduvic Meheş, pe preotul militar Ion Imbroane, dar şi pe Filip Pop, Andrei Moise, Aron Moise, Nicolae Popovici, Drãgan Blaj, Aurel Balea, Nicolae Vaida, Petru Penţa, Petru Iştvan, Ion Ursu, Antonie Ştefan sau stegarii Aurel Bãlan, Mihai Moise, Virgil Molin, Octavian Luiba, voluntarii sergent Nicolae Imbroane, Ilie Gropşian, Nicolae Mihuţã, Tiberiu Râmneanţu. Acest moment marcheazã constituirea gãrzii naţionale române din Vârşeţ, condusã de colonelul Gavril Mihailov, la care au aderat imediat aproximativ 100 de soldaţi şi civili. Tot pe fondul evenimentelor din 4 noiembrie a fost lansat şi ,,apelul” fruntaşilor români, unde se afirma cã, în urma schimbãrilor radicale, pentru a menţine liniştea şi a nu se

produce „[...] tulburãri şi demonstraţii fãrã rost” s-a decis constituirea în fiecare comunã a consililor naţionale comunale formate din 10-30 de

membri, cu scopul de a „[...] asigura pacea şi ordinea publicã, avutul şi siguranţa personalã”. Se mai aratã cã se doreşte asigurarea averii comunale. Documentul este semnat de fruntaşii români din Vârşeţ şi din jur.

Apelul lansat în 4 noiembrie a ajuns repede în localitãţile româneşti din zona Vârşeţului, fapt ce a determinat organizarea românilor în consilii şi gãrzi naţionale, activitatea lor fiind coordonatã de fruntaşi românii care activau în jurul Consiliului Naţional Român din Vârşeţ. În acest context s-au format consilii naţionale în „peste 30 de sate”.3 Acest lucu este evidenţiat şi de un martor al evenimentelor, Petru Bizerea, care avea sã-şi aminteascã cã în multe comunitãţi româneşti s-au organizat

consiliile naţionale, deoarece „[...] multe din comunele noastre organizate astfel constituiau un fel de republici independente, Banatul nostru nu aparţinea niciunui stat”.4

2 Ibidem, dosar 12/1918, f. 1. 3 Ioan Munteanu, Dumitru Tomoni, Vasile M. Zaberca, Banatul şi Marea Unire. Bãnãţeni la Alba Iulia, Timişoara, Editura Partoş, 2018, p. 33. 4 Petru Bizerea, ,,Românii din Banatul Sârbesc la Alba-Iulia. Amintiri din Vârşeţul de la 1918”, în Almanahul Banatului, 1930, pp. 93-94.


125

Mobilizarea românilor a fãcut posibilã organizarea, în 8 noiembrie

1918, a unei demonstraţii publice, în cadrul cãreia românii au „[...] defilat pe strãzi în cãruţe, purtând steagul naţional român”.5

Încã de la începutul lunii noiembrie a apãrut şi o corespondenţã între liderii români de la Vârşeţ şi cei din Arad care activau în jurul Consiliului Naţional Român Central. În 6 noiembrie 1918 era dezbãtut de liderii românilor din zona Vârşeţului apelul ,,Cãtre Naţiunea Românã” semnat de Ştefan Cicio-Pop. În document se amintea constituirea Consiliului Naţional Român Central şi se fãcea apel la pãstrarea liniştii, cerându-se soldaţilor întorşi de pe front a se înrola în Gãrzile Naţionale. Apelul a fost preluat de liderii românilor, care au mai adãugat unele informaţii referitoare la situaţia din zonã. Se preciza cã s-a format Consiliul Militar Naţional Român, care avea sediul în Vârşeţ, şi se solicita

„[...] ofiţerilor, soldaţilor şi oamenilor de bine sã primeascã cu încredere pe bãrbaţii trimişi de aici cu scopul sã înfiinţeze Gardele naţionale române”. Se mai arãta cã se rãspândiserã multe informaţii false şi se cerea sã nu se acorde atenţie decât informaţiilor venite din partea Consiliul Militar Naţional Român.

Apelul fruntaşilor români din Vârşeţ (Sursã: S. J. A. A. N., Fond Consiliul Naţional Român Arad, dosar 9, f. 1)

În zilele care au urmat, s-au format Gãrzile Naţionale, care aveau

ca scop a „[...] zãdãrnici extinderea anarhiei şi a oferi siguranţa populaţiei”,6

5 Radu Pãiuşan, Mişcarea naţionalã din Banat şi Marea Unire, Timişoara, 1993, p. 138.


126

indiferent de etnie şi religie. Printre primele mãsuri luate de garda din Vârşeţ se numãrã emiterea unei legitimaţii pentru fiecare membru, în care

se preciza cã „[...] posesorul acestei legitimaţii e supus Consiliului Naţional Român şi ca bãrbat de toatã încrederea e încredinţat la purtarea armei”.7 În noiembrie 1918, Consiliul Naţional Român din Vârşeţ era format din 10 fruntaşi: avocat Petru Zepeneag, protopop Traian Oprea, Avram Corcea, Mihai Spãriosu, Nicolae Imbroane, Lazãr Ciuta, Pavel Corcea, Patrichie Râmneanţu, Vasile Banciocat, Ion Malet.

Legitimaţie de membru al Gãrzii Naţionale Române din Vârşeţ (Sursã: S. J. A. A. N., Fond Consiliul Naţional Român Arad, dosar 9, f. 1)

Ca urmare a noii organizãri impuse de sârbi, liderii românilor din

Vârşeţ au activat tot mai intens în jurul Consiliului Naţional Român local. Potrivit protocolului Consiliului Naţional Român Vârşeţ din 9/22 noiembrie, în acest context a fost organizatã o şedinţã prezidatã de avocatul Petru Zepeneag. Este cel care expune protocolul consiliului poporal orãşenesc din 29 octombrie/11 noiembrie şi aduce la cunoştinţã cã se va organiza o şedinţã a consiliului orãşenesc în care se vor alege diferite comisii administrative. Cere sã fie aleşi români care sã fie propuşi ca membri ai comisiilor. Dintre cei propuşi îi amintim pe Augustin Mihuţ pentru comisia de agriculturã, Mihai Spãriosu în comisia pentru orfani, pe Nicolae Imbroane în comisia de aprovizionare, în comisia de

6 Mircea Mãran, ,,Frãmântãri sociale şi mişcãri naţionale în Banatul Sârbesc în toamna anului 1918”, în Anuarul Institutului de Istorie ,,George Bariţiu” din Cluj-Napoca, tom LVII, 2018, p. 297. 7 S. J. A. A. N., Fond Consiliul Naţional Român Arad, dosar 11/1918, f. 1.


127

binefacere pe preoţii Traian Oprea şi Nicolae Baiaş. În total au fost propuşi 19 membri în 13 comisii.

Un moment decisiv în istoria Banatului a fost în 29 octombrie/11 noiembrie când s-a încheiat protocolul de preluare a oraşului Vârşeţ de cãtre trupele sârbe venite din Ungaria. Cu aceastã ocazie, primarul oraşului a salutat, în limba germanã, pe reprezentantul guvernului şi pe

cel al trupelor sârbe, maiorul Dušan Dodić, cerând sã se „[...] dea uitãrii

duşmãnia care a fost în rãzbel”, iar în viitor sã „[...] restabileascã buna înţelegere

între popoare”. A mai cerut ca averea şi bunurile publice sã fie „[...] pãzite sub scutul armatei sârbe”. Ca rãspuns, maiorul Dušan Dodić, comandantul

trupelor sârbe, a mulţumit şi a declarat cã odatã cu „[...] intrarea trupelor sale a primit şi conducerea oraşului şi asigurã popoarele despre siguranţa personalã şi a averii publice şi private”.8 Maiorul aratã cã are dreptul de a suspenda administraţia orãşeneascã şi cere sã se formeze un consiliu naţional care sã aleagã noua administraţie. Declarã cã dorinţa lui este ca fiecare naţiune sã fie reprezentatã în consiliu, dar majoritatea relativã sã o deţinã sârbii. Ca urmare a declaraţiei fãcute, a urmat constituirea consiliilor naţionale. Potrivit protocolului, tot atunci s-a propus şi constituirea unei comisii, care a fost formatã din 8 sârbi, la care se mai adaugã câte 2 reprezentanţi ai celorlalte naţionalitãţi, din partea românilor fiind Petru Zepeneag şi Mihai Spãriosu. S-a mai decis schimbarea a trei funcţionari, primarul, viceprimarul şi notarul. Alte informaţii despre intrarea trupelor sârbe în

oraş apar în paginile ziarului „Opinca”, acolo unde se aratã cã „[...] schimbãrile radicale din ţarã au silit sfatul orãşenesc sã cheme la conducere toate naţionalitãţile”. În aceeaşi zi s-a format sfatul orãşenesc, iar românilor li

s-au oferit 25 de locuri şi „[...] îndatã s-au ales dintre români 25 de membri”,

printre care erau şi Petru Zepeneag şi Petru Iştfan, care „[...] stau zilnic în legãturã cu conducãtorii celorlalte naţiuni”.9

Au urmat demersurile pentru alegerea reprezentanţilor în

conducerea oraşului, iar pentru „[...] simplificarea şi distribuirea dreaptã a mandatelor”10 s-a ajuns la o alegere proporţionalã, în funcţie de numãrul de

„[...] suflete aparţinãtoare respectivei naţiuni”. În document se aratã cã în localitate erau 13.556 germani, 8602 sârbi, 3261 maghiari, 879 români, 629 evrei. S-a decis ca pentru fiecare 1000 de locuitori sã fie 2 mandate, iar dacã erau peste 500 de locuitori se dãdeau tot 2 mandate. S-a ajuns la 28 de mandate pentru germani, 18 pentru sârbi, 7 pentru maghiari, 4 pentru români şi tot 4 pentru evrei. În total erau 61 de mandate. Liderii

8 Ibidem, dosar 17, f. 1. 9 Opinca, an I, numãr 1, 1918, p. 4. 10 S. J. A. A. N., Fond Consiliul Naţional Român Arad, dosar 18, f. 1.


128

care urmau a ocupa aceste mandate trebuiau sã fie delegaţi de reprezentanţii naţionalitãţilor respective şi puteau sã fie bãrbaţi peste 30 de ani şi sã fie susţinuţi de un partid. Se cerea partidelor sã propunã câte o listã pe care sã fie trecute atâtea persoane câte mandate erau pentru naţionalitatea respectivã. Se mai propunea ca poliţia sã fie scoasã din cadrul aparatului administrativ şi sã fie independentã, în fruntea ei fiind

numit un cãpitan care trebuia sã fie „[...] un bãrbat destoinic şi energic”. S-a mai decis alegerea de noi membri în magistratura oraşului, care sã reprezinte toate etniile din Vârşeţ. S-a ajuns la formarea unei noi magistraturi, formate din primar, viceprimar, senator economic, senator financiar, senator socio-cultural, senator militar, şeful oficiului şi un secretar sanitar. În aceste funcţii au fost aleşi 4 germani, 3 sârbi, 1 maghiar, 1 român şi un evreu.

Pe fondul evenimentelor din toamna anului 1918, românii din zona Vârşeţului au început a se organiza şi au pus bazele unei publicaţii în limba românã, ziarul „Opinca”. Primul numãr a apãrut în 11/24 noiembrie 1918, redactori fiind învãţãtorii Petru Bizerea şi Patrichie Râmneanţu. În primul numãr a fost publicat programul ziarului, unde se

aratã cã „[...] foaia noastrã apare în cele mai mãreţe zile ce le-a ajuns poporul românesc”.11 Se mai afirmã cã noua publicaţie are ca scop lupta pentru unitate naţionalã a românilor şi a apãrut ca urmare a deciziei luate de Comitetul Executiv al Partidului Naţional Român prin care se precizeazã

cã „[...] naţiunea românã doreşte ca liberã de orice înrãurire strãinã sã hotãrascã singurã plasarea ei printre naţiunile libere”.12

În paralel cu implicarea românilor în organizarea administrativã a oraşului, asistãm şi la participarea lor în activitãţile Consiliului Naţional Român din Vârşeţ şi la stabilirea unor legãturi cu intelectualii din alte oraşe. În 11/24 noiembrie a avut loc alegerea delegaţilor cercului Vârşeţ care urmau a se deplasa la Alba-Iulia. Momentul este relatat în paginile

publicaţiei „Opinca”, unde se aratã cã s-au înfãptuit alegerile „[...] dupã porunca primitã de la Marele Sfat al Naţiunii Române de la Arad”.13 Au fost aleşi ca reprezentanţi ai cercului Mihai Spãriosu, Petru Iştfan, Patrichie Râmneanţu, Lazãr Ciuta, Ioan Maleta; se mai adaugã locotenentul Valeriu Cârje, reprezentantul gãrzii naţionale din Vârşeţ, şi reprezentantul bisericii, protopopul Traian Oprea. Se mai poate aminti cã unii românii din Vârşeţ au fost aleşi ca reprezentanţi ai altor cercuri, cum este cazul lui Nicolae Imbroane si Romulus Molin, aleşi în cercul Moraviţa. În acelaşi

11 Opinca, an I, numãr 1, 1918, p. 1. 12 Ibidem. 13 Ibidem, numãr 2, 1918, pp. 3-4.


129

numãr al ziarului a fost publicatã, chiar pe prima paginã, convocarea Marii Adunãri Naţionale de la Alba-Iulia. Atmosfera existentã în societatea româneascã din sudul Banatului este relatatã în paginile ziarului local „Opinca”, în articolul ,,Cãtre toţi cei care au purtat şi poartã

opinci”, unde se aratã cã „[...] suntem în pragul unirii tuturor celor de un neam şi un sânge”. Se subliniazã cã a venit momentul ca românii sã îşi cunoascã

drepturile şi obligaţiile: „[...] veţi înţelege cã drepturile de popor liber şi bogat vor trebui apãrate cu tãrie româneascã, iar datorinţele îndeplinite cu credinţã creştineascã”. Se cere românilor a se implica în evenimentele premergãtoare

Marii Uniri, „[...] ştiut fiind prea bine câte piedici ni se pun în calea Unirii”.14 Ocuparea Banatului de cãtre trupele sârbe, conform armistiţiului, şi

apoi revendicarea acestui teritoriu de sârbi a agravat situaţia. Din a doua jumãtate a lunii noiembrie, autoritãţile sârbe au început a lua mãsuri

împotriva românilor. Au fost împiedicate de autoritãţile sârbe „[...] convocarea şi organizarea adunãrilor de alegere a delegaţilor”.15 Potrivit celor relatate în presa epocii, în 30 noiembrie 1918, au fost oprite peste 100 de persoane în gara Timişoara, iar delegaţii din pãrţile Vârşeţului nu puteau obţine legitimaţiile de cãlãtorie de la autoritãţile sârbe.16 Cu toate acestea o parte dintre delegaţii români din Banat au reuşit sã înşele vigilenţa autoritãţilor sârbe şi au participat la Marea Adunare Naţionalã de la Alba-Iulia.

Evenimentele din 1918 dovedesc cã în zona Vârşeţului avem de a face cu o elitã româneascã, din rândul cãreia s-au afirmat adevãraţi lideri ai românilor, care s-au implicat în evenimentele din toamna anului 1918.

14 Ibidem, numãr 1, 1918, p. 4. 15 Ioan Munteanu, Dumitru Tomoni, Vasile M. Zaberca, Banatul şi Marea Unire, p. 61. 16 Românul, numãr 18, 1918, p. 4.


130


131

ASPECTE PRIVIND DECRETUL NUMÃR 177 DIN 4 AUGUST 1948 PENTRU REGIMUL GENERAL AL CULTELOR

RELIGIOASE Aspects Concerning the Decree No. 177 from 4th of August 1948 for

the General Regime of Religious Cults

Cristina Tudor West University, Timişoara, Romania

Abstract: The study analyses decree no. 177 from the 4th of August 1948 for

general regime of religious cults. The paper follows the changes added to religious life in Romania, specially the situation of Romanian Orthodox Church. This decree led path for communist regime to install a severe control over religious life, succeeding to subordinate it to politics. Communist legislation, mostly of soviet origin, determined many changes over the Orthodox Church, but also to other religious cults recognized in Romania. Communist authorities established as a purpose, by adopting a favorable legislative framework, the use of religious cults in means of propaganda and manipulation of the people. Apparently, communist laws appeared to assure large liberties to religious life. It has been suggested the idea that, for the first time in the history of Romania, religious cults will enjoy absolute freedom. In fact, in the content of the Decree there were stipulations that would consciously violate the freedom of manifestation of religious cults and the activity developed by them, aspects characteristic of totalitarian regimes. At a first glance, the 1948 law did not elucidate the true intentions of the regime, yet it gave the regime the first and most important lever of control over religious life.

Keywords: Decree no. 177, 1948, Romanian Orthodox Church, Communism, Legislation, Ministry of Religious Affairs.

Instaurarea comunismului în România a semnificat trecerea la un

regim încãrcat de oprelişti, teroare şi lipsã de transparenţã. Regimul comunist avea sã determine o deviere puternicã a ţãrii, pentru aproape jumãtate de secol, de la respectarea drepturilor şi libertãţilor cetãţenilor. Expunerea unor idei lipsite de adevãr cu intenţia de învrãjbi, criticarea durã a situaţiei dinaintea instaurãrii regimului comunist, negarea contribuţiilor aduse de regimurile anterioare vieţii culturale, religioase, sociale şi economice pregãteau opinia publicã de schimbãrile majore ce aveau sã se petreacã în toate sectoarele de activitate ale ţãrii.

Transformãrile radicale survenite în România dupã 23 august 1944 au influenţat organizarea şi desfãşurarea vieţii religioase. Cultele

Prezentul studiu constituie parte integrantã a proiectului de cercetare doctoralã intitulat „Arta religioasã ortodoxã din Arhiepiscopia Timişoarei şi Caransebeşului în perioada comunistã”, realizat în cadrul Şcolii Doctorale de Ştiinţe Umaniste a Universitãţii de Vest din Timişoara.


132

religioase, inclusiv Biserica Ortodoxã Românã (în continuare BOR), au fost constrânse sã se alinieze schimbãrilor ce au avut loc în România. Preocuparea noului regim politic s-a axat pe subordonarea acestora, acordând o atenţie deosebitã activitãţii desfãşurate de BOR, deoarece aceasta reprezenta, sub aspect religios, majoritatea poporului român.

Cadrul legislativ privind organizarea vieţii religioase a fost stabilit prin Decretul nr. 177 pentru regimul general al cultelor religioase, adoptat la 4 august 1948. Acesta a creat cadrul prielnic subordonãrii cultelor religioase, netezind drumul Statului spre controlarea activitãţii acestora. Legea cultelor poate fi consideratã primul pas important fãcut de autoritãţile comuniste spre impunerea principiilor de facturã comunistã în activitatea desfãşuratã de cultele religioase în România. Aceastã lege avea ca sursã principalã de inspiraţie legea sovieticã, conţinutul ei fiind o preluare fidelã a normelor legislative sovietice.

Comuniştii au gândit stabilirea unei relaţii de subordonare şi control în rândul vieţii religioase cu scopul de a manipula, aplica, convinge şi transmite politica noului regim.1 Cultele religioase ce aveau sã fie recunoscute trebuiau sã îmbrãţişeze şi sã susţinã ideologia comunistã.

Decretul nr. 177/1948 a deschis drumul Statului spre amestecul în problemele de naturã bisericeascã ale cultelor. La propunerea Ministerului Cultelor, guvernul stabilea calitatea de cult şi aproba existenţa acestuia şi a legilor pe baza cãrora urma sã se organizeze şi sã funcţioneze.

Legea cultelor a cunoscut mai multe modificãri înainte de forma finalã, de exemplu la 2 martie 1948, într-o primã variantã, a fost formulat articolul 18, care stipula cã „[…] toate cultele sunt datoare a face servicii religioase atât la solemnitãţile naţionale prevãzute prin legi sau jurnale ale Consiliului de Miniştri, cât şi la cele ocazionale, comunicate prin Ministerul Cultelor”. În proiectul de lege final se menţinea aceastã stipulaţie, însã cu alte cuvinte, astfel cã la articolul 27 se afirma: „La pomeniri, în legãturã cu autoritatea supremã a Statului, care în mod obişnuit se fac cu ocazia diferitelor slujbe religioase, precum şi la solemnitãţile oficiale prevãzute de legi şi deciziuni, se vor întrebuinţa numai formule aprobate, în prealabil, de Ministerul Cultelor. Cultele sunt ţinute, de asemenea, sã nu întrebuinţeze formule şi expresii, în cãrţile de ritual, contrare legilor si bunelor moravuri”.2

În vederea pregãtirii momentului adoptãrii noii legi a cultelor, autoritãţile comuniste, printr-un discurs demagogic şi printr-o falsã

1 Dennis Deletant, România sub regimul comunist, Bucureşti, Fundaţia Academia Civicã, 1997, p. 70. 2 Ministerul Justiţiei, Colecţiune de legi, decrete şi deciziuni, tomul XXVI, 1-31 august 1948, Bucureşti, Editura de Stat, 1948, p. 1783.


133

informare, evidenţiau „problemele” cultelor religioase provocate de guvernele anterioare celui comunist. Partidele istorice, în genere cu trimitere la PNL şi PNŢ, erau acuzate cã au tratat cu dezinteres situaţia cultelor religioase, punându-se, astfel, la îndoialã principiile democratice pe care aceştia le-au prezentat ca fiind primordiale în desfãşurarea şi gestionarea activitãţilor politice şi civice. Se urmãrea crearea impresiei cã regimul comunist avea sã instaureze o formã de democraţie necunoscutã pentru poporul român, lucru care s-a şi întâmplat, însã nu în sens bun. Pânã în anul 1948 comuniştii afirmau cã au reuşit sã înlãture din calea lor „obstacolele nedemocratice”, prin aşa-zisa „luptã dreaptã şi justificatã” împotriva „elementelor potrivnice democraţiei” şi ostile noii orânduiri politice. S-a rãspândit ideea declanşãrii unui proces accelerat de stabilizare şi dezvoltare a ţãrii pe toate planurile. Comuniştii îşi arogau meritul de a fi învins „forţele rãului, ostile regimului şi democratizãrii ţãrii”.

Presa vremii, chiar şi cea bisericeascã, a preluat forţat, prin constrângere, uneori chiar prin simpla conformare la noile condiţii, povestea inventatã de comunişti, insistând pe ideea cã libertatea religioasã a fost restabilitã de regimul comunist. Printr-o propagandã politicã intensã şi foarte bine organizatã s-a reuşit ascunderea realitãţii. Departe de a se asigura libertatea cultelor religioase, comuniştii au reuşit chiar, prin Legea cultelor, sã determine reducerea numãrului de culte recunoscute oficial, de la 60 la 14, controlul asupra acestora fiind exercitat prin Ministerul Cultelor.3 Cultele religioase recunoscute în perioada comunistã au fost: ortodox, romano-catolic, armeano-gregorian, creştin de rit vechi-lipovean, reformat-calvin, evanghelic-luteran, sinodo-presbiterian, unitarian, mozaic, musulman, baptist, adventist de ziua a şaptea, penticostal şi creştin dupã Evanghelie.4

Legea cultelor a impus un regim restrictiv tuturor confesiunilor din ţarã, cultele religioase intrând sub controlul riguros al autoritãţilor comuniste. Implicarea organelor de partid şi a instituţiilor Statului în desfãşurarea activitãţii Bisericii s-a justificat prin aşa-zisa „conştientizare a lipsei eticii şi echitãţii socialiste”5 în rândul acesteia.

Teoretic, Decretul nr. 177, prin modul în care a fost prezentat, lãsa impresia cã, pentru prima oarã în istoria României, cultele religioase se vor bucura în mod egal de libertatea de a se manifesta, fiind protejat dreptul cetãţenilor de a-şi decide singuri apartenenţa la un cult religios

3 Aurel Voicu, ,,Cultele neoprotestante în România comunistã (1948-1960)”, în Historia, www.historia.ro, accesat la 10 octombrie 2018. 4 Nicolae Rusu, Repere istorice în dezvoltarea relaţiilor dintre Stat şi Bisericã la români, Sibiu, Editura Andreiana, 2015, p. 216. 5 Ibidem, p. 219.


134

sau nu. De asemenea, cultele pãreau sã aibã libertatea de a decide cum sã funcţioneze şi de a se organiza liber, condiţionate de neprejudicierea legilor ţãrii, a Constituţiei, a securitãţii şi a ordinii publice,6 condiţii ce urmau sã deschidã drumul autoritãţilor spre abuzuri. Interesul Statului comunist era de a supune controlului politic activitatea religioasã desfãşuratã în România. BOR, constituind religia majoritãţii românilor, a reprezentat o instituţie pe care regimul comunist, prin instituţii însãrcinate în acest scop, o veghea îndeaproape.

În 1948 se aprecia cã ortodocşii reprezintã procentual 75,25% din totalul populaţiei, respectiv în Oltenia 99% din populaţie aparţinea BOR, în Muntenia 95%, în Moldova 89%. Pentru Banat, Transilvania, Bucovina şi Maramureş,7 Stanciu Stoian a afirmat cã procentele cultelor religioase variazã, justificând aceastã situaţie prin trecutul lor: „Situaţia cultelor de dincolo de munţi este oglinda fidelã a curentelor politice, economice şi sociale, care au frãmântat, în trecut, mai mult aceste ţinuturi decât restul ţãrii”.8

Poziţia neoficialã şi de cele mai multe ori neasumatã public a comuniştilor faţã de religie corespundea cu declaraţia lui Alexandru Drãghici, membru al Biroului Politic al CC al PMR şi ministru al Afacerilor Interne, prezentatã în cadrul unei consfãtuiri avute cu conducãtorii Securitãţii, la data de 2-3 decembrie 1957: „Oare, Biserica nu a fost întotdeauna elementul de frânã al progresului poporului, nu ei au opus întotdeauna rezistenţã progresului poporului? De ce aşa de des reacţiunea îmbracã aceastã noţiune, fiindcã astãzi Statul nostru democrat popular nu ia poziţie împotriva religiei, ci aşteaptã doar ca, odatã cu ridicarea culturalã a poporului, el singur sã se edifice asupra acestei noţiuni a «opiului poporului», cum spune Marx, poporul sã vadã singur ce este religia”.9

Oficial, autoritãţile încercau sã convingã poporul cã regimul comunist este un mare susţinãtor al principiilor democratice, al libertãţii şi egalitãţii cultelor religioase. Sub imboldul propagandei, al susţinerii şi întãririi poziţiei autoritãţilor comuniste, multe articole publicate în presa bisericeascã şi în cea politicã, presa fiind controlatã politic şi supusã unei grele cenzuri, îl citau pe Karl Marx, pãrintele socialismului, cu ideea de a sugera credibilitate, adevãr şi siguranţã. Autoritãţile comuniste urmãreau înlãturarea oricãror suspiciuni din partea poporului faţã de mãsurile adoptate, astfel cã, prin apelarea la personalitãţi cunoscute în lumea socialistã, totul pãrea mai verosimil. Cu scopul manipulãrii, citatele

6 Stanciu Stoian, ,,Studiu introductive”, în volumul Cultele religioase în Republica Popularã Românã, Bucureşti, Editura Ministerului Cultelor, 1949, p. 32. 7 Ibidem, p. 43. 8 Ibidem, p. 34. 9 Nicolae Rusu, Repere istorice în dezvoltarea relaţiilor dintre Stat şi Bisericã, p. 119.


135

preluate de la Marx subliniau importanţa religiei pentru un stat socialist, întãrind ideea susţinerii de cãtre regimul comunist a activitãţii religioase. Definiţia datã religiei de cãtre Karl Marx era frecvent folositã în discursul propagandist al autoritãţilor, şi anume: „Religia este suspinul creaturii umane doborâtã de nenorocire, este sufletul unei lumi fãrã inimi, dupã cum este spiritul unei epoci fãrã spirit”.10 Aceastã idee a fost preluatã şi de pãrintele URSS-ului şi aşa-zisul „erou” al Revoluţiei Bolşevice din 1917, dupã cum a fost intitulat în propaganda sovieticã preluatã de toate statele comuniste, Vladimir Ilici Lenin. Acesta a rezumat atitudinea clasei muncitoare, a partidelor muncitoreşti faţã de viaţa religioasã, la urmãtorul citat: „Noi suntem contra celei mai mici injurii adusã convingerilor religioase”, pãrere care, într-o demagogie deplinã şi o ipocrizie crasã, a fost prezentatã ca fiind îmbrãţişatã şi de Stalin.11

De la vorbe la fapte a fost cale lungã, adevãrata atitudine a politicului faţã de viaţa religioasã a fost cu totul alta. În România, dupã adoptarea Decretului nr. 177/1948 s-a schimbat cursul vieţii religioase, acesta stând la baza legilor interne bisericeşti.

Noile Statute de organizare şi funcţionare ale cultelor religioase au fost redactate pe baza acestuia, elaborarea lor fiind solicitatã chiar în conţinutul Decretului, în cadrul articolului care stipula cã, pentru a fi recunoscute, toate cultele religioase au obligaţia de a-şi elabora noi Statute. Dintre cultele religioase recunoscute, Biserica Romano-Catolicã nu a deţinut în perioada comunistã un Statut de funcţionare aprobat de Ministerul Cultelor,12 acesteia aplicându-i-se un regim de tolerare tacitã din partea autoritãţilor. Statutele aveau o importanţã deosebitã, deoarece constituiau legile fundamentale ce reglementau activitatea cultelor în conformitate cu legile statului,13 motiv pentru care trebuiau sã obţinã aprobare din partea Ministerului Cultelor. Referitor la Statutul din 1949 al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, specialistul în drept bisericesc şi profesorul de teologie Liviu Stan aprecia cã acesta a fost conceput pe temeiuri normative cuprinse în Sfintele Canoane, dar, în acelaşi timp, şi în strânsã legãturã cu Constituţia RPR şi cu Legea cultelor. Liviu Stan a caracterizat Statutul din 1949 ca fiind o reflecţie a transformãrilor prin care a trecut România dupã înlãturarea regimului Antonescu, la 23 august 1944, afirmând, în acest sens: „Fireşte însã cã acestea sunt temeiurile şi izvoarele

10 A. C. Rãdulescu, ,,Libertatea religioasã în Republica Popularã Românã”, în Ortodoxia, an I, numãr 2-3, 1949, p. 36. 11 Ibidem. 12 Secretariatul de Stat pentru Culte, Viaţa religioasã din România, Bucureşti, Editura Paideia, 1999, pp. 19-20. 13 Dennis Deletant, România sub regimul comunist, p. 71.


136

formale ale noului Statut, temeiurile sale reale fiind realitãţile vieţii bisericeşti şi acelea ale întregii vieţi a poporului român, cu transformãrile care s-au produs în cadrul acestora de la 23 august 1944 pânã la sfârşitul anului 1948”.14

Liviu Stan a dat credibilitate Statului de democraţie popularã în acordarea libertãţii religioase depline cetãţenilor, fãrã a impune restricţii în vreun sens sau fãrã sã privilegieze vreun anumit cult religios. Legislaţia comunistã prezenta libertatea religioasã oferitã de regimul nou instaurat ca fiind absolutã, fãcându-se totuşi precizarea cã Statul, prin instituţiile sale, reprezintã autoritatea supremã, care dispune modul în care cultele religioase se manifestã public în cadrul vieţii de stat. Statul a intervenit asupra vieţii religioase deoarece cultele îşi exercitau existenţa în cadrul şi nu în afara lui, adãugându-se faptul cã erau susţinute financiar parţial din bugetul sãu. Drepturile extinse ale Statului asupra religiosului erau justificate prin respectarea principiului suveranitãţii,15 în realitate, fiind invocat un principiu al cãrui sens era schimbat, adaptat la ideologia comunistã. Prin extinderea prerogativelor, Statul a reuşit sã îngrãdeascã şi sã încalce în mod conştient drepturile şi libertãţile cetãţenilor. În perioada comunistã totul a funcţionat prin intermediul Statului, cu aprobarea şi sub controlul acestuia şi dupã regulile stricte stabilite de el. Aceste trãsãturi caracterizeazã regimurile totalitare.

Referitor la controlul statului asupra cultelor religioase, Liviu Stan avea sã exprime un punct de vedere ce evidenţiazã o stare de conformare a Bisericii în faţa noii situaţii politice a României, deoarece „corespunde dezvoltãrii vieţii de stat şi interesului acestuia de a cunoaşte şi de a asigura activitatea cultelor, în aşa fel ca niciodatã interesele poporului muncitor sã nu fie înlocuite cu alte interese şi sã nu fie primejduitã sau împiedicatã satisfacerea lor”. Acesta îşi completa pledoaria de susţinere şi apreciere a noii Legi a Cultelor, atribuindu-i calitatea de a fi în mãsurã sã creeze un cadru bazat pe „dreptate şi legalitate”, ce va pune capãt abuzurilor şi interpretãrilor, confuziilor, care fuseserã specifice „vieţii de stat burgheze”, sintagmã folositã frecvent pentru a incrimina regimul anterior instaurãrii comunismului.16

Legea cultelor din 4 august 1948 a avut la bazã Constituţia din acelaşi an, elaboratã dupã modelul Constituţiei Sovietice din 1936.17 Pornind de la articolul 27 al Constituţiei din 1948, Legea cultelor avea sã dezvolte un şir lung de articole care au coordonat organizarea şi

14 Liviu Stan, ,,Statutul Bisericii Ortodoxe Române”, în Studii Teologice, seria II-a, numãr 7-8, 1949, p. 641. 15 Idem, ,,Legea cultelor”, în Studii Teologice, seria a II-a, numãr 9-10, 1949, p. 845. 16 Ibidem, pp. 857-858. 17 Nicolae Rusu, Repere istorice în dezvoltarea relaţiilor dintre Stat şi Bisericã, p. 216.


137

desfãşurarea activitãţii vieţii religioase din România începând cu anul 1948. Articolul 27 a trasat atitudinea Statului faţã de religie şi faţã de cultele religioase din RPR, condiţiile garantãrii libertãţii religioase, obligaţiile şi drepturile cultelor religioase, modul de organizare şi de funcţionare al acestora urmând sã se reglementeze printr-o lege specialã, pe baza cãreia, ulterior, erau elaborate statutele acestora.

Teoretic, articolul 27 al Constituţiei stabilea cã libertatea conştiinţei reprezintã un principiu fundamental, ce urma sã se aplice în România comunistã.18 De asemenea, s-a stipulat şi asigurarea libertãţii şi egalitãţii cultelor religioase. Aceste formulãri au lãsat impresia instaurãrii în viaţa religioasã a unor largi libertãţi de manifestare şi a aplicãrii unei depline egalitãţi între cultele religioase recunoscute, fapt ce i-a determinat pe ierarhii sau conducãtorii acestora sã perceapã legislaţia comunistã ca pe o garanţie în vederea respectãrii independenţei religioase şi instituţionale faţã de Stat. S-a crezut sau mai bine spus s-a dorit sã se creadã cã se va elimina orice formã de amestec a politicului asupra vieţii bisericeşti.19

Sub imboldul propagandei politice şi cu intenţia de a tãinui adevãratele intenţii, regimul democrat popular a accentuat garantarea egalitãţii şi libertãţii cultelor religioase. Noul regim şi-a atribuit misiunea de a îndrepta greşelile trecutului, autoritãţile comuniste urmând sã stabileascã şi sã vegheze la modul în care se vor remedia acestea.

Legea cultelor din 1948 pãrea sã aducã rezolvare tuturor problemelor cultelor religioase şi, în acelaşi timp, pãrea sã reglementeze, pentru prima oarã în istoria României, raporturile dintre Stat şi Bisericã, în favoarea Bisericii.20 Realitatea a fost alta, s-a ajuns ca lucrurile sã stea tocmai invers decât îşi luase angajamentul noul regim. BOR, alãturi de celelalte culte religioase, a fost supusã controlului statului, fiind constrânsã sã adopte o atitudine obedientã faţã de regim. În cazul BOR, Sfântul Sinod, „cea mai înaltã autoritate a BOR pentru toate chestiunile spirituale şi canonice, precum şi pentru cele bisericeşti”,21 a fost înţesat cu membri ai Partidului Comunist Român, reuşindu-se cu uşurinţã manipularea şi implementarea politicilor partidului. Influenţarea alegerilor de numire a episcopilor şi a patriarhului a adus avantaje regimului, acesta netezindu-şi drumul spre atingerea ţintei de a subordona şi controla Biserica Ortodoxã. În urma aplicãrii Legii cultelor, BOR a trecut prin puternice schimbãri. Proprietãţile şi fondurile Bisericii au fost naţionalizate, cea mai

18 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, pp. 843-844. 19 Ibidem, p. 849. 20 Ibidem. 21 ,,Statutul pentru organizarea şi funcţionarea Bisericii Ortodoxe Române”, în Buletinul oficial al Sfântului Sinod „Biserica Ortodoxã Românã”, an LXVII, numãr 1-2, 1949, p. 5.


138

mare parte a instituţiilor sale de învãţãmânt au fost închise sau preluate de cãtre Stat, a fost limitatã instruirea clerului, multe din practicile religioase au fost interzise.22

Adoptarea Legii Cultelor din 1948 a determinat abrogarea Legii pentru regimul general al cultelor, adoptatã la 22 aprilie 1928, publicatã în ,,Monitorul Oficial” nr. 89 din aceeaşi zi. Legea din 1928 s-a bucurat de aprecierea în rândul celor mai mulţi dintre ierarhii cultelor religioase. În cea mai mare parte, aceasta a fost favorabilã cultelor religioase, mai ales cã, în relaţia cu acestea, pornea de la prezumţia de nevinovãţie, adoptând o atitudine tolerantã faţã de viaţa religioasã. Prin conţinutul sãu, aceasta a garantat „tuturor cultelor o deopotrivã libertate şi protecţie, întrucât exerciţiul lor nu atinge ordinea publicã, bunele moravuri şi legile sale de organizare”,23 conform articolului 1 al acestei legi,24 exact contrar legislaţiei comuniste.

Legea cultelor din 1928 a fost conturatã în jurul unor principii democratice, gândite pentru menţinerea unor relaţii bune cu cultele religioase. Intenţia era de a nu minimaliza importanţa cultelor religioase, ci, din contrã, de a clarifica rolul acestora în societate şi în viaţa publicã. De exemplu, în ceea ce privea relaţia BOR cu Statul român, ministrul Cultelor şi Artelor din anul adoptãrii acesteia, Alexandru Lapedatu, a afirmat: „Statul român nu poate considera Biserica ortodoxã în afarã de Stat, pentru cã ea a trãit cu Statul de la începutul organizãrii acestuia”.25

Totuşi, deoarece cultele religioase erau susţinute din bugetul de Stat, constituirea sau desfiinţarea de episcopate necesita acordul Statului. Alexandru Lapedatu afirma cã prin aceastã stipulaţie se evita sãvârşirea de abuzuri sau ilegalitãţi, dând ca exemplu înfiinţarea episcopiei calvine de la Oradea şi a episcopiei luterane maghiare de la Arad,26 Statul putând fi pus în situaţia unor rectificãri bugetare sau chiar în incapacitate de platã, nefiind cuprinse în bugetul pe anul respectiv.

În cazul învãţãmântului teologic, ministrul Cultelor, Alexandru Lapedatu, a fãcut precizarea cã programa instituţiilor teologice trebuie fãcutã cunoscutã, în condiţiile în care cadrele didactice erau plãtite din bugetul Statului,27 acest aspect fiind justificat nu prin controlarea

22 Dennis Deletant, România sub regimul comunist, p. 71. 23 Ch. C. Costescu, Colecţiunea de legiuiri bisericeşti şi şcolare adnotate-Legi, regulamente, canoane, statute, decizii, jurisprudenţe, volum III, Bucureşti, Tipografia „Lupta” N. Stroilã, 1931, p. 98. 24 www.bibliocanonica.com, accesat la 20 octombrie 2018. 25 Alexandru Lapedatu, Noul regim al cultelor în România. Cuvântãrile rostite în Senat şi în Adunarea Deputaţilor, Bucureşti, 1928, p. 28. 26 Ibidem, p. 15. 27 Ibidem, p. 20.


139

activitãţii didactice a cultelor religioase, ci ca o confirmare cã programa respectã normele generale şi principiile de bazã ale învãţãmântului public. Legea pentru regimul general al cultelor din 1928 a pus bazele sistemului cultelor recunoscute, fãcându-se distincţia între cultele istorice, cultele noi şi asociaţiile religioase, stipulaţie cuprinsã la articolul 21.

Conform acestei legi, cultele noi trebuiau sã depunã spre aprobare cãtre Ministerul Cultelor, în vederea recunoaşterii în cadrul Statului, statutele elaborate în condiţiile prevãzute la articolul 22, ,,cuprinzând confesiunea de credinţã, principiile religioase morale şi sistemul de organizare, conducere şi administrare, care statut, dupã ce va fi examinat de Ministerul Cultelor, va fi supus aprobãrii Corpurilor Legiuitoare”.28

Cultele noi erau recunoscute în condiţiile în care „confesiunea de credinţã şi principiile lor religioase morale nu vor fi potrivnice ordinii publice, bunelor moravuri şi legilor ţãrii şi dacã sistemul lor de organizare, conducere şi administrare va fi în conformitate cu dispoziţiunile legii de faţã”, conform articolului 22. Asociaţiile religioase aveau obligaţia de a respecta „regimul legilor privitoare la asociaţiuni în genere şi la întrunirile publice”, se interziceau asociaţiile religioase care propagau „doctrine de naturã a aduce atingere legilor de organizare ale Statului şi instrucţiunilor sale şi care, prin practicile lor rituale, contravin bunelor moravuri şi ordinei publice”, stipulaţii expuse în conţinutul articolului 24.29

În comparaţie cu Legea din 1928, Decretul nr. 177/1948 plasa cultele religioase sub prezumţia de vinovãţie, articolul 6 stipulând: „cultele religioase sunt libere sã se organizeze şi pot funcţiona liber dacã practicile şi ritualul lor nu sunt contrare Constituţiei, securitãţii sau ordinii publice şi bunelor moravuri”.30 Aparent, prin conţinutul articolului 1, se garanta „libertatea de conştiinţã şi de credinţã”; totuşi, libertatea urma sã fie condiţionatã şi limitatã de strecurarea unor prevederi ambigue în conţinutul acestei legi. De exemplu, în vederea respectãrii şi asigurãrii libertãţii de conştiinţã şi de credinţã, totul trebuia sã se facã în conformitate cu prevederile Constituţiei comuniste, lege gânditã de noul regim sã aşeze România, sub toate aspectele, pe drumul spre transformarea ei într-o ţarã socialistã de tip moscovit. Legea cultelor din 1948 a adus în discuţie respectarea securitãţii interne, a ordinii publice şi a moralitãţii generale, înţelese în sensul implementat de regimul comunist, aceste principii dobândind noi valenţe faţã de adevãratul sens. S-a evitat conştient confirmarea faptului cã legile urmau sã fie aplicate dupã bunul plac al autoritãţilor comuniste, ele reprezentând organul suprem care verifica, stabilea, judeca,

28 Ch. C. Costescu, Colecţiunea de legiuiri bisericeşti şi şcolare adnotate, p. 104. 29 Ibidem, pp. 104-105. 30 Constantin Tudosã, Patriarhul Justinian Marina 1948-1977, Târgovişte, Editura Cetatea de Scaun, 2016, p. 130.


140

condamna, prin instituţii însãrcinate în acest sens, natura şi felul încãlcãrii principiilor mai sus enunţate.

Pentru autoritãţile comuniste a devenit prioritarã aplicarea şi respectarea Legii cultelor în condiţiile stabilite de ele. În acest sens, organele de securitate le întocmeau clericilor fişe, în care se stipula o rubricã: „Atitudinea faţã de Legea cultelor din 4 august 1948”. Pentru manifestarea unor atitudini „antidemocratice” preoţii puteau fi suspendaţi sau eliberaţi definitiv sau temporar din funcţii.31

Decretul-lege nr. 177 din 4 august 1948 pentru regimul general al cultelor religioase simbolizeazã instaurarea unui control riguros asupra tuturor activitãţilor desfãşurate de acestea.

Legea cultelor a fost structuratã pe şapte capitole, împãrţite în secţiuni şi articole: primul capitol, intitulat „Dispoziţiuni generale”, era împãrţit în douã secţiuni, Secţiunea I era denumitã „Despre libertatea religioasã” şi Secţiunea a II-a „Despre libertatea organizãrii cultelor”; Capitolul al II-lea trata raporturile dintre Stat şi cultele religioase; Capitolul al III-lea era denumit „Despre activitatea cultelor”; Capitolul al IV-lea trata patrimoniul cultelor religioase; Capitolul al V-lea trata raporturile dintre culte; Capitolul al VI-lea era intitulat „Despre învãţãmântul religios”, iar Capitolul al VII-lea trasa dispoziţii finale şi tranzitorii.32

În cadrul capitolului I, intitulat „Dispoziţii generale”, se regãseau douã secţiuni importante privind desfãşurarea activitãţii cultelor religioase: secţiunea I, „Despre libertatea religioasã”, cuprindea articolele 1-5 şi a doua secţiune, „Despre libertatea organizãrii cultelor”-articolele 6-9. Aceste secţiuni stipulau condiţiile de organizare şi funcţionare a cultelor religioase.

Capitolul al II-lea se referea la „Raporturile dintre Stat şi cultele religioase” (articolele 10-22) şi prevedea obligaţiile credincioşilor de a respecta Constituţia şi legile ţãrii. Se stipula aprobarea de cãtre autoritãţile de stat a conducãtorilor cultelor religioase, care erau obligaţi sã depunã jurãmânt de credinţã faţã de Republica Popularã Românã. O parte importantã din acest capitol fãcea trimitere la condiţiile de înfiinţare şi funcţionare a eparhiilor.

În capitolul al III-lea, intitulat „Despre activitatea cultelor”, cuprinzând articolele 23-27, se preciza cã activitatea cultelor religioase recunoscute trebuia sã se desfãşoare potrivit învãţãturii lor religioase şi statutului de organizare aprobat în conformitate cu legile ţãrii.

31 Ibidem, p. 131. 32 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018.


141

Tot în cadrul acestui capitol se stipula dreptul cultelor religioase recunoscute de a-şi organiza congrese, cu aprobarea Ministerului Cultelor. Acest organism avea autoritatea de a verifica şi interzice orice hotãrâre a cultelor, care era suspectã cã ar putea contraveni statutului de organizare a acestora. În desfãşurarea cultului se putea folosi limba maternã specificã fiecãrui cult, însã în corespondenţa cu Ministerul Cultelor exista obligaţia de a se utiliza limba românã. Cultele religioase erau obligate sã organizeze ceremonii de pomenire la solicitarea autoritãţilor, în cadrul cãrora se foloseau formulele agreate de autoritãţi.

Capitolul al IV-lea, denumit „Despre patrimoniul cultelor religioase”, cuprinzând articolele 28-37, stabilea cã toate cultele religioase recunoscute sunt persoane juridice, astfel cã bunurile cultelor trebuiau inventariate. Cultele aveau bugete proprii, care erau verificate de Ministerul Cultelor. Se stipula cã toate cheltuielile pentru întreţinerea cultelor religioase şi a nevoilor lor puteau fi acoperite şi din contribuţii consimţite de credincioşi, conform articolului 31. Subvenţiile acordate de Stat erau contabilizate şi controlate, conform legii contabilitãţii, ca şi condiţiile patrimoniale de trecere de la un cult la altul, stipulaţie stabilitã la articolul 32.

În capitolul al V-lea, „Raporturile dintre culte”, cuprins între articolele 38 şi 43, se stabileau formalitãţile legale de trecere de la un cult la altul şi condiţiile în care se puteau întreţine relaţii între cultele din ţarã şi alte culte din strãinãtate.

Capitolul al VI-lea, „Despre învãţãmântul religios” (articolele 44-52), reglementa dreptul cultelor religioase de a-şi organiza învãţãmântul pentru pregãtirea personalului deservent sub controlul Statului.

Capitolul al VII-lea, intitulat „Dispoziţii finale şi tranzitorii”,33 cuprindea articolele 53-62. În cadrul acestui capitol sunt însumate articolele anterioare şi sunt prezentate câteva decizii ce emanau din Legea cultelor. De exemplu, se precizeazã desfiinţarea acelor seminarii teologice în care se preda şi cultura generalã. Personalul didactic de specialitãţi laice de la aceste seminarii, împreunã cu prevederile bugetare respective, era trecut din subordinea Ministerului Cultelor în cea a Ministerului Învãţãmântului Public. S-a stabilit ca profesorii care intrau în aceastã categorie sã fie încadraţi, dupã posibilitãţi, la catedre de aceeaşi specialitate sau specialitãţi înrudite. Absolvenţii ce deţineau diplome ale acestor seminarii teologice anterior apariţiei legii de faţã continuau sã

33 Nicolae Rusu, Repere istorice în dezvoltarea relaţiilor dintre Stat şi Bisericã, pp. 222-224.


142

beneficieze de dreptul de a urma învãţãmântul teologic superior, ca şi bacalaureaţii liceelor teoretice sau absolvenţii şcolilor normale.34

Prin noua Lege a cultelor Statul, prin intermediul Ministerului Cultelor, controla şi probleme de naturã ecleziasticã. Autoritãţile comuniste s-au folosit de faptul cã statul urma sã subvenţioneze clerul şi învãţãmântul religios, impunând, sub diverse pretexte, un control rigid asupra cultelor religioase, iar Ministerul Cultelor a îmbrãcat aspectul unui mijlocitor. De asemenea, prin intermediul organelor de represiune şi securitate s-a reuşit ţinerea sub supraveghere a activitãţii religioase,35 fiind interzise sau împiedicate mãsurile neconforme cu principiile comuniste.

Legea cultelor din 1948 enumera vag şi câteva dintre atribuţiile şi drepturile Ministerului Cultelor,36 stabilite detaliat într-o lege dedicatã organizãrii acestuia.37

În vederea obţinerii unei organizãri eficiente a acestuia, dar mai ales cu intenţia lãrgirii prerogativelor, la articolul 25 al Decretului nr. 177 s-a menţionat cã Ministerul Cultelor avea dreptul de a suspenda sau anula orice hotãrâre de ordin administrativ-bisericesc, cultural, educativ, filantropic,38 care ar contraveni statutelor de organizare ale cultului, ordinii publice, legilor statului, siguranţei naţionale şi „bunelor moravuri”.39

Cu scopul cunoaşterii şi înţelegerii Decretului-lege nr. 177 din 4 august 1948, vor fi analizate şi redate într-un mod descriptiv istoric cele mai multe dintre articolele acestuia. Prin analizarea Legii cultelor se urmãreşte clarificarea unor aspecte privind cadrul legislativ care a stat la baza activitãţii cultelor religioase în perioada comunistã.

Articolul 1, adus în discuţie de mai multe ori, stabilea libertatea conştiinţei şi libertatea religioasã pe tot cuprinsul Republicii Populare Române, în condiţiile în care exercitarea ei nu contravenea Constituţiei, securitãţii şi ordinii publice sau bunelor moravuri. Condiţionarea garantãrii libertãţii religioase de interpretãri, de aplicãri eronate cu intenţie a legilor ţãrii, de abuzuri sãvârşite de autoritãţile comuniste, deja a determinat o gravã încãlcare a acesteia. Regimul comunist, prin instituţii abilitate în controlarea vieţii religioase, a gãsit întotdeauna justificare la situaţii anormale create la ordin politic în rândul cultelor religioase.

34 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 35 Constantin Tudosã, Patriarhul Justinian Marina, p. 131. 36 Ministerul Cultelor urma sã fie reorganizat printr-un alt Decret-lege, adoptat tot în 4 august 1948-Decretul nr. 178 pentru organizarea Ministerului Cultelor 37 Ministerul Justiţiei, Colecţiune de legi, decrete şi deciziuni, p. 1789. 38www.www.monitoruljuridic.ro, accesat la 10 octombrie 2018 (textul corectat conform rectificãrii apãrute în ,,Monitorul Oficial” nr. 204 din 3 septembrie 1948.) 39 Ministerul Justiţiei, Colecţiune de legi, decrete şi deciziuni, p. 1782.


143

Dintr-odatã totul a cãpãtat mai multe valenţe, comuniştii putând interpreta orice atitudine a preoţilor, ierarhilor sau altor slujitori din rândul cultelor religioase ca o reacţie ostilã la adresa regimului.

La articolul 2 al Decretului pentru Regimul General al Cultelor Religioase se continua ideea garantãrii de cãtre Statul român a libertãţii religioase, insinuându-se, pentru a se justifica anumite abuzuri, cã existã persoane care încearcã crearea unor situaţii tensionate, în acest sens afirmându-se: „ura confesionalã manifestatã prin acte care stânjenesc liberul exerciţiu al unui cult religios recunoscut constituie un delict şi se pedepseşte conform legii”.40

La articolul 3 al Legii pentru regimul general al cultelor, în spiritul primelor douã articole, autoritãţile comuniste întãreau principiul asigurãrii libertãţii religioase, stipulându-se: „Nimeni nu poate fi urmãrit pentru credinţa sa religioasã sau pentru necredinţa sa”.41 Aceste 3 articole, expuse şi în faza de început a Decretului-lege, lãsau impresia promovãrii şi asumãrii unei largi toleranţe religioase din partea autoritãţilor comuniste, lucru ce nu s-a realizat, dimpotrivã, a constituit calea legalã prin care se justificau reacţiile opresive ale regimului la adresa vieţii religioase.

În acest sens, Petru Groza, prim-ministru al guvernului instalat la 6 martie 1945, lãsând la o parte demagogia, cu scopul de a intimida şi stopa orice formã de rezistenţã şi criticã la adresa regimului în rândul cultelor religioase, cu trimitere specialã la Biserica Ortodoxã Românã, afirma, fãrã sã lase loc de interpretãri: „Între realitãţile mari ale vieţii se numãrã, însã, şi credinţa religioasã, care se prezintã-în chip organizat-în cultele religioase, în societãţile şi asociaţiile religioase şi, mai precis, în Biserica marii majoritãţi a poporului nostru. Dar dacã noile forme de viaţã nu înlãturã Biserica din calea lor, nici Biserica nu are dreptul sã se punã de-a curmezişul şi sã stânjeneascã dezvoltarea şi progresul poporului nostru, pentru cã s-ar pune de-a curmezişul vieţii însãşi. Ea nu poate fi staticã, iar dacã este, nu poate rãmâne astfel, dacã ţine sã fie mereu o realitate a societãţii noastre”.42 Acest citat, ce poate fi încadrat cu uşurinţã în categoria asumãrii poziţiei reale faţã de cultele religioase, îmbracã forma unui avertisment la adresa celor care intenţionau sã se opunã demersului promovat de comunişti. Formulându-l direct, fãrã prea multe ocolişuri demagogice, Petru Groza a sugerat cultelor religioase poziţia pe care trebuie sã o adopte în relaţia cu regimul comunist. Li se oferea acestora ca soluţie, pentru continuarea existenţei şi pentru desfãşurarea activitãţii

40 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 41 Stanciu Stoian, Studiu introductiv, p. 36. 42 Petru Groza, ,,Biserica nu trebuie sã fie staticã”, în volumul Cultele religioase în Republica Popularã Românã, Bucureşti, Editura Ministerul Cultelor, 1949, p. 59.


144

lor, susţinerea regimului şi conformarea în faţa noilor condiţii impuse. Au existat numeroase cazuri de nesupunere faţã de regulile stabilite de comunişti, mulţi clerici şi conducãtori ai cultelor religioase au încercat sã stãvileascã abuzurile noului regim, fiind înlãturaţi prin acuze false, pensionaţi forţat sau chiar înfundaţi în închisorile din România, unde au înfruntat teroarea şi cruzimea regimului.

Petru Groza continua sã-şi menţinã modul direct şi ostil în exprimarea atitudinii sale faţã de cultele religioase, mai exact faţã de BOR, precizând: „Dar alãturi de Bisericã, mai existã o mare realitate a vieţii; este Naţiunea. Precum nimeni nu poate contesta cã existã credinţã religioasã şi Bisericã, tot astfel nimeni nu poate nega cã oamenii sunt grupaţi în naţiuni, care nu sunt creaţiuni artificiale, ci realizãri fireşti ale vieţii. Biserica noastrã nu poate avea dreptul sã fie intolerantã faţã de alte credinţe şi culte religioase”.43 Aducând în discuţie audienţa preşedintelui Asociaţiei Internaţionale pentru Asigurarea Libertãţii Religioase, care era şi delegat al Organizaţiei Naţiunilor Unite în aceeaşi problemã, Petru Groza a transmis cã acest diplomat a fost impresionat de situaţia cultelor religioase în RPR, afirmând: „Dupã ce a cercetat diferitele lãcaşuri de închinare ale diferitelor culte, domnul acesta a ajuns la constatarea cã nicãieri ca în ţara noastrã n-a putut afla o mai largã libertate a credinţei în Dumnezeu”.44 Groza sugera cã regimul asigura libertate şi largi drepturi cultelor religioase şi BOR, justificând abuzurile de orice formã ale regimului la adresa acestora pe seama nerespectãrii legilor ţãrii şi a refuzului de a accepta schimbãrile produse dupã anul 1948. În acest sens, Groza afirma: „Vor fi, desigur, unii care vor propune sã ne ferim de orice schimbare, sã stãm pe loc, sã nu evoluãm, ci sã ne oprim într-o stare ce ar pãrea, unui numãr restrâns dintre noi, mulţumitoare… Noi am lichidat monarhia şi am instituit Republica Popularã Românã, pentru cã monarhia nu mai corespundea de multã vreme stadiului de dezvoltare a poporului nostru, devenind o piedicã în calea progresului sãu”.45 În viziunea liderilor comunişti, întreaga legislaţie comunistã şi transformãrile impuse întruneau şi respectau toate principiile „democratice”, nu degeaba regimul comunist, în prima etapã a existenţei sale, se intitula „democraţie popularã”.

Petru Groza conştientiza importanţa menţinerii Bisericii de partea regimului şi simularea unei relaţii bune cu aceasta, afirmând: „în numele Guvernului, în numele poporului pe care-l reprezintã acest Guvern-dupã cum s-a verificat şi în alegerile de la 28 martie 1948 şi în numele meu personal, aduc mulţumiri înaltului cler al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, pentru cã a înţeles aceste

43 Ibidem, pp. 59-60. 44 Ibidem, pp. 61-62. 45 Ibidem, pp. 63-64.


145

adevãruri şi realitãţi şi pentru cã a avut o atitudine de loialitate cetãţeneascã în timpul consultãrii poporului asupra noii forme de stat, în timpul referendumului pentru Constituţia Republicii Populare Române, în care, pentru prima oarã în istorie, erau înscrise marile cuceriri ale poporului român, pe tãrâm economic, politic şi social. În atitudinea de atunci şi în jurãmântul de credinţã faţã de RPR depus de înaltul cler ortodox, eu vãd încã o garanţie a colaborãrii dintre Guvern şi Bisericã”.46 La nivelul propagandei şi manipulãrii politice, autoritãţile comuniste au stat foarte bine, pentru comunişti a fost importantã salvarea aparenţei în orice situaţie. Dupã prãbuşirea comunismului, prin accesul la documentele de arhivã, a reieşit cã realitatea a fost alta decât cea prezentatã de autoritãţile comuniste la momentul respectiv.

Articolul 4 preciza cã decizia de a participa la servicii religioase ale unui cult aparţine fiecãruia, nimeni neputând fi constrâns în vreun fel. La articolul 5 era tratatã aceeaşi problemã, stipulându-se cã nu existã bazã legalã pentru constrângerea enoriaşilor, prin mãsuri administrative, sã contribuie la susţinerea financiarã a cheltuielilor unui cult.

Articolele 6 şi 7 stabileau condiţiile funcţionãrii şi organizãrii libere a cultelor religioase, acestea fiind obligate sã respecte şi sã se organizeze conform legilor ţãrii şi Constituţiei, iar acţiunile şi activitãţile lor sã nu fie contrare securitãţii, ordinii publice şi bunelor moravuri. Ele se puteau organiza dupã norme proprii, respectându-şi învãţãturile, ritualurile şi canoanele.

La articolul 8 se prevedea dreptul cultelor religioase recunoscute de a deţine organe de judecatã religioasã pentru disciplinarea personalului din serviciul lor. Acestea se organizau prin regulamente speciale, aprobate prin decret al Prezidiului Marii Adunãri Naţionale, la propunerea Ministerului Cultelor.47

La articolul 10 se stipula obligaţia enoriaşilor, indiferent cãrui cult aparţineau, de a se supune legilor ţãrii,48 asemenea cultelor religioase.

Articolul 11 stipula cã delictele şi crimele de drept comun sãvârşite de conducãtorii cultelor religioase se vor „judeca de Curţi, cu recurs la Curtea Supremã”.

La articolul 12 al Legii cultelor se prevedea obligaţia cultelor religioase de a-şi crea organizaţii centrale, reprezentative şi responsabile în faţa Statului.49 Justificarea pentru aceastã prevedere era încercarea de a se stopa fenomenul prin care unele organizaţii religioase se sustrãgeau oricãrui control din partea Statului. Astfel de reacţii erau puse de

46 Ibidem, p. 64. 47 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 48 Stanciu Stoian, Studiu introductiv, p. 33. 49 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018.


146

autoritãţile comuniste pe seama caracterului subversiv, prin care unele organizaţii îşi ascundeau activitatea desfãşuratã, neconformã cu doctrina lor religioasã,50 cel mai adesea contrarã legilor Statului.

Aceste stipulaţii lasã sã se vadã şi sã se înţeleagã adevãratele intenţii ale regimului. Cultele religioase erau bãnuite cã desfãşurau activitãţi contrare Statului. Pornind de la aceastã premisã, au fost întreprinse acţiuni de control, schimbare sau chiar blocare a unor activitãţi desfãşurate de acestea.

Legea cultelor prevedea, la articolul 13, cã pentru organizarea liberã şi în sensul funcţionãrii, cultele religioase trebuiau sã fie recunoscute prin Decretul Marii Adunãri Naţionale, la propunerea Guvernului, în urma recomandãrii Ministerului Cultelor. În cadrul articolului 14 se stipula: „În vederea recunoaşterii, fiecare cult religios va înainta, prin Ministerul Cultelor, spre examinare şi aprobare, statutul sãu de organizare şi funcţionare, însoţit de mãrturisirea de credinţã respectivã”.51

Acest decret-lege a clarificat şi stabilit cele mai multe din aspectele ce ţineau de relaţia religiosului cu viaţa politicã, de exemplu la articolul 16 se interzicea organizarea partidelor politice pe bazã confesionalã.52 Aceastã prevedere se încadreazã în demersul regimului comunist de a cãuta sã identifice toate cãile prin care sã se poatã controla şi epura mediul bisericesc de persoane neagreate de regim sau considerate ostile acestuia.

La articolul 17, cu scopul de a controla şi cunoaşte îndeaproape activitatea cultelor religioase, pãrţile componente locale ale acestora, precum comunitãţi, parohii, unitãţi, grupe, trebuiau sã fie înscrise într-un registru special al primãriei cãreia îi aparţineau. În aceste registre erau trecute nominal organele de conducere şi control şi se indica numãrul membrilor care fãceau parte din pãrţile componente locale ale cultelor religioase.53

Articolele 18 şi 19 prevedeau cã pentru funcţionarea unei asociaţii sau fundaţii cu scop religios era necesarã aprobarea Guvernului, prin intermediul Ministerului Cultelor. Inclusiv inscripţiile, semnele simbolice, sigiliile sau ştampilele privind denumirea cultului trebuiau sã aibã în prealabil aprobarea Ministerului Cultelor.

La articolul 20 se stipula cã şefii cultelor religioase, ierarhii, precum şi întreg personalul din serviciul cultelor trebuiau sã fie cetãţeni români.

50 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, pp. 857-858. 51 Nicolae Rusu, Repere istorice în dezvoltarea relaţiilor dintre Stat şi Bisericã, p. 229. 52 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, p. 853. 53 Ministerul Justiţiei, Colecţiune de legi, decrete şi deciziuni, p. 1780.


147

Articolul 21 prevedea obligaţia şefilor cultelor, a mitropoliţilor, a arhiepiscopilor, a episcopilor, a superintendenţilor, a administratorilor apostolici, a vicarilor administrativi şi a altora, având funcţii asemãnãtoare, aleşi sau numiţi în conformitate cu statutele de organizare ale cultului respectiv, de a depune jurãmânt de credinţã în faţa ministrului Cultelor. Aceştia erau recunoscuţi prin decret dat de Prezidiul Marii Adunãri Naţionale, la propunerea Guvernului, în urma recomandãrii ministrului Cultelor.54

Prin jurãmântul de credinţã depus, arhiereii şi preoţii îşi asumau cã vor respecta şi apãra poporul şi Republica Popularã.55

Înainte de a intra în funcţie, toţi aceştia rosteau jurãmânt de credinţã în faţa ministrului Cultelor, respectând urmãtoarea formulã de jurãmânt: „Ca slujitor al lui Dumnezeu, ca om şi ca cetãţean, Jur de a fi credincios Poporului şi de a apãra Republica Popularã Românã, împotriva duşmanilor din afarã şi dinãuntru; Jur cã voi respecta şi voi face sã se respecte de cãtre subalternii mei legile Republicii Populare Române; Jur cã nu voi îngãdui subalternilor mei sã întreprindã şi sã ia parte şi nici eu nu voi întreprinde şi nu voi lua parte la nici o acţiune de naturã a aduce atingere ordinei publice şi integritãţii Republicii Populare Române. Aşa sã-mi ajute Dumnezeu!”.56

Ceilalţi membri ai clerului ce aparţineau diferitelor culte, cât şi preşedinţii sau conducãtorii comunitãţilor locale, trebuiau sã depunã jurãmânt de credinţã, înainte de intrarea lor în funcţie, în faţa şefilor lor ierarhici, dupã urmãtoarea formulã: „Ca slujitor al lui Dumnezeu, ca om şi ca cetãţean, Jur de a fi credincios Poporului şi de a apãra Republica Popularã Românã împotriva duşmanilor din afarã şi dinãuntru; Jur a respecta legile Republicii Populare Române şi de a pãstra secretul în serviciul orânduit de Stat. Aşa sã-mi ajute Dumnezeu!”.57 Ceilalţi funcţionari din serviciul cultelor religioase depuneau jurãmânt în faţa autoritãţilor competente de Stat dupã formula de jurãmânt a funcţionarilor publici, expusã în Legea nr. 363 pentru constituirea Statului Român în Republica Popularã Românã din 30 decembrie 1947, la articolul 8 stipulându-se: „Jur de a fi credincios poporului şi de a apãra Republica Popularã Românã împotriva duşmanilor dinafara şi

54 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 55 Vladimir Tismãneanu, Dorin Dobrincu, Cristian Vasile, Raport final, Bucureşti, Editura Humanitas, 2007, p. 260. 56 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 57 Ministerul Justiţiei, Colecţiune de legi, decrete şi deciziuni, p. 1781.


148

dinãuntru. Jur a respecta legile Republicii Populare Române şi de a pãstra secretul în serviciu”.58

Un articol deosebit de important pentru reorganizarea activitãţii cultelor religioase în perioada comunistã a fost articolul 22. Pe baza acestei prevederi au fost desfiinţate mai multe centre religioase din România. Comuniştii, sub pretextul aplicãrii principiului egalitãţii religioase, şi-au trasat ca sarcinã înlãturarea privilegiilor şi nedreptãţilor provocate prin legislaţia elaboratã de regimul anterior cu privire la cultele religioase.59 Astfel, prin Decretul nr. 177/1948, în conţinutul articolului menţionat, s-a impus, în vederea legitimãrii organizaţiilor eparhiale, numãrul de 750.000 de credincioşi pentru existenţa unei eparhii. Practic, cultele religioase, cu organizaţii eparhiale, deţineau un numãr de eparhii raportate la numãrul global al credincioşilor.60 Aceastã prevedere avea sã determine reducerea numãrului de eparhii prin desfiinţarea sau comasarea lor, fãrã a fi necesar a rosti clar acest lucru. Aplicarea proporţionalitãţii numerice a credincioşilor în organizarea unitãţilor eparhiale ale cultelor care deţin aceastã organizare a fost prezentatã ca expresie a aplicãrii principiului egalitãţii cultelor,61 marea reuşitã pe care şi-a atribuit-o regimul comunist.

Cultele religioase trebuiau sã-şi construiascã activitatea respectând legile ţãrii şi „bunele moravuri”, aspect stabilit prin articolul 23. Tot acest articol stabilea obligaţia cultelor de a se ghida în activitatea lor dupã învãţãtura religioasã şi dupã statutele de organizare aprobate şi în conformitate cu legile ţãrii.62 Legea cultelor stabilea restricţii în ceea ce priveşte colaborarea cultelor religioase acceptate în Republica Popularã Românã cu cele similare din afara graniţei, relaţiile putând fi doar religioase şi trebuind sã fie supuse controlului Statului, formulându-se ca pretext respectarea legilor şi intereselor României.63 Acest articol justifica decizia Statului comunist de a anula Concordatul de la Vatican, pe care Stanciu Stoian îl catalogase ca fiind un prejudiciu politic şi material, afirmând, în acest sens: „Abrogarea Concordatului înseamnã o eliberare şi pentru

58 Legea nr. 363 din 30 decembrie 1947 pentru constituirea Statului Român în Republica Popularã Românã, publicatã în ,,Monitorul Oficial”, nr. 300 din 30 decembrie 1947, a fost emisã de Parlament, sursã www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 10 octombrie 2018. 59 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, pp. 857-858. 60 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 61 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, p. 862. 62 Stanciu Stoian, ,,Studiu introductive”, p. 34. 63 Ibidem, p. 36.


149

credincioşii catolici, pentru cã ei nu vor mai putea fi exploataţi feudal de cãtre organe ale papalitãţii”.64

Articolul 24 stipula dreptul cultelor religioase de a-şi putea organiza adunãri generale, congrese, conferinţe şi consfãtuiri locale, însã cu aprobarea Ministerului Cultelor. Acest organism al Statului devenise extrem de prezent, prin acest Decret, în activitatea cultelor.

La articolul 25 se preciza obligaţia cultelor religioase de a-şi folosi, în manifestãrile şi activitatea lor, limba maternã, limba românã fiind obligatorie numai pentru corespondenţa dintre culte şi Minister.65

La articolul 28 se stipula calitatea de persoanã juridicã a cultelor religioase recunoscute şi a pãrţilor lor componente locale, a aşezãmintelor, a asociaţiilor, a ordinelor şi a congregaţiilor, care erau stipulate în statutele lor de organizare şi care îndeplineau dispoziţiile legii persoanelor juridice.

Bunurile mobile şi imobile ale cultelor religioase şi ale diferitelor pãrţi constitutive ale acestora erau inventariate de organele lor statutare, conform articolului 29. Datele inventarelor erau transmise cãtre Ministerul Cultelor care, conform atribuţiilor sale, exercita dreptul de verificare şi control.

Articolele 30, 31 şi 32 prevedeau dreptul cultelor religioase şi al tuturor pãrţilor componente de a-şi întocmi bugete proprii, în care se stipulau veniturile şi cheltuielile, controlate, la rândul lor, de Ministerul Cultelor, subvenţiile acordate de Stat fiind contabilizate conform legii contabilitãţii publice. Enoriaşii puteau participa la întreţinerea cultelor, Legea cultelor reglementând posibilitatea acoperirii cheltuielilor pentru întreţinerea cultelor religioase şi a nevoilor lor din contribuţii consimţite de credincioşi.66

La articolul 33, ce îmbrãca o formã restrictivã la adresa slujitorilor cultelor religioase, se stipula cã „preoţii care exprimau atitudini antidemocratice puteau fi lipsiţi temporar sau permanent de salariul lor, asigurat de stat”.67 Articolul a fost conceput ca o ameninţare la adresa celor care îndeplineau atribuţii în viaţa religioasã. Prin aceastã prevedere s-a deschis drumul autoritãţilor spre sãvârşirea de abuzuri la adresa reprezentanţilor cultelor religioase. În cazul unei simple supoziţii cã cineva din interiorul Bisericii ar fi avut atitudini sau reacţii ce contraveneau legilor ţãrii şi care priveau ordinea „democraticã” a Republicii Populare Române, se retrãgeau total

64 Ibidem, p. 29. 65www.monitoruljuridic.ro, accesat la 10 octombrie 2018 (textul corectat conform rectificãrii apãrute în ,,Monitorul Oficial”, nr. 204 din 3 septembrie 1948). 66 Ibidem. 67 Ibidem.


150

sau parţial subvenţiile acordate de stat. Trebuie precizat cã salariile clerului cultelor erau asigurate de cãtre Ministerul Cultelor.68 Statul comunist a acţionat rapid, fiecare pas a fost gândit în avantajul sãu.

Prin atitudinile „antidemocratice” de care riscau sã fie acuzaţi preoţii şi conducãtorii cultelor religioase, comuniştii înţelegeau mai degrabã o nealiniere şi o nerespectare a directivelor partidului. Pentru a fi pe placul regimului şi pentru a se evita sancţionarea sau excluderea unor ierarhi sau preoţi din viaţa religioasã, cu siguranţã, trebuiau îndeplinite sarcini ce reprezentau cu adevãrat comunismul şi care nu corespundeau, din punct de vedere moral, dogmatic şi canonic, principiilor propovãduite de lumea religioasã.

Documentele de arhivã din perioada comunistã confirmã abuzurile şi presiunea regimului la adresa unor preoţi care nu erau pe placul autoritãţilor, percepuţi ca un posibil pericol la adresa regimului. Aceştia au fost scoşi, sub diverse acuze, din serviciul religios sau mutaţi în alte parohii, invocându-se motive disciplinare sub aspect profesional, politic sau al relaţiei cu autoritãţile. La nivel local, autoritãţile erau solicitate sã elaboreze detaliat caracterizãri ale preoţilor, urmãrind relatarea unor aspecte privind activitatea desfãşuratã de preot, apartenenţa sau nu la o grupare politicã, orientarea politicã, pregãtirea profesionalã, atitudinea şi comportamentul în comunitate, aspecte legate de moralitatea şi popularitatea acestuia.69

Caracterizãrile s-au realizat tuturor preoţilor, indiferent de cultul religios cãruia îi aparţineau,70 autoritãţile urmãrind sã cunoascã în detaliu cât de influent era preotul în comunitatea la care era arondat, dacã avea sau nu prizã la oameni. Toate caracterizãrile erau redactate în limbajul specific regimului, cu formulãri exagerate şi din care se putea înţelege politica de ansamblu dusã de partid. La adresa preoţilor se foloseau frecvent expresii ce scoteau în evidenţã intenţia autoritãţilor de a elimina persoane neagreate din diverse motive, cele mai multe inventate. Mulţi era catalogaţi ca fiind elemente refractare şi reacţionare, brãtienişti, manişti, fascişti, foşti hitlerişti, sabotori ai mãsurilor guvernului sau regimului. Nu existau limite, se intra în detaliu chiar şi în aspecte de viaţã personalã. Selecţia preoţilor a fost sever realizatã. Pentru a fi pe placul regimului, aceştia trebuiau sã fie lipsiţi de avere, obligatoriu fideli regimului, mesageri ai politicii comuniste, sã se bucure de popularitate,

68 Dennis Deletant, România sub regimul comunist, p. 71. 69 Serviciul Judeţean Timiş al Arhivelor Naţionale, Fond Prefectura Judeţului Timiş-Torontal, dosar nr. 166/1948, ff. 2-6 (în continuare S. J. T. A. N.). 70 Ibidem, f. 4.


151

dar pe care sã o foloseascã în beneficiul puterii politice. Presiunile autoritãţilor la adresa vieţii şi activitãţii religioase au crescut.71

Multe dintre acuzele aduse preoţilor se bazau pe fapte ireale sau supoziţii ale autoritãţilor comuniste locale. Se urmãrea ca, prin aceastã selecţie, sã nu rãmânã vreun „element” nedorit de regim, care prin continuarea activitãţii religioase ar fi putut aduce prejudicii imaginii instituţiilor Statului. Au fost excluşi preoţi doar ca mãsurã de siguranţã, nu se dorea ca vreun preot cu influenţã asupra oamenilor sã susţinã alte idei în afara celor transmise de regimul comunist. Excluderea celor mai mulţi preoţi din serviciul religios, temporar sau chiar permanent, s-a fãcut ca o mãsurã de precauţie, nu se dorea naşterea vreunui focar de rãzvrãtire în lumea ruralã sau urbanã. Scopul autoritãţilor comuniste era de a „tãia” din faşã tot ce deranja.72 Aceste caracterizãri denotã „libertatea” de care s-au bucurat cultele religioase şi slujitorii lor. Oricine, care ajungea în dizgraţia regimului, putea, cu cea mai micã uşurinţã, sã fie eliminat. Decretul nr. 177 a favorizat creşterea numãrului de abuzuri la adresa preoţilor şi ierarhilor, în ciuda aparenţei cã urma sã vegheze la garantarea libertãţii religioase.

Prin articolul 35 al noii Legi a Cultelor a fost desfiinţatã instituţia patronatului de drept privat, rãmânând în fiinţã instituţia patronatului de drept public.73

Articolele 36-38 stipulau libertatea trecerii de la un cult la alt cult religios recunoscut. Cu aceastã ocazie, se fãceau cunoscute consecinţele pierderii de cãtre un cult religios a unui numãr de credincioşi, cultul religios care pierdea enoriaşi pierdea, de fapt, pãrţi din patrimoniul sãu, patrimoniu ce trecea în patrimoniul comunitãţii locale a cultului în care s-au înscris enoriaşii. În cazul cultelor ce nu au fost recunoscute prin aceastã lege, patrimoniul lor a fost trecut în proprietatea Statului, conform articolului 36. În cazul în care peste 75% din credincioşii unui cult treceau la alt cult, întreaga avere a acestuia era strãmutatã în patrimoniul comunitãţii locale a cultului adoptat, fiind formulat dreptul „de despãgubire pentru comunitatea localã pãrãsitã, proporţional cu numãrul celor rãmaşi fãrã a se socoti biserica (locaşul de închinãciune, casa de rugãciuni) şi edificiile anexe; aceastã despãgubire va fi plãtitã în termen de cel mult 3 ani de la stabilirea ei. Cazurile prevãzute în acest articol vor fi constatate şi soluţionate de judecãtoria popularã a locului”.74

71 Ibidem. 72 Ibidem, f. 1. 73 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, p. 866. 74 www.monitoruljuridic.ro, accesat la 10 octombrie 2018 (textul corectat conform rectificãrii apãrute în ,,Monitorul Oficial”, nr. 204 din 3 septembrie 1948.)


152

La articolul 40 se stipula cã orice relaţie a cultelor religioase cu strãinãtatea va avea ca scop probleme de naturã religioasã, cu aprobarea Ministerului Cultelor şi prin intermediul Ministerului Afacerilor Externe. Acest articol, pentru a i se da legitimitate, a fost legat de respectarea suveranitãţii şi independenţei Statului român. Practic, s-a interzis stabilirea de legãturi între cultele religioase şi alte culte din strãinãtate, dar, ca sã se pãstreze ideea de „largi libertãţi”, s-a precizat cã se pot menţine relaţii doar dacã erau de naturã pur religioasã şi dacã erau stabilite cu acordul Ministerului Cultelor şi prin intermediul celui de Externe.75 Acest articol lovea, în primul rând, în Biserica Romano-Catolicã, care şi-a desfãşurat activitatea canonicã-bisericeascã şi dogmaticã, pânã în 1948, în relaţie directã şi liberã cu Vaticanul, respectând legile în vigoare ale României.

Articolul 41 continua în aceeaşi direcţie, stabilindu-se cã jurisdicţia cultelor religioase din ţarã nu se poate întinde în afara teritoriului Republicii Populare Române. În acelaşi timp, era exclusã exercitarea jurisdicţiei unor culte religioase din strãinãtate asupra credincioşilor din cuprinsul Statului Român.

Articolul 42 prevedea cã ajutoarele sau ofrandele primite din strãinãtate de cultele religioase din ţarã sau trimise de acestea în strãinãtate erau controlate de Stat.

Prin articolul 43 se stipula cã bunurile bisericeşti aflate în strãinãtate şi interesele religioase ale cetãţenilor români în strãinãtate puteau constitui obiectul unor înţelegeri internaţionale pe bazã de reciprocitate.

O preocupare deosebitã în cadrul acestei Legi a cultelor a fost acordatã învãţãmântului religios, la capitolul VI al Decretului nr. 177/1948 fiind precizate condiţiile funcţionãrii şi recunoaşterii învãţãmântului religios. Referitor la organizarea acestuia, Legea cultelor venea cu modificãri majore, cultele religioase puteau sã organizeze învãţãmânt, sub controlul statului, doar pentru pregãtirea personalului cultului.76

Autoritãţile comuniste şi-au propus sã elimine orice neînţelegere, dorind sã traseze directivele ce urmau sã se aplice în organizarea acestui tip de învãţãmânt. Legea cultelor oferea dreptul fiecãrui cult religios de a organiza doar învãţãmânt religios, nu general, drept prevãzut şi în Constituţia din 1948, în cadrul articolului 27, unde se preciza clar cã „nici

75 Octavian Trailovici, ,,Un an de la proclamarea R. P. R.”, în Foaia Diecezanã, an LXIV, numãr 1-2, 1949, p. 2. 76 Stanciu Stoian, Studiu introductiv, p. 37.


153

o confesiune, congregaţie sau comunitate religioasã nu poate deschide sau întreţine instituţii de învãţãmânt general”.77 Ţinta regimului comunist a fost atinsã, acesta reuşind etatizarea şi laicizarea învãţãmântului de culturã generalã.78

În urma noilor legi adoptate, învãţãmântul religios rãmânea sub controlul Statului, relaţie intermediatã de Ministerul Cultelor. În acelaşi timp, se interzicea cultelor religioase sã organizeze învãţãmânt general, laic, acestea fiind organizate de Stat, pe baza Constituţiei şi a Legii învãţãmântului public.79 Conform Constituţiei din 1948, învãţãmântul de culturã generalã era organizat exclusiv de Stat, acesta devenind singurul care avea dreptul de a îl organiza şi administra. Fiecare cult religios avea dreptul de a-şi organiza şcoli pentru pregãtirea personalului clerical, unde sã-i fie respectate canoanele bisericeşti şi doctrina religioasã.

Autoritãţile comuniste recunoşteau cã au existat obiecţii în privinţa etatizãrii şi laicizãrii învãţãmântului de culturã religioasã şi, în acest caz, ministrul Cultelor, Stanciu Stoian, aprecia cã se reparã o nedreptate, constatând cã doar cultele religioase ce dispuneau de averi şi fonduri puteau sã-şi întemeieze învãţãmânt propriu. Averea acestor culte era pusã sub semnul întrebãrii, ministrul folosind expresia „dispuneau de averi şi fonduri, pe drept sau pe nedrept, mãrturisite sau nu”. Cultele ce deţineau învãţãmânt propriu erau acuzate cã îndrumau întregul învãţãmânt, în condiţiile în care cei mai mulţi dascãli şi preoţi erau consideraţi ca având scopuri strãine intereselor poporului şi Statului, în dauna altor culte.80 Sub aceste pretexte, conducerea comunistã a cãutat sã creeze un cadru legislativ ce avea sã-i înlãture din învãţãmântul public şi cel religios pe cei care nu se conformau sau nu corespundeau noilor criterii de selecţie.

Articolul 44 fãcea trimitere tot la învãţãmânt, reglementând normele generale care urmau sã stea la baza organizãrii învãţãmântului religios pentru pregãtirea funcţionarilor cultelor. S-a stipulat cã elaborarea programelor şcolare şi crearea instituţiilor de învãţãmânt religios era decisã de organele competente ale cultelor religioase respective, dar erau supuse spre aprobare Ministerului Cultelor.81

Articolul 45 prevedea cã membrii Corpului didactic erau numiţi de organele statutare ale cultului religios respectiv, în conformitate cu

77 www.legislatie.just.ro, Constituţia Republicii Populare Române, publicatã în ,,Monitorul Oficial”, nr. 87 bis din 13 aprilie 1948, emisã de Marea Adunare Naţionalã, accesat la 10 octombrie 2018. 78 Stanciu Stoian, Studiu introductiv, p. 21. 79 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, pp. 855-856. 80 Stanciu Stoian, Studiu introductiv, p. 21. 81 www.monitoruljuridic.ro, accesat la 10 octombrie 2018 (textul corectat conform rectificãrii apãrute în ,,Monitorul Oficial”, nr. 204 din 3 septembrie 1948).


154

statutul şi normele aprobate de minister. În cazul celor salarizaţi de Stat, era necesarã recunoaşterea prealabilã a ministerului, iar pentru cei plãtiţi de cult era necesarã confirmarea în termen de 15 zile de la numire. Ministerul Cultelor avea dreptul de a anula numirile fãcute, motivând decizia prin încãlcãri ale ordinii publice sau siguranţei Statului.82

Articolul 47 stabilea obligaţia cultelor religioase de a comunica Ministerului Cultelor toate informaţiile cu privire la organizarea şi funcţionarea învãţãmântului pentru pregãtirea personalului ecleziastic.

Articolul 48 stipula dreptul cultelor religioase de a-şi organiza învãţãmânt pentru pregãtirea clerului, a personalului echivalent şi ajutor sau a deservenţilor cultului, a predicatorilor cu aprobarea ministerului. Acestea puteau organiza trei tipuri de şcoli: şcolile de cântãreţi ce puteau fi urmate dupã absolvirea gimnaziului unic sau a celor şapte clase primare, aşa numitul învãţãmânt elementar de şapte clase; şcolile pentru pregãtirea clerului mirean şi monahal care cuprindea seminariile teologice ce puteau fi frecventate în aceleaşi condiţii ca şcolile de cântãreţi, institutele teologice aveau la bazã absolvirea liceului sau a şcolii normale pedagogice şi institutele teologice de grad universitar, pentru care era necesar bacalaureatul sau diploma de şcoala normalã pedagogicã, cu aceleaşi condiţii de admitere şi cu obligaţia de a avea o organizare asemãnãtoare cu aceea a universitãţilor, atât ca pregãtire, precum şi ca numãr de ani de studii.83

Fiecare cult religios îşi alegea, pentru formarea clerului, una din aceste forme de aşezãmânt şcolar.

Articolul 49 stabilea numãrul instituţiilor teologice de grad universitar pentru pregãtirea clerului, cultului ortodox putea avea douã instituţii, cultul catolic unul singur, cu secţiile speciale necesare, cultele protestante puteau avea un singur institut teologic de grad universitar, cu secţiile speciale necesare.84

În 1949 erau prevãzute în bugetul Statului întreţinerea a urmãtoarelor unitãţi de învãţãmânt religios ortodox: 3 Institute Teologice de grad universitar, 6 centre de îndrumare a Clerului, 10 şcoli de cântãreţi şi 5 Seminarii de cãlugãri şi cãlugãriţe. Prin reforma învãţãmântului s-a interzis învãţãmântul religios din şcoli, Biserica organizând învãţãmânt religios doar în instituţiile cu caracter religios.85

Articolul 50 stipula dreptul cultelor religioase de a deţine internate pentru cazarea elevilor sau studenţilor care frecventau şcolile, respectiv

82 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 83 Stanciu Stoian, Studiu introductiv, p. 39. 84 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 85 Octavian Trailovici, ,,Un an de la proclamarea”, p. 2.


155

institutele de pregãtire a clerului. Internatele puteau fi folosite doar de cei care erau înscrişi la şcoala sau institutul respectiv.

La articolul 51 se prevedea organizarea unitarã şi trecerea întregului învãţãmânt religios sub jurisdicţia spiritualã şi canonicã a cultelor, dar sub controlul didactic şi administrativ al Ministerului Cultelor.86 Articolul 52 stipula cã încadrarea profesorilor urma sã se realizeze în baza unui decret la propunerea Ministerului Cultelor.87

Conform articolului 54 s-a decis transformarea Facultãţii de Teologie din Bucureşti în Institut Teologic de grad universitar, fapt ce a determinat trecerea personalului didactic şi administrativ, împreunã cu prevederile bugetare respective, de la Ministerul Învãţãmântului Public, la Ministerul Cultelor.

Învãţãmântul de culturã generalã a trecut în subordinea Statului, justificându-se aceastã decizie prin asigurarea unei pregãtiri ştiinţifice în spiritul vremii, urmãrindu-se evitarea implicãrii religioase în programa analiticã a şcolii şi asupra modului ei de aplicare. Autoritãţile comuniste explicau aceastã mãsurã prin intenţia de a organiza un învãţãmânt cu structurã unitarã.88

Justinian Marina a adus în discuţie o declaraţie a ministrului Învãţãmântului, publicatã într-un numãr al ziarului ,,Scânteia”,89 organul de presã oficial al Partidului Comunist, privind justificarea organizãrii învãţãmântului public sub controlul Statului, pe care pãrea sã o susţinã: „Pentru aşezarea învãţãmântului public pe baze realist-ştiinţifice, era nevoie de laicizarea învãţãmântului prin separarea şcolii de Bisericã… Aceasta nu înseamnã însã cã Biserica nu este liberã sã-şi facã propaganda ei religioasã. Constituţia asigurã tuturor cultelor dreptul de a-şi face propagandã religioasã, precum şi dreptul de a avea şcoli pentru pregãtirea cadrelor profesionale religioase. Una este însã propaganda religioasã, care trebuie sã se facã în biserici şi în localuri de închinãciune şi alta este instrucţia şi cultura, care trebuie sã se facã în şcoalã sub controlul Statului”.

Patriarhul Justinian Marina a mai menţionat şi un alt fragment din „Scânteia” din care reieşea poziţia oficialã a conducerii RPR cu privire la învãţãmântul din România, redat cu intenţia de a legitima trecerea învãţãmântului sub controlul statului: „anumite elemente reacţionare rãmase încã în rândurile învãţãtorimii şi corpului didactic, elemente reacţionare din cler, precum şi elemente fascisto-reacţionare, strecurate pe alocuri în rândurile aparatului de

86 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, p. 855. 87 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018. 88 Stanciu Stoian, Studiu introductiv, p. 38. 89 „Scânteia”, numãr 1357, cel mai probabil este vorba de ministrul Învãţãmântului, Gheorghe Vasilichi.


156

Stat şi organizaţiei democratice, au fãcut încercarea de a lovi cu acest prilej în interesele maselor populare”.90

Declaraţiile de presã ale liderilor comunişti erau îndreptate împotriva a tot ce se dovedea potrivnic regimului, cãutând sã argumenteze mereu cã trebuie sã fie vigilenţi şi severi, deoarece în România existã multe „elemente” reacţionare ce trebuie reeducate. În aceste condiţii, regimul a început o luptã ideologicã bazatã pe represiune şi teroare, milioane de români devenind victime.

Articolul 56 prevedea obligaţia cultelor religioase recunoscute de a-şi înainta statutul de organizare Ministerului Cultelor, în vederea aprobãrii lui. Noul statut trebuia elaborat în concordanţã cu prevederile legii de faţã, în termen de 3 luni de la data intrãrii în vigoare a acestei legi. Aprobarea statutelor se fãcea prin decret al Prezidiului Marii Adunãri Naţionale, la propunerea Ministrului Cultelor. La articolul 57 se stabilea cã orice modificare în cadrul statutelor de organizare ale cultelor religioase se putea face doar cu aprobarea ministerului.

Ca urmare a separãrii domeniului politic de cel religios, a fost desfiinţat şi clerul militar, armata cãpãtând un caracter politic, detalii privind aceste aspecte regãsindu-se în conţinutul articolelor 58-61. În mare parte, se stipulau condiţiile atribuirii obligaţiilor clerului militar cãtre cel obişnuit.91 Clericii militari urmau sã fie încadraţi în posturi de preoţi în eparhiile unde au mai funcţionat sau unde existau posturi vacante.92

Privit per ansamblu, Decretul nr. 177 pentru regimul general al cultelor religioase a determinat implementarea politicilor regimului comunist la nivelul vieţii religioase. Acest act normativ a declanşat etapa decisivã a instaurãrii controlului Statului asupra cultelor religioase. În cea mai mare parte, prin conţinutul Decretului nr. 177, s-a netezit drumul autoritãţilor comuniste şi al organismelor politice de stat create, în acest sens, sã controleze şi sã supravegheze îndeaproape activitatea desfãşuratã de cultele religioase şi, în acelaşi timp, sã traseze indicaţiile ce trebuiau respectate cu stricteţe.

Noua lege a cultelor religioase a determinat creşterea influenţei Statului în raport cu viaţa religioasã. Comuniştii au reuşit, prin legislaţia adoptatã, sã plaseze Statul pe o poziţie superioarã faţã de cultele religioase şi, în relaţia cu acestea, sã domine întreaga situaţie. Statul, prin intermediul Ministerului Cultelor, avea rolul de a controla, aproba şi

90 Justinian, ,,Atitudinea Bisericii Ortodoxe Române faţã de regimul democraţiei populare”, în volumul Cultele religioase în Republica Popularã Românã, Bucureşti, Editura Ministerul Cultelor, 1949, pp. 119-120. 91 Liviu Stan, ,,Legea cultelor”, p. 862. 92 www.legislatie.just.ro, accesat la 4 octombrie 2018.


157

solicita modificarea legilor bisericeşti. Cultele religioase, în vederea funcţionãrii, erau obligate sã înainteze documentele solicitate de Ministerul Cultelor spre aprobare. Un astfel de document ce trebuia înaintat Ministerului Cultelor şi care avea şi o mare importanţã şi pentru activitatea cultelor religioase era reprezentat de Statutul de funcţionare şi organizare a acestora. Legile interne ale acestora trebuiau sã respecte legile adoptate la nivel politic, cele mai importante erau transmise spre aprobare Ministerului Cultelor.

Regimul comunist din România a funcţionat pe baza principiilor şi caracteristicilor specifice regimului totalitar de stânga, vizibile în acţiunile, legislaţia şi proiectele desfãşurate, cel mai adesea preluând ca model lumea sovieticã. Ironia perioadei comuniste constã în faptul cã la nivel teoretic-propagandistic, chiar şi scriptic, se susţinea cã se urmãrea afirmarea şi aplicarea principiilor democratice; în realitate, comunismul românesc s-a dovedit a fi o încãrcãturã de oprelişti, control, teroare, represiune şi o puternicã încãlcare a drepturilor şi libertãţilor cetãţeneşti. Analizarea legislaţiei comuniste determinã înţelegerea adevãratelor intenţii ale regimului, şi anume instaurarea unui control sever asupra tuturor domeniilor de activitate.


158


159

NIKITA S. HRUŞCIOV ŞI CHESTIUNEA FRONTIERELOR ÎN CADRUL BLOCULUI COMUNIST. STUDII DE CAZ:

CHINA, IUGOSLAVIA, POLONIA, ROMÂNIA, UNGARIA ŞI URSS

Nikita S. Khrushchev and the Border Issues within the Communist Bloc. Case Studies: China, Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania, Hungary

and the USSR

Mihai Croitor, Sanda Croitor ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Abstract: Based on documents retrived from the Romanian archives, our study is

trying to to analyzethe main views promoted by Nikita S. Khrushchev towards the boundaries between the communist states. Thus, we analyzed the speech delivered by the Soviet leader on March 7, 1959 in Leipzig, as well as the message addressed by Khrushchev to the Heads of State on December 31, 1963. In addition, we analyzed thedifferent views, regarding the border issues between the socialist states, promoted during the Preparatory Conference held in Bucharest (June 24-26, 1960), as well as during the Moscow Meeting of the Communist and Workers’ Parties (November 1960). As case studies we chose China, Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania, Hungary and the USSR, focusing our attention on how the border issues influenced the dynamics of political and diplomatic relationswithin the communist camp until Khrushchev’s debacle.

Keywords: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, borders.

La 7 martie 1959, în cadrul celei de-a XI-a Conferinţe Muncitoreşti

pe întreaga Germanie, organizatã la Leipzig, Nikita S. Hruşciov aducea în discuţie chestiunea frontierelor între statele socialiste. Pornind de la premisa potrivit cãreia „nu conferinţele schimbã graniţele statelor”, acestea fiind rezultatul „victoriei sau capitulãrii” dupã finalizarea unui conflict, liderul de la Kremlin sublinia, în cheie strict ideologicã, faptul cã problema frontierelor era una ,,acutã pentru multe state capitaliste”.1 În egalã mãsurã, adãuga prim-secretarul PCUS, deşi chestiunea frontierelor îşi fãcea simţitã prezenţa şi în rândul statelor socialiste, totuşi, în interiorul lagãrului comunist „problema graniţelor capãtã alt caracter şi nu va mai avea acea ascuţime pe care a avut-o în capitalism”.2

În aceastã ordine de idei, liderul sovietic avea sã recurgã la câteva studii de caz din interiorul monolitului comunist. Referindu-se la graniţa dintre Polonia şi Uniunea Sovieticã, preşedintele Consiliului de Miniştri

1 Arhivele Naţionale Istorice Centrale, Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 49/1959-1970, f. 1-2 (în continuare A. N. I. C.). 2 Ibidem.


160

al URSS sublinia faptul cã, „dacã ar fi sã-i întrebãm pe ucrainieni sau pe bieloruşi, ei vor spune cã din actualul terioriu al Poloniei fac şi acum parte o serie de raioane care au aparţinut înainte Ucrainei şi Bielorusiei”.3 Negând faptul cã între Uniunea Sovieticã şi Polonia ar exista probleme teritoriale litigioase, totuşi, Nikita S. Hruşciov adãuga urmãtoarele: „eu sunt convins cã în Polonia este o oarecare parte a populaţiei care nu considerã juste frontierele existente şi vrea probabil ca ele sã fie situate mai la rãsãrit decât sunt acum”.4 În privinţa graniţei dintre Iugoslavia şi Ungaria, Nikita S. Hruşciov sublinia, în cadrul discursului de la Leipzig, faptul cã dupã finalizarea celei de-a doua conflagraţii mondiale, o parte a teritoriului care aparţinuse odinioarã Ungariei intrase în componenţa Iugoslaviei, unde „locuiesc circa un milion de unguri”.5 În acest context, liderul sovietic va aduce în discuţie şi „problema Transilvaniei unde locuieşte un numãr considerabil de români cât şi de unguri”, aceastã zonã geograficã fiind perceputã de cãtre Hruşciov drept locul „unde s-au ciocnit în cea mai acutã formã interesele României monarhice şi ale Ungariei hortiste”.6 În egalã mãsurã, liderul de la Kremlin amintea şi de graniţa dintre România şi URSS. Astfel, Hruşciov afirma faptul cã o parte a teritoriului Republicii Sovietice Socialiste Moldoveneşti (RSSM), recte Basarabia, fusese „cotropitã de regele român”, ulterior fiind „din nou reunitã cu teritoriul sovietic”. Subliniind faptul cã între URSS şi Republica Popularã Românã (RPR) nu existau chestiuni litigioase legate de frontierã, totuşi liderul sovietic afirma, faptul cã „în rândurile unei anumite pãrţi a populaţiei” RPR se manifesta convingerea potrivit cãreia Basarabia se constituia într-o parte integrantã a teritoriului României.7

Uzând din plin de retorica marxist-leninistã, Hruşciov avea sã sublinieze faptul cã chestiunea frontierelor reprezenta „una dintre cele mai acute şi complexe probleme” lãsatã moştenire de „vechea lume capitalistã”.8 Care era soluţia propusã de cãtre liderul sovietic pentru rezolvarea acestei „probleme”? Rãspunsul era unul simplu şi letal contaminat ideologic: construirea societãţii comuniste. În cadrul preconizatei societãţi comuniste, „vechile noţiuni despre graniţe ca atare se vor perima”, rãmânând pentru o scurtã perioadã de timp „doar graniţe etnografice”.9 Care era garanţia „succesului”? Liderul de la Kremlin nu se va sfii sã dea chiar exemplul Uniunii Sovietice, afirmând urmãtoarele: „Cã acest lucru va fi

3 Ibidem. 4 Ibidem. 5 Ibidem. 6 Ibidem, f. 2-3. 7 Ibidem. 8 Ibidem, f. 4. 9 Ibidem.


161

tocmai aşa, îl aratã procesul ce se desfãşoarã în Uniunea Sovieticã (sic!) care este un stat multinaţional […] Pe mãsura înaintãrii ţãrii noastre spre socialism, graniţele dintre diferitele republici unionale în esenţã au început sã disparã”.10

Interesant este faptul cã în cadrul Consfãturii Partidelor Comuniste şi Muncitoreşti, organizatã la Bucureşti între 24-26 iunie 1960 (aşadar, într-un cadru restrâns), Nikita S. Hruşciov va aduce din nou în discuţie chestiunea graniţelor în interiorul monolitului comunist, promovând o viziune distinctã faţã de cea ilustratã la Leipzig. Astfel, la 26 iunie 1960, în cadrul unei discuţii caustice cu Hysni Kapo (delegat al Partidului Muncii din Albania) şi Peng Zhen (delegat al Partidului Comunist Chinez), liderul de la Kremlin va afirma urmãtoarele: „Ce ar fi dacã astãzi, între ţãrile socialiste, problema s-ar pune în felul acesta: suntem cu toţii comunişti, sã facem un schimb de pãreri şi sã vedem, poate cã frontierele dintre ţãrile noastre nu sunt chiar aşa de just stabilite. Sã stãm de vorbã. Ştiţi, tovarãşi, în acest caz nimeni n-ar rãmâne aici cu pãr pe cap, ne-am lua la ceartã şi n-am rezolva aceste probleme. Nu voi numi acum ţãrile, nu voi spune ce ţarã are pretenţii faţã de altele, toate ţãrile au câte o pretenţie la alta, la douã sau la trei ţãri. Dar esenţa acestei probleme este un fleac, care nu valoreazã nici cât o ceapã degeratã”.11 Deopotrivã interesant este şi modul în care Hruşciov se raporteazã, de aceastã datã, la situaţia din Uniunea Sovieticã. Bunãoarã, liderul PCUS afirma urmãtoarele: „În Uniunea Sovieticã existã un sistem unic socialist, format din 15 republici unionale. Dacã am aduna Comitetele Centrale ale tuturor republicilor unionale şi le-am spune: tovarãşi, atunci când s-au stabilit hotarele dintre republici au fost comise greşeli, ar trebui sã discutãm, sã vedem dacã sunt just trasate, iar dacã nu sunt juste, haideţi sã le corectãm. Tovarãşi, ar ieşi aşa o ciorovãialã, încât am descompune partidul. Astãzi, când omul merge pe şosea şi trece hotarul dintre Ucraina şi Bielorusia, el nici nu ştie pe unde trece hotarul, pentru cã stâlpi de graniţã nu existã, nu stã nicio santinelã acolo, care sã indice cã e frontierã. Şi totuşi, în cazul unei discuţii, ucraineanul s-ar lua la ceartã cu bielorusul. Ar cere sã se strãmute graniţa pe care în mod fizic nu o cunoaşte, nu ştie pe unde trece”.12 Aşadar, în cadrul dezbaterii din

10 Liderul sovietic va afirma, de asemenea, urmãtoarele: „Dacã veţi întreba acum un rus, un ucrainean sau un bielorus, dacã pentru ei mai este actualã problema graniţelor administrative ale republicilor lor, cred cã majoritatea acestor oameni vor fi surprinşi de o asemenea întrebare. De ce? Deoarece în cadrul statului nostru socialist toate naţiunile şi populaţiile sunt egale în drepturi, viaţa se clãdeşte pe o bazã comunã, socialistã, sunt satisfãcute în egalã mãsurã cerinţele materiale şi spirituale ale fiecãrui popor, ale fiecãrei naţionalitãţi” (Ibidem, f. 5). 11 Vezi în acest sens: „Document 5: 26 iunie 1960, Bucureşti. Stenograma consfãtuirii reprezentanţilor partidelor comuniste şi muncitoreşti, referitoare la divergenţele ideologice sovieto-chineze (fragment)”, în Mihai Croitor (editor), La Bucureşti s-a scris: „Sciziune!”. Consfãtuirea partidelor comuniste şi muncitoreşti din iunie 1960, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega, 2013, p. 279. 12 Ibidem.


162

26 iunie 1960, Nikita S. Hruşciov va adopta un ton diferit comparativ cu cel folosit în cadrul discursului public de la Leipzig din 7 martie 1959. Explicaţia pentru aceastã schimbare de tonalitate rezidã, probabil, în faptul cã afirmaţiile sale din 26 iunie 1960 fuseserã rostite în cadrul restrâns al celor 51 de delegaţii ale partidelor comuniste şi muncitoreşti prezente la Consfãtuirea de la Bucureşti şi nu într-un cadru public.

Revenind, însã, la discursul rostit de cãtre Hruşciov la 7 martie 1959, trebuie subliniat faptul cã Iugoslavia a fost singurul stat care a ales sã rãspundã public liderului sovietic. Astfel, în cadrul unui articol publicat la 2 aprilie 1959 în „Komunist”, autoritãţile iugoslave analizau discursul rostit de cãtre Hruşciov la Leipzig, relevând faptul cã între chestiunile menţionate de cãtre liderul sovietic cu referire la graniţa iugoslavo-maghiarã şi faptele istorice exista o veritabilã disonanţã. Astfel, potrivit factorilor decizionali de la Belgrad: „Înainte de al doilea rãzboi mondial acest teritoriu aparţinea Iugoslaviei; el a fost ocupat în aprilie 1941 de cãtre armata fascistã maghiarã şi eliberat mai târziu prin lupta armatei naţionale de eliberare şi a detaşamentelor de partizani ai Iugoslaviei cu ajutorul Armatei Roşii”.13 În egalã mãsurã, Belgradul contesta şi numãrul etnicilor maghiari din Iugoslavia, înaintat de cãtre Hruşciov la Leipzig, relevând faptul cã, potrivit rezultatelor ultimului recensãmânt al populaţiei, aici trãiesc 507.000 maghiari.14 De asemenea, meritã a fi menţionat faptul cã ziarul „Borba” publica la 4 aprilie 1959 reacţia lui Drago Kunţ (purtãtor de cuvânt al Secretariatului de Stat pentru Afaceri Externe) pe marginea discursului rostit de cãtre Hruşciov la Leipzig. Rãspunsul oficialului iugoslav era unul fãrã echivoc: „Este vorba de o prezentare inexactã a faptelor. Presupunem cã la mijloc este o greşealã. Aşteptãm explicaţii din partea sovieticã”.15

În ceea ce priveşte lipsa de reacţie a Bucureştiului faţã de discursul rostit de cãtre Hruşciov la 7 martie 1959, meritã a fi menţionat modul în care Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej se raporta la aceastã chestiune în cadrul întrevederii cu Iosip Broz Tito, organizatã la Pişchia la 22 iunie 1964. „Tov. Hruşciov-afirma liderul PMR-a pus şi în public problema Basarabiei şi în general a graniţelor dintre ţãrile socialiste, în cuvântarea pe care a ţinut-o la Leipzig în 7 martie 1959 (publicatã în ,,Pravda” din 27 martie 1959). Acolo a vorbit şi de Transilvania, arãtând doar cã în aceastã regiune trãieşte un important numãr de români şi de maghiari, cã aceasta este o moştenire blestematã etc. Noi n-am publicat aceastã parte a cuvântãrii şi, deşi n-am fost de acord cu ea, nu am rãspuns. Am

13 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 49/1959-1970, f. 12. 14 Ibidem. 15 Ibidem, f. 13-14.


163

remarcat însã rãspunsul dat de presa dv., care ne-a plãcut”.16 În mod evident, la momentul anului 1959, politica externã a RPR era profund ancoratã pe culoarul conformismului ideologic faţã de Moscova şi, pe cale de consecinţã, autoritãţile de la Bucureşti au pãstrat tãcerea vis-à-vis de discursul rostit de cãtre Hruşciov la Leipzig. Însã, în contextul distanţãrii faţã de Moscova, discursul liderului de la Kremlin va fi utilizat de cãtre autoritãţile de la Bucureşti tocmai pentru a ilustra perfidia sovieticã.

Noi divergenţe cu privire la chestiunea graniţelor dintre statele socialiste se vor ivi în cadrul Secretariatului Comisiei Redacţionale, convocatã la finalul lunii septembrie 1960, cu scopul pregãtirii unui proiect de Declaraţie care urma a fi adoptat la Moscova, în cadrul Consfãturii partidelor comuniste şi muncitoreşti din noiembrie 1960.17 În cadrul proiectului iniţial de Declaraţie fusese inclusã afirmaţia potrivit cãreia „în natura sistemului socialist mondial nu sunt cauze obiective pentru contradicţii şi conflicte între popoarele şi statele care fac parte din acest sistem”.18 Date fiind tensiunile sino-sovietice existente la acel moment, delegaţia chinezã a propus un amendament în virtutea cãruia „nu sunt cauze obiective pentru contradicţii antagoniste între popoarele şi statele sistemului mondial socialist sau cauze obiective care ar putea servi drept barierã pentru rezolvarea justã a contradicţiilor neantagoniste între aceste state”.19 Propunerea delegaţiei chineze se va lovi de refuzul celorlalte delegaţii prezente în cadrul Comisiei Redacţionale, cu excepţia reprezentantului Partidului Muncitoresc Socialist Ungar (PMSU). Astfel, Nemes Dezsó (membru al Biroului Politic al CC al PMSU şi redactor-şef al ziarului „Népszabadság”),20 fiind de acord cu prima parte a amendamentului chinez (referitor la „contradicţiile antagoniste”), va promova o viziune distinctã în privinţa „contradicţiilor neantagoniste”, afirmând urmãtoarele: „Rog pe tovarãşii chinezi

16 Vezi în acest sens: „Document 70: 1964 iunie 22. Stenograma discuţiilor organizate la Pişchia între delegaţia românã condusã de cãtre Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, preşedinte al Consiliului de Stat al RPR şi prim-secretar al CC al PMR, şi delegaţia iugoslavã condusã de cãtre Iosip Broz Tito, preşedinte al RSFI şi secretar general al UCI, referitoare la divergenţele româno-sovietice”, în Mihai Croitor, Sanda Borşa (editori), Triunghiul suspiciunii: Gheorghiu-Dej, Hruşciov şi Tito (1954-1964). Documente, volum II, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega, 2014, p. 510. 17 „1960 decembrie 19-20. Stenograma sedinţei plenare a CC al PMR în care a fost discutat raportul lui Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej cu privire la Conferinţa Partidelor Comuniste şi Muncitoreşti de la Moscova din noiembrie 1960”, în Dan Cãtãnus (editor), Între Beijing şi Moscova. România şi conflictul sovieto-chinez, volum I, Bucureşti, Editura INST, 2004, p. 118. 18 Ibidem, p. 119. 19 Ibidem. 20 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 60/1960, f. 37.


164

sã renunţe la aceastã propunere, pentru cã aici se ating probleme pe care nouã ne e extrem de incomod a le pune. Noi avem probleme de graniţã între Romania, Ungaria, Cehoslovacia şi altele. De ce trebuie sã vorbim în general despre aceasta?”.21 Afirmaţiile reprezentatntului PMSU vor determina reacţia delegaţiei PMR, aceasta transmiţând conducerii Comisiei Redacţionale faptul cã intervenţia lui Nemes Dezsó era „expresia unei atitudini naţionaliste, şoviniste”.22 Ulterior, dupã finalizarea şedinţelor Comisiei Redacţionale, delegaţia PMSU avea sã transmitã reprezentanţilor PMR o stenogramã refãcutã a întâlnirii în cauzã, stenogramã potrivit cãreia Nemes Dezsó ar fi afirmat urmãtoarele: „Rog delegaţia chinezã sã renunţe la completãri cu privire la rezolvarea contradicţiilor între ţãrile socialiste, deoarece o asemenea completare poate da imbold discuţiilor cu privire la fostele probleme divergente între state”.23

Liderul sovietic va relua chestiunea frontierelor în cadrul mesajului adresat şefilor de state la 31 decembrie 1963. Recunoscând faptul cã existã pretenţii teritoriale şi litigii „legate de desãvârşirea eliberãrii unui popor sau altul de sub jugul colonial sau de sub ocupaţia strãinã”, totuşi Nikita S. Hruşciov sublinia faptul cã de cele mai multe ori acestea erau legate de „reglementarea postbelicã”.24 În egalã mãsurã, adãuga liderul de la Kremlin, pentru a-şi justifica propria poziţie, statele recurgeau la argumente istorice, o acţiune perceputã ca fiind inutilã, întrucât nu conducea la rezolvarea divergenţelor.25 Considerând cã unele state aveau „motive întemeiate pentru pretenţiile lor”,26 Hruşciov se pronunţa împotriva rezolvãrii pe cale militarã a acestor diferende teritoriale. Prin urmare, liderul PCUS avansa ideea semnãrii unui acord internaţional „prin care statele ar renunţa la folosirea forţei pentru rezolvarea litigiilor teritoriale şi a problemelor de frontiere”.27 Desigur, afirmaţiile liderului de la Kremlin, dincolo de încãrcãtura ideologicã inerentã, se încadrau în doctrina coexistenţei paşnice promovatã de cãtre URSS. Trebuie menţionat faptul cã, la momentul respectiv, un subiect contondent pe agenda divergenţelor sovieto-chineze era reprezentat tocmai de doctrina coexistenţei paşnice. Astfel, potrivit factorilor decizionali de la Beijing, Hruşciov denaturase principiul leninist

21 „1960 decembrie 19-20. Stenograma sedinţei plenare a CC al PMR în care a fost discutat raportul lui Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej cu privire la Conferinţa Partidelor Comuniste şi Muncitoreşti de la Moscova din noiembrie 1960”, p. 119. 22 Ibidem, p. 120. 23 Ibidem. 24 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 49/1959-1970, f. 14. 25 Potrivit lui Nikita S. Hruşciov: „Dacã ar fi sã luãm însã ca bazã pentru rezolvarea problemei frontierelor întreaga istorie în decursul celor câtorva milenii ale acesteia, toţi vor fi, în mod vãdit, de acord cã în numeroase cazuri nu se va putea gãsi nicio soluţie realã” (Ibidem, f. 15). 26 Ibidem, f. 16. 27 Ibidem.


165

al coexistenţei paşnice între diferitele state, proclamând doctrina în cauzã drept „linia generalã de politicã externã a URSS”.28 Prin urmare, potrivit pãrţii chineze, Moscova luase calea revizionismului, prin enunţarea doctrinei coexistenţei paşnice intrând „în cârdãşie cu imperialismul american”.29 De asemenea, meritã a fi menţionat faptul cã factorii decizionali de la Kremlin adoptaserã vis-à-vis de incidentele de graniţã sino-indiene o atitudine similarã cu cea expusã în mesajul adresat de cãtre Hruşciov şefilor de state, la 31 decembrie 1963.30

Pe agenda disensiunilor româno-sovietice, chestiunea graniţelor a ocupat, neîndoios, un loc important. La momentul anului 1959, discursul rostit de cãtre Nikita S. Hruşciov la Leipzig, dupã cum afirmam mai sus, nu va determina vreo reacţie din partea autoritãţilor române, o posibilã explicaţie pentru acest comportament fiind reprezentatã de obedienţa liderilor comunişti români faţã de Kremlin. Însã, în contextul deteriorãrii relaţiilor româno-sovietice, începând cu anul 1963, Bucureştiul se va raporta caustic la viziunile promovate de cãtre liderul sovietic faţã de chestiunea graniţelor. Prin urmare, abia în cadrul şedinţei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 26-27 februarie 1963, convocatã ca urmare a revirimentului viziunilor economice integraţioniste în cadrul sesiunii Comitetului Executiv al Consiliului de Ajutor Economic Reciproc (CAER) din februarie 1963, liderul PMR va recurge, pentru prima oarã, la o condamnare a afirmaţiilor rostite de cãtre Hruşciov la Leipzig.31 Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej va menţiona discursul liderului sovietic, rostit în cadrul celei de-a XI-a Conferinţe Muncitoreşti pe întreaga Germanie din 7 martie 1959, şi în cadrul întrevederii sale din 12 decembrie 1963 cu

28 Ibidem, dosar 71/1963, f. 8. 29 Ibidem, dosar 102/1964, f. 27. 30 Bunãoarã, în septembrie 1963, referindu-se la incidentele de graniţã sino-indiene, guvernul sovietic rezuma poziţia URSS în maniera urmãtoare: „Încã îndatã dupã izbucnirea conflictului chino-indian în anul 1959, conducãtorii sovietici au declarat în mod sincer guvernului RP Chineze cã agravarea litigiului în problema teritoriilor de frontierã din regiunea Himalaya, rãmas moştenire Chinei şi Indiei din timpuri strãvechi, şi transformarea acestui litigiu într-un mare conflict armat nu este de dorit şi ar putea avea consecinţe negative nu numai pentru relaţiile chino-indiene, ci şi pentru întreaga situaţie internaţionalã. Considerãm cã în litigiile de frontierã, cu atât mai mult într-un litigiu ca cel dintre China şi India, trebuie respectate concepţiile leniniste, potrivit cãrora orice probleme de frontierã, dacã existã bunãvoinţa reciprocã, pot fi rezolvate fãrã sã se recurgã la arme”. Vezi în acest sens: Ibidem, dosar 79/1963, f. 13. 31 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Cancelarie, dosar 4/1963, f. 40 (documentul în cauzã a fost publicat. Vezi în acest sens: „1963 februarie 26-27. Stenograma şedinţei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR cu privire la disputele din CAER şi alte divergenţe româno-sovietice”, în Dan Cãtãnus (editor), Între Beijing şi Moscova. România şi conflictul sovieto-chinez, pp. 181-204). Vezi, de asemenea: Mihai Croitor, România şi conflictul sovieto-chinez (1956-1971), Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega, 2009, pp. 228-229.


166

ambasadorul chinez la Bucureşti, Xu Jianguo. Bunãoarã, referindu-se la Basarabia, liderul PMR afirma urmãtoarele: „Pânã în anul 1813 (sic!) Basarabia a aparţinut totdeauna Moldovei […] În anul 1918, parlamentul Moldovei, conform dreptului naţiunilor la autodeterminare, a votat o lege privind realipirea Moldovei la România şi apoi a fost cedatã Uniunii Sovietice în anul 1940. Hruşciov s-a referit la Transilvania atunci când încã nu erau divergenţe în CAER […] Noi nu am publicat referirile la Transilvania din cuvântarea lui Hruşciov. Dacã ar fi ştiut poporul român ce a spus el, nu l-ar mai fi primit cu aplauze”.32

Chestiunea Basarabiei avea, de asemenea, sã formeze obiectul discuţiilor dintre Nikita S. Hruşciov şi delegaţia PMR, condusã de cãtre Ion Gh. Maurer. Organizatã în 15 martie 1964, la Piţunda, întrevederea în cauzã survine vizitelor efectate de cãtre delegaţia PMR în China şi Coreea de Nord în cadrul „medierii” conflictului sovieto-chinez, mediere asumatã de cãtre conducerea de la Bucureşti. Pe parcursul discuţiilor dintre cele douã pãrţi, Hruşciov va reveni la chestiunea graniţelor, punând, în mod ipotetic, chiar şi posibilitatea organizãrii unui plebiscit în Basarabia. În opinia liderului sovietic, însã, revizuirea graniţelor ar fi determinat consecinţe geopolitice negative, subliniind urmãtoarele: „Ce s-ar întâmpla dacã am revizui graniţele cu Manciuria, cu Mongolia etc.? […] Sã luãm de pildã Basarabia. Eu cred cã nu trebuie sã discutãm aceastã chestiune. Atunci în ţãrile socialiste ar trebui sã se facã plebiscit. Dacã românii ar ridica aceastã problemã, eu personal aş fi pentru plebiscit şi sã lãsãm popoarele unde vor sã aparţinã. Numai cã aceste probleme se ridicã (şi n. a.) pentru alte ţãri. De exemplu, graniţa cu Polonia. Numai sã se punã o asemenea problemã şi imediat ucrainienii şi bieloruşii se vor ridica şi ei. Aceste graniţe trec mai la Est în folosul Poloniei. Polonia ştie şi toatã lumea ştie acest lucru […] Graniţa României cu Ungaria; sunt multe probleme care apar în legãturã cu aceasta. Graniţa Ungariei cu Iugoslavia; Tito spune cã în Iugoslavia trãiesc 700 de mii de unguri, ungurii spun cã este vorba de un milion. Graniţa Bulgariei cu Iugoslavia, de asemenea, prezintã unele probleme. Dacã noi în general am încerca sã cãutãm graniţele cele mai juste ar însemna un rãzboi şi asemenea graniţe nu existã”.33

32 „Document 9: 1963 decembrie 12. Notã privind convorbirea de la Snagov, dintre Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, prim-secretar al CC al PMR, şi Xu Jianguo, ambasador al RPC la Bucureşti, referitoare la divergenţele româno-sovietice şi necesitatea apropierii româno-chineze. (fragment)”, în Mihai Croitor (editor), În umbra Kremlinului: Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej şi geneza Declaraţiei din Aprilie 1964, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega, 2012, p. 226. 33 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 30/1964, f. 42-43 (documentul în cauzã a fost publicat. Vezi în acest sens: „1964 martie 15, Piţunda. Stenogramã a convorbirilor dintre Delegaţia Comitetului Central al Partidului Muncitoresc Român şi cea a Comitetului Central al Partidului Comunist al Uniunii Sovietice”, în Romulus Ioan Budura (editor), Politica independentã a României şi relaţiile


167

În contextul acutizãrii diferendelor româno-sovietice, ca urmare a publicãrii Declaraţiei din aprilie 1964 şi a fundamentãrii unei apropieri româno-chineze, tonalitatea liderului PMR faţã de viziunile promovate de cãtre Hruşciov în chestiunea graniţelor României va deveni una acidã. Astfel, la 5 iunie 1964, în cadrul întrevederii cu noul ambasador chinez la Bucureşti (Liu Fang), Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej afirma urmãtoarele: „Noi nu putem spune cã au gânduri nebuneşti, dar ei (sovieticii-n.n.) sunt în stare de multe. Cum ne-au luat Bucovina de Nord drept despãgubiri, aşa pot sã ia toatã România […] Populaţia maghiarã din Transilvania munceşte şi trãieşte în prietenie cu poporul român. Însã noi nu excludem posibilitatea ca tov. Hruşciov sã-i punã pe tovarãşii unguri sã ridice problema Transilvaniei, ca apoi sã aparã el drept arbitru. Dacã o sã facã acest lucru, noi o sã punem problema Basarabiei şi a Bucovinei de Nord. De altfel, tov. Hruşciov a ridicat aceastã problemã în timpul vizitei delegaţiei noastre la Gagra. Ştiţi unde este dusã populaţia românã din Basarabia? În Kazahstan. Am descoperit acest lucru cu totul întâmplãtor. Fostul nostru ambasador la Moscova, tov. Dalea, într-o vizitã pe care a efectuat-o in Kazahstan, s-a trezit înconjurat de români care îi cereau sã-i aducã acasã”.34

La 22 iunie 1964 era organizatã la Pişchia o întâlnire intempestivã între Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej şi Iosip Broz Tito.35 Astfel, în iunie 1964, liderul iugoslav efectuase o vizitã oficialã în Finlanda, iar la întoarcere, la propunerea pãrţii sovietice, a fost organizatã o întrevedere între Tito şi Hruşciov la Leningrad. Belgradul (prin intermediul ambasadorului iugoslav la Moscova) avea sã aducã la cunoştinţa autoritãţilor de la Bucureşti faptul cã diferendele dintre RPR şi URSS fuseserã abordate pe parcursul discuţiilor de la Leningrad.36 Pe cale de consecinţã, la 21 iunie 1964, Bucureştiul transmitea Moscovei, prin intermediul ambasadorului Ivan K. Jegalin, faptul cã a doua zi fusese convocatã o întâlnire cu factorii decizionali iugoslavi, scopul convocãrii întâlnirii în cauzã fiind reprezentat de abordarea diferendelor româno-sovietice pe parcursul discuţiilor de la Leningrad.37 Cum era de aşteptat, chestiunea graniţelor României avea sã se regãseascã pe agenda discuţiilor dintre Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej şi Iosip Broz Tito, liderul român menţionând chiar şi protocolul adiţional secret al pactului Ribbentrop-Molotov. Astfel, potrivit liderului PMR: „Ne întrebãm, de asemenea, de ce se inventeazã cã România ar pofti Basarabia? Aceastã afirmaţie este absurdã. Existã un tratat de

româno-chineze, 1954-1975. Documente, Bucureşti, 2008, pp. 223-269). Vezi, de asemenea: Mihai Croitor, România şi conflictul sovieto-chinez (1956-1971), p. 270. 34 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 5/1964, f. 40. 35 Ibidem, dosar 110/1963-1965, f. 27. 36 Ibidem, dosar 5/1964, f. 59-60. 37 Ibidem, dosar 6/1964, f. 29-30.


168

pace pe care l-am semnat şi noi am înţeles cã aceasta a fost singura rezolvare. Nu putem spune cã nu sunt oameni care se gândesc la Basarabia şi la Bucovina de Nord, dar conducerea noastrã n-a ridicat niciodatã şi nici nu va ridica o asemenea problemã. Istoria încã nu şi-a spus cuvântul. Se ştie cum Stalin s-a înţeles cu Germania şi asupra Poloniei şi a României. Bucovina de Nord a fost chiar luatã ca ,,dobândã” pentru ,,exploatarea” Basarabiei în perioada dintre cele douã rãzboaie. De ce n-au luat atunci ca ,,dobândã” toatã România? Astãzi n-ar fi mai avut probleme cu raioanele economice interstatale38etc.”.39 În ceea ce-l priveşte pe Tito, acesta se va mãrgini la a afirma faptul cã, la Leningrad, liderul sovietic „a spus cã în România se discutã aceastã problemã (a Basarabiei-n. n.) în mase”.40 De altfel, în cadrul întrevederii din 28 iulie 1964 cu Liu Fang, Emil Bodnãraş îi transmitea faptul cã în cadrul discuţiilor de la Leningrad, Hruşciov ar fi afirmat faptul „cã în România atmosfera antisovieticã a evoluat aşa de mult, a cãpãtat forme atât de ascuţite încât manifestãrile cu caracter naţionalist au mers pânã acolo încât în cadrul prelucrãrilor Declaraţiei (din aprilie 1964 n. n.) s-a pus problema Basarabiei şi Bucovinei de Nord”.41

La 26 iunie 1964, aşadar dupã întâlnirea de la Pişchia, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej îl va convoca pe ambasadorul sovietic la Bucureşti, Ivan K. Jegalin, transmiţându-i acestuia intenţia autoritãţilor române de a trimite o delegaţie la Moscova cu scopul discutãrii diferendelor româno-sovietice. Referindu-se la chestiunea Basarabiei, liderul PMR afirma urmãtoarele: „Am fost extrem de surprinşi când am auzit zvonurile precum cã s-ar fi pus problema Basarabiei. Cine o fi mai scornit şi aceastã problemã? Cu ce scop? Noi dorim sã ne întâlnim cu tovarãşii sovietici, sã discutãm toate problemele în cauzã, sã le lãmurim, sã nu rãmânã absolut nicio neclaritate”.42

38 Aluzie la aşa-zisul „Plan Valev”. Pentru o perspectivã detaliatã asupra acestei chestiuni vezi: „Planul Valev şi impactul acestuia asupra relaţiilor româno-sovietice”, în Cosmin Budeancã, Florentin Olteanu (editori), Stalinizare şi destalinizare. Evoluţii instituţionale şi impact social, Bucureşti, Editura Polirom, 2014, pp. 140-156. 39 Vezi în acest sens: „Document 70: 1964 iunie 22. Stenograma discuţiilor organizate la Pişchia între delegaţia românã condusã de cãtre Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, preşedinte al Consiliului de Stat al RPR şi prim-secretar al CC al PMR, şi delegaţia iugoslavã condusã de cãtre Iosip Broz Tito, preşedinte al RSFI şi secretar general al UCI, referitoare la divergenţele romano-sovietice”, în Mihai Croitor, Sanda Borşa (editori), Triunghiul suspiciunii: Gheorghiu-Dej, Hruşciov şi Tito (1954-1964). Documente, volum II, p. 500. 40 Ibidem, p. 507. 41 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 5/1964, f. 60. 42 Vezi în acest sens: „Document 25: 1964 iunie 26. Notã cu privire la audienţa lui I. K. Jegalin, ambasador al URSS la Bucureşti, la Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, prim-secretar al CC al PMR, referitoare la solicitarea de cãtre partea românã a unei întâlniri cu reprezentanţii CC al PCUS în vederea discutãrii divergenţelor româno-sovietice”, în Mihai Croitor (editor), În umbra Kremlinului: Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej şi geneza Declaraţiei din Aprilie 1964, p. 279.


169

Pe cale de consecinţã, între 7-14 iulie 1964 vor fi organizate la Moscova convorbiri între delegaţia PMR (condusã de cãtre Ion Gh. Maurer) şi delegaţia PCUS (condusã de cãtre N. V. Podgornîi), principalul subiect abordat fiind reprezentat de disensiunile româno-sovietice. Un punct central în cadrul acestor discuţii va fi ocupat de chestiunea Basarabiei. Astfel, la 10 iulie 1964, Ion Gh. Maurer va aduce în discuţie chestiunea în cauzã, stenograma întâlnirii consemnând un acid schimb de replici între cele douã delegaţii cu privire la denumirea acestei provincii istorice:

„Tov. I. Gh. Maurer: V-am arãtat cazurile când oamenii sovietici ne-au întrebat: ce, revendicaţi Basarabia?

Tov. Kosîghin: Noi nu avem aceastã denumire Basarabia, existã Republica Moldoveneascã, este o republicã, poporul moldovenesc, cu un Comitet Central şi un guvern. Nu existã Basarabia. Ce tot vorbiţi tot timpul de Basarabia? În cursul discuţiilor noastre dvs. n-aţi folosit nicio singurã datã denumirea oficialã a RSS Moldoveneşti.

Tov. I. Gh. Maurer: Vã rog, sã nu creãm artificii. Eu nu vreau ca cu o expresie sã acopãr nu ştiu ce. Atunci, ca sã fim sinceri, acel teritoriu care s-a numit Basarabia.

Tov. Kosîghin: Noi avem denumirea actualã: RSS Moldoveneascã. Tov. I. Gh. Maurer: Perfect de acord: acea parte a Republicii

Moldoveneşti dintre Prut şi Nistru [...] Tov. I. Gh. Maurer: Eu am vorbit acum patru luni (la Piţunda n. n.) cu

tov. Hruşciov şi el mi-a spus: dacã vreţi Basarabia, facem plebiscit. În felul acesta am utilizat cuvântul Basarabia.

Tov. Emil Bodnãraş: Este utilizat şi în anul 1959 în comunicarea tov. Hruşciov (de la Leipzig n. n.).

Tov. Podgornîi: O sã vã arãtãm stenograma şi o sã vedeţi cã n-a spus aşa.

Tov. I. Gh. Maurer: Mã rog, şi noi avem stenograma [...] Tov. Podgornîi: Noi vrem sã spunem ca în România sã se ştie cã nu

existã un astfel de teritoriu-Basarabia. Şi din moment ce au loc aceste tratative oficiale, sã fie folosit termenul potrivit.

Tov. I. Gh. Maurer: Spuneţi dvs. cum sã spun. Sã-i spun teritoriul X sau spuneţi dvs. cum sã-i spun?

Tov. Podgornîi: Republica Moldoveneascã [...] Tov. I. Gh. Maurer: RSS Moldoveneascã cuprinde încã o bucatã în afarã

de ce se aflã între Prut şi Nistru. Dacã o sã spun Moldova Sovieticã, dv. o sã înţelegeţi cã mã refer la întrega Republicã Moldoveneascã.

Tov. Podgornîi: La noi fiecare republicã are o denumire.


170

Tov. I. Gh. Maurer: Eu vorbesc despre acea parte a Republicii Moldoveneşti care se gãseşte între Nistru şi Prut şi pentru prescurtare am sã-i spun teritoriul A.

Tov. Podgornîi: Fãrã A şi B, cã are denumire şi dacã va afla poporul moldovean cã îi zicem teritoriul A se va simţi jignit”.43

La 11 iulie 1964, date fiind discuţiile cu privire la denumirea istoricã a acestei provincii, N. V. Podgorîi va prezenta câteva fragmente din stenograma sovieticã a întâlnirii de la Piţunda. În aceastã ordine de idei, liderul delegaţiei PCUS afirma urmãtoarele: „Aceasta este din stenogramã. Deci este o presupunere a tov. Hruşciov. ,,Noi presupunem cã conducãtorii chinezi v-au spus cã ruşii v-au cotropit Basarabia”. Dupã aceasta, dupã cum am vãzut noi din stenograma noastrã, tov. Bodnãraş a declarat urmãtoarele: Ei n-au spus asta. Acest lucru îl ştim noi înşine. Dupã asemenea declaraţie a tov. Bodnãraş, tov. Hruşciov a spus: Haideţi, mai bine în aceastã problemã sã nu discutãm. Dacã este aşa, atunci putem avea discuţii cu dv. Haideţi sã facem plebicist (sic!) în Moldova. În Moldova, tovarãşe Maurer, dar nu în Basarabia!. Dacã românii ridicã pretenţii, eu sunt pentru plebicist (sic!), însã aceasta ar ridica multe probleme şi cu alte ţãri. Acest lucru nu se poate face”.44 Trebuie sã menţionãm faptul cã, dupã cum am arãtat deja, stenograma românã aferentã întâlnirii de la Piţunda nu conţine un asemenea schimb de replici.45 De altfel, la 14 iulie 1964, referindu-se la afirmaţiile rostite de cãtre Podgornîi la 11 iulie 1964, Ion Gh. Maurer afirma tranşant faptul cã schimbul de replici invocat de cãtre sovietici în chestiunea Basarabiei nu existase. „În ceea ce priveşte inexistentele pretenţii teritoriale ale RPR faţã de URSS, spunea liderul delegaţiei PMR, la cele spuse de noi anterior am dori sã adãugãm înainte de toate o precizare cu privire la o replicã a tov. Bodnãraş în timpul convorbirilor cu tov. Hruşciov la Piţunda. Stenograma de care dispunem, cât şi amintirile acelor dintre noi care am luat parte la aceastã convorbire, atestã cã o asemenea replicã nu a avut loc”.46

Interesant este faptul cã, în contextul apropierii româno-chineze, Beijingul s-a arãtat interesat de discuţiile purtate de delegaţiile PMR şi PCUS la Moscova. Bunãoarã, la 17 iulie 1964, premierul chinez îi solicita

43 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 35/1964, volum II, f. 141-143 (documentul în cauzã a fost publicat. Vezi în acest sens: „4. 1964 iulie 7-14, Moscova. Stenograma discuţiilor dintre delegaţiile românã şi sovieticã referitoare la problemele sensibile ale relaţiilor bilaterale (sovromurile, statutul persoanelor de cetãţenie sovieticã, agentura sovieticã din România, Basarabia etc.), colaborarea în cadrul CAER şi a Tratatului de la Varşovia, evoluţia mişcãrii comuniste internaţionale etc”, în Vasile Buga (editor), O varã fierbinte înrelaţiile româno-sovietice: convorbirile de la Moscova din iulie 1964, Bucureşti, Editura INST, 2012, pp. 36-197). 44 Ibidem, p.169. 45 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 30/1964, f. 42-43. 46 Ibidem, dosar 35/1964, volum II, f. 219.


171

detalii ambasadorului român la Beijing (Dumitru Gheorghiu) cu privire la chestiunea Basarabiei:

„Zhou Enlai: Am mai auzit, în mod neoficial, cã cu prilejul vizitei tovarãşului Maurer în Uniunea Sovieticã s-a ridicat problema Basarabiei şi Bucovinei de Nord-a Republicii Moldoveneşti, în care peste 60% din populaţie este româneascã. Se spune cã s-a ridicat problema modului cum este tratatã aceastã populaţie. Nu ştiu dacã cunoaşteţi dacã s-au ridicat sau nu aceste probleme?

Tov. D. Gheorghiu: Nu cunosc. Zhou Enlai: Am aflat din telegramele de presã occidentale. Dupã ridicarea

acestor probleme, convorbirile au fost întrerupte deoarece Hruşciov nu a putut accepta cererile. Apoi convorbirile au fost reluate şi s-au încheiat. Tovarãşul ambasador ştie cã românii din Basarabia şi Bucovina de Nord sunt trataţi în mod inechitabil?”.47

Ulterior, însã, la 28 iulie 1964, autoritãţile române îl vor informa detaliat pe ambasadorul chinez la Bucureşti (Liu Fang) cu privire la discuţiile purtate la Moscova între delegaţiile PMR şi PCUS.48 La puţin timp, chestiunea diferendelor româno-sovietice manifestate pe parcursul întâlnirii din iulie 1964 va fi reluatã de cãtre Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, la 26-27 august 1964, în cadrul discuţiilor cu delegaţia PCC, condusã de cãtre Li Xiannian. Cu aceastã ocazie, referindu-se la comportamentul autoritãţilor sovietice, liderul PMR afirma urmãtoarele: „De ce ne acuzaţi pe noi, noi n-am ridicat problema Basarabiei, dv. aţi ridicat-o prin Hruşciov […] Deşi Hruşciov a folosit termenul de Basarabia la Leipzig, când tov. Maurer a vorbit în legãturã cu chestiunea aceasta, cã am fi pretins Basarabia, Kosîghin a sãrit în sus: care Basarabia, ce Basarabia, noi nu cunoaştem o asemenea denumire, nu existã nicio Basarabie?! Vedeţi ce interesanţi, ce internaţionalişti sunt dumnealor, vorbeau mai al dracului decât unul din timpul ţarismului când se manifestau tendinţe de acaparare, de cotropire a teritoriilor strãine. Eu nu cunosc, eu nu cunosc termenul acesta, nu existã Basarabia. Atunci Maurer spune: atunci teritoriul dintre Nistru şi Prut. Ei zic: nici asta nu existã cã acesta aparţine Republicii Moldoveneşti. N-au admis sã spunem cuvântul Basarabia”.49 Nu în ultimul rând, trebuie subliniat faptul cã

47„Document 27: 1964 iulie 17. Notã privind audienţa lui Dumitru Gheorghiu, ambasador al RPR la Beijing, la Zhou Enlai, premier al Consiliului de Stat al RPC, referitoare la divergenţele româno-sovietice şi oportunitatea organizãrii unei noi întâlniri bilaterale româno-chineze”, în Mihai Croitor (editor), În umbra Kremlinului: Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej şi geneza Declaraţiei din Aprilie 1964, pp. 284-285. 48 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 5/1964, f. 58-59. 49 „Document 32: 1964 august 26-27. Stenograma discuţiilor de la Timiş dintre delegaţia românã condusã de Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, prim-secretar al CC al PMR, şi delegaţia chinezã, condusã de Li Xiannian, membru al Biroului Politic al CC al PCC, referitoare la divergenţele româno-sovietice, precum şi la diferendele sovieto-chineze”, în Mihai Croitor (editor), În umbra Kremlinului: Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej şi geneza Declaraţiei din Aprilie 1964, p. 362.


172

Ion Gh. Maurer, prezent la discuţiile cu delegaţia PCC, va acuza direct Kremlinul de falsificarea stenogramei de la Piţunda (referirile la chestiunea Basarabiei).50 Însã, anul 1964 era şi martorul publicãrii lucrãrii Însemnãri despre români: manuscrise inedite, semnatã de cãtre Karl Marx, pe parcursul cãreia erau condamnate abuzurile sãvârşite de cãtre Rusia ţaristã (inclusiv asupra Basarabiei).51 Polemica dintre cele douã pãrţi pe marginea graniţelor primea, astfel, conotaţii publice.

O chestiune mai puţin dezbãtutã în istoriografie vizeazã diferendele teritoriale sovieto-chineze manifestate pe parcursul anilor ‘50 şi începutul anilor ‘60 ai secolului trecut. Primele tensiuni între cele douã pãrţi par a fi apãrut, conform pãrţii chineze, în cursul vizitei oficiale efectuate la Beijing de cãtre o delegaţiei PCUS, condusã de cãtre Nikita S. Hruşciov, în anul 1954.52 Astfel, potrivit versiunii acreditate de cãtre Beijing, în cadrul acestei vizite Mao Zedong a dorit sã introducã pe agenda de discuţii şi chestiunea statutului Republicii Populare Mongole, însã s-a lovit de refuzul categoric al delegaţiei sovietice.53 În acelaşi timp, trebuie subliniat faptul cã, în cursul aceluiaşi an, în RPC era publicatã broşura intitulatã Scurtã istorie a Chinei moderne, editatã de cãtre Liu Pei-hua. Relevanţa broşurii în cauzã constã în faptul cã în interiorul acesteia era publicatã o hartã cu teritoriile aparţinând Chinei în perioada anterioarã Primului Rãzboi al Opiului (1839-1842), inclusiv teritorii aflate la momentul anului 1954 în componenţa URSS (Marele Ţinut din Nord-Vest, Marele Ţinut din Nord-Est, o parte a zonei Pamir, precum şi o parte a Sahalin-ului).54

Şi totuşi, la momentul anului 1954, datã fiind strânsa colaborare sino-sovieticã (inclusiv în materie de politicã externã), publicarea broşurii în cauzã nu va determina o reacţie publicã din partea Kremlinului. Însã emergenţa polemicii publice sovieto-chineze, la începutul anilor ‘60 ai secolului trecut, va readuce în discuţie chestiunile teritoriale prezentate public pentru prima oarã în anul 1954, de aceastã datã factorii decizionali

50 Ibidem, p. 363. 51Vezi în acest sens: Karl Marx, Însemnãri despre români: manuscrise inedite, Bucureşti, Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Române, 1964, passim. 52 Desfãşuratã între 29 septembrie-12 octombrie 1954, vizita în cauzã a avut un impact pozitiv asupra dinamicii relaţiilor sino-sovietice. Astfel, cu aceastã ocazie s-a decis returnarea cãtre Republica Popularã Chinezã a bazei sovietice de la Port Arthur şi, în plus, factorii decizionali de la Kremlin şi-au anunţat decizia de a renunţa la cotele

deţinute în patru societãţi mixte sovieto‑chineze. Vezi, în acest sens: Chen Jian, Mao’s China and the Cold War, Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 2001, p. 62. 53 A. N. I. C., Fond CC al PCR-Secţia Relaţii Externe, dosar 50/1962, f. 104. 54 Ibidem, f. 105-107.


173

de la Kremlin respingând ferm afirmaţiile chineze cu privire la tratatele „inegale” la care fusese supusã China.55 De pildã, în septembrie 1963, în cadrul unei declaraţii a guvernului URSS, se subliniau urmãtoarele: „[…] propaganda chinezã face anumite aluzii asupra unor nedreptãţi care ar fi avut loc, chipurile, cu prilejul statornicirii frontierei sovieto-chineze în unele sectoare […] a crea în mod artificial în timpurile noastre diferite probleme teritoriale, mai cu seamã între ţãrile socialiste, înseamnã sã pãşeşti pe o cale cât se poate de primejdioasã. Dacã astãzi statele ar începe sã-şi formuleze reciproc pretenţii teritoriale, invocând date strãvechi, mormintele strãmoşilor, dacã vor reclama revizuirea frontierelor istoriceşti statornicite, acest lucru nu ar duce la nimic bun şi nu ar face decât sã învrãjbeascã popoarele, spre bucuria duşmanilor pãcii”.56 La rândul sãu, Beijingul, în cadrul unei scrisori adresate conducerii PCUS la 29 februarie 1964, acuza Kremlinul de încãlcarea deliberatã a frontierei dintre cele douã state, manifestându-şi, în egalã masurã, disponibilitatea pentru a purcede la negocieri în direcţia stabilirii paşnice a graniţei dintre cei doi vecini. „Guvernul Republicii Populare Chineze-afirmau liderii politici chinezi-a considerat întodeauna cã problema de graniţã între China şi Uniunea Sovieticã, lãsatã moştenire de istorie, poate fi rezolvatã prin tratative între guvernele celor douã ţãri şi cã pânã la rezolvarea ei trebuie sã se menţinã situaţia existentã la graniţã […] În ultimii ani, pe mãsurã ce au luat amploare acţiunile antichineze ale conducerii Partidului Comunist al Uniunii Sovietice, partea sovieticã a încãlcat în permanenţã situaţia existentã la graniţã, a pãtruns şi a ocupat teritorii chineze, a provocat incidente de graniţã”.57 O acutizare a diferendelor teritoriale dintre cele douã state se va produce la 10 iulie 1964, ca urmare a unor afirmaţii formulate de cãtre Mao Zedong în cadrul unei întâlniri cu o delegaţie a parlamentarilor socialişti japonezi. Bunãoarã, potrivit presei japoneze, rãspunzând unei întrebãri formulate de cãtre Tetsuo Ara, referitoare la statutul insulelor Kurile, liderul chinez ar fi afirmat urmãtoarele: „Teritorii ocupate de Uniunea Sovieticã sunt mult prea multe. În conformitate cu acordurile de la Yalta, Uniunea Sovieticã, sub pretextul asigurãrii securitãţii Mongoliei, a inclus de fapt aceastã ţarã sub stãpânirea sa. Mongolia ocupã o suprafaţã mult mai mare decât insulele Kurile […] Ei şi-au însuşit o parte a României [...] Despãrţind o parte a Poloniei, au inclus-o în componenţa Rusiei, iar în chip de compensaţie au predat Poloniei o parte a Germaniei de Est […] Uniunea Sovieticã ocupã o suprafaţã de 22 milioane km.², în timp ce populaţia ei numãrã numai 200 de milioane de locuitori […] Cu circa 100 de ani în urmã, raionul din partea de est a Baikalului a devenit teritoriul Rusiei

55 Ibidem, f. 109. 56 Ibidem, dosar 79/1963, f. 17. 57 Ibidem, dosar 28/1964, volum I, f. 74 .


174

şi de atunci Vladivostok, Habarovsk, Kamciatka şi alte ţinuturi sunt teritorii ale Uniunii Sovietice. Noi n-am prezentat încã nota privind acest capitol”.58

Deşi la 25 februarie 1964, la Beijing, debutaserã tratative între cele douã pãrţi cu privire la chestiunile de frontierã, aflate în litigiu, totuşi acestea nu vor duce la un rezultat concret.59 Debarcarea lui Hruşciov de la putere (în octombrie 1964) nu avea sã producã o schimbare a opticii Kremlinului vis-a-vis de diferendele teritoriale sino-sovietice, în martie 1969 tensiunile dintre cele douã pãrţi degenerând în incidente majore de frontierã.

Aşadar, în manierã concluzivã, putem afirma faptul cã în ciuda imaginii unitãţii ideologice a monolitului comunist, imagine atât de energic promovatã de cãtre sovietici, începutul anilor ‘60 ai secolului trecut erau martorii apariţiei mişcãrilor centrifuge, menite a contesa primatul ideologic al Kremlinului. Chestiunea graniţelor dintre statele socialiste, dupã cum am demonstrat mai sus, avea sã se constituie într-un subiect contondent pe agenda de discuţii, contribuind la apariţia şi dezvoltarea unor breşe în interiorul monolitului comunist.

58 Ibidem, dosar 50/1962, f. 111-112. 59 Ibidem, dosar 28/1964, volum I, f. 75.


175

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE TERRITORIES CONTROLLED BY THE ISLAMIC STATE

Adrian Mãrincean


Abstract: The transition from an al-qaeda organization, a clandestine resistance movement activating through suicide attacks and harassment, to the territorialization and institutionalization of power, turned the islamic state into a reference point for terrorist organizations. Although statehood and the idea of an islamic state were not a missing piece from the Al-Qaeda doctrine and belief, the islamic state militants were the first to implement such a state in the subdued iraqi and syrian territories, a state on which they could build and promote their political theology. Once a territory was subdued, it was enrolled in the ,,state’s” administrative logic and integrated in the administrative circuit proposed by the islamic state. The administrative institutions of the islamic state replaced the prior legit state administration by implementing new resource and service tax and distribution systems. A new (religious) police and court houses were institutionalized; all of these to mimic the attributions of a state and to convey to the people in those specific territories the feeling that the old administration was replaced with a new, more efficient one, based on its divine mandate.

Keywords: Islamic State, public administration, territorialization, institutionalization, economic circuit, tax system.

The West has failed to prevent the emergence of al-Qaeda-like

groups in the Middle East. It was also taken by surprise by the Islamic State when it took over large territories in Iraq and Syria, changing, at least temporarily, the political map of the Middle East.1 Jihad groups like al-Qaeda adapted, evolved and proliferated on the background of political chaos in Iraq and Syria; a chaos that was overlaid by the more or less discrete intervention of the great regional powers. Each of these regional powers tried to maximize its opportunities depending on their own stakes.

Unlike al-Qaeda, the Islamic State was characterized through its main focus on the territorialization of power or the capitalization of a developing state, a sovereign, the caliph and an army (not only a group of mujahedeen, like al-Qaeda fighters). Another major difference is that the Islamic State has a lot of money to carry on a war, financial resources that do not link the organization to the other states in the region (we refer here to the private donors in Kuwait, Qatar, the Emirates, Saudi Arabia or even other areas, of whose past or present existence is still questionable and unsure). An example relating to the financial

1 N. Parker, ,,Inside the Fall of Mosul”, in Reuters, October, 14th, 2014, pp. 6-7.


176

independence of the Islamic State is the episode at the Central Bank in Mosul, during which the Islamic State militants got hold of a considerable amount of dollars and gold bars. These spoils of war alone, estimated at 313 million euros, were enough to give the Islamic State an unprecedented financial power among the al-Qaeda-like groups.2

In their majority, the Sunni Arabs have accepted the Islamic State, passively by some, actively by others, as it allowed them to regain political visibility through the social tag given by the Islamic State, which generated a feeling of membership and political power among individuals. For some, the affiliation to the territories conquered by the Islamic State turned into adhesion to its transnational project: would the Sunni Arabs have an acceptable future in an Iraq dominated by a Shiite majority?3 The Islamic State has obsessively tried to convince the Sunnis that the answer was no. They should have turned to their brothers of Islam and Arabism in the Euphrates valley, beyond the Syrian borders. However, in a few months’ time, many Sunni Arabs, especially civilians, were also disappointed by the ,,Islamic” administration, perceiving it as brutal, merciless and corrupt, and thus relating to the arrogant militants of the Islamic State just like to Iraq’s Shiite army as there were abuses in the territories managed by the Islamic State as well, and not only against the apostate and infidel communities, but also among the Sunni Arabs who strayed from the limits imposed by the Jihadists.4

The territorialization of power

Besides the destabilization and border changes in the Middle East,

more precisely, besides the negative impact over the region, the Islamic State had also become a paradigm in terms of the terrorist phenomenon. After the summer of 2014, terrorism moved from the sphere of small, mobile, poorly financed or dispersed organizations, towards a

2 Ibidem, 3. 3 Some have perceived the so-called Shiite domination of Iraq, which began in 2003, as a historical justice for the Shiites. Since the birth of the modern Iraqi state, a massive Shiite population was underlying the Iraqi social pyramid. Under the Ottomans as well, during the Hashemite and republican periods, the Sunnis had the monopole of power and of social promotion, especially the administration and the army. The Sunnis’ current fear of the Baghdad policies and Shiite militias also resides, to a certain extent, in the fear that this neglected community (Shiites) might seek revenge once they come to power. The Islamic State also took advantage of these fears during its propaganda to attract as many Sunni tribes and discredit Baghdad 4 J. Luizard, Capcana Daesh, Statul Islamic sau întoarcerea istoriei (Daesh Trap, Islamic State or Return of History), Iaşi, Polirom, 2015, pp. 25-26.


177

centralized, well-armed state-organization (the Islamic State) that controls a territory within certain borders, has financial strategies and bureaucracy means and hosts a tax-paying population.

Copying the state and imitating statehood features were the operational bases underlying Abu Bakr al-Bagdadi leader’s project; the infrastructure being the one that gave the Islamic State its advantage over al-Qaeda. After conquering the territories, the Islamic State has taken its state status very seriously, implementing new laws, public order, currency, taxes and other economic aspects. They would also manage a territory bureaucratically, not only control it militarily. They punished or rewarded exemplary citizens, increased taxes and monitored the market. The Islamic State gained a strong image capital in the beginning because it presented itself as concerned with repairing deficient or inexistent infrastructure and also provided security in areas in which the military threat was constant. Besides security, they also offered basic services that were previously lacking for the general population, like water and electricity.5

A major advantage which distinguished the Islamic State from other terrorist organizations in the Middle East, such as Abu Nidal or Fatah al-Islam, was financial independence.6 After conquering Mosul, the Islamic State has governed itself, which brought along autonomy over any foreign agenda that would have required for the organization’s interests to be adapted or subordinated to those of the sponsor.7 The major economic advantage was that the Islamic State did not rely on external financiers, wanting to remain independent and pursue its own agenda. It is estimated that during the peak of the Islamic State, the annual budget of the organization was around 2 billion dollars; which made the Islamic State the richest terrorist organization in the world. The Islamic State was led as a mafia in terms of taxes and contributions and as an enterprise when it came to exploiting the natural resources in controlled territories. Of these natural resources, oil exploitation was the most important for the Islamic State, which controlled 60% of the oil

5 ,,The financing of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS)”, 2017, Directorate-General For External Policies, Policy Department, European Parliament, pp. 7-8. 6 ,,ISIS Financing”, 2015 Center for the analysis of terrorism, CAT, pp. 20-23. 7 From an economic point of view, the Islamic State could be called a proto-state, however, economic issues are not enough to consolidate statehood. Of course, the Islamic State does preserve the name of state, which is used in itself to express the terrorist organization and be called as they called themselves. The first condition, however, to exist as a state is the relation with other states, and in this case we cannot address this issue like that, when it comes to the terrorists within the Islamic State.


178

production in Syria and 10% of that in Iraq by 2016. Besides oil, the Islamic State also used water as a financing resource by controlling certain major dams, especially in Syria.8

In June 2014, the Islamic State, along with other local Sunni tribes occupied the city of Mosul, giving a severe blow to the Iraqi security forces across four days. But, in certain ways, Mosul had long ceased to operate under governmental jurisdiction. Before the de facto take-over, the Islamic State had applied taxes for any trader, from vegetable vendors to construction companies. According to some estimates, the revenue of those sources amounted to eight million dollars a month. The same type of taxes was also applied in Tikrit, north of Baghdad.9 The initial conquest plan did not stop at Mosul, but was meant to reach Baghdad and then the whole Iraq. The Kurds’ lack of collaboration availability and their alliance with the government resulted in the disruption of the Islamic State’s illusions related to Baghdad, Najaf and Karbala, the holy Shiite cities.

Impersonation of a state: administration and finances

The leaders of the Islamic State realized that they had to be

content with a Sunni Arab community and confessional territory. As an alternative, they chose the regionalization and internationalization of the conflict by building a transnational state; and started to blame the ,,impostor” regional states as the root of the Muslim community problems. Through the deliberate internationalization of the conflict (the massacre of the Yazidi community in the Mosul plain area for media purposes, among others) and the general denunciation of the regional states’ legitimacy, the Islamic State was thus able to claim itself as the only true heir of the Arab Spring. It proclaimed itself as the sole, completely autonomous protagonist that only depended on its local bases. The desire to surpass the narrow community and confessional limit of Iraq, associated with a universalistic, militant speech, created the impression of an organization addressing a global community. Thus, the international community was presented the Islamic State’s propaganda consisting of its own alternative to the international coalition, made up of European, Uzbek and Chechen fighters.10 The internationalization of the conflict and the territorial expansion towards Syria was presented as

8 ,,The financing of the Islamic State”, pp. 8-10. 9 Ibidem, p. 28. 10 Damien Sharkov, ,,Chechen Volunteers Fighting ISIS In Syria and Iraq: Report”, in Newsweek, World, February 9th, 2016.


179

the abolition of artificial borders; the elimination of the border between Syria and Iraq, as a symbol of weakness of the colonial regional regimes.11

The new caliphate, proclaimed in June 2014 had its own government, economy and army. The Islamic State also created bureaucracy in the caliphate and institutions that functioned according to the strict and puritan ideology of Islam. At the end of 2016, the Pentagon stated that between 27.000 and 31.000 foreign fighters from all over the world traveled to Iraq and Syria, via Turkey to join the caliphate army and other extremist groups.12

Throughout the entire territory under its dominance, the Islamic State implemented what we could compare to institutions and administration, however, in a rudimentary and localized manner. The names of the positions within the administrative departments refer to the first Muslim states combined with certain forms taken from the modern administration. There was also a judicial power consisting of religious judges who commanded over a police responsible for the implementation of their decisions throughout the Islamic State territory. In Iraq, these judges are chosen from the old religious cast that has been infiltrated by Salafi elements since Saddam’s rule. Given that Jihadists believed that Sharia was the supreme law that no longer supports other auxiliary laws, the Islamic State rejected the idea of having a legislative, replacing it with a consultative assembly.13

As a brief summary of this, we should remember that what was surprising about the Islamic State and distinguished it from its predecessor, al-Qaeda, as well as from the other Jihadist groups, was its concern with exercising power in its own territory, the Islamic caliphate. The international community was not new to the Salafi-Jihadist terrorist phenomenon, but was used to a specific type of organization that would practice it. The other groups of this kind, at the very most, controlled training bases in the states providing them safe haven or occupied small enclaves in difficultly accessible areas. They all claimed their mission to apply Sharia, but the Islamic State showed its desire to only apply it its own territory. Its preoccupation for statehood and institutions has greatly differentiated the Islamic State from the rest of the organizations,

11 J. Luizard, Capcana Daesh, pp. 32-37. 12 R. Wright, ,,The Jihadi Threat ISIS, al-Qaeda, and Beyond”, 2015, Wilson Center and United States Institute for Peace, p. 9. 13 N. Cigar, ,,Iraq’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias: Political and Security Challenges and Options”, p. 35, online at: www.ssi.armywarcollege.edu, accessed September 23rd, 2017.


180

and this speech has prevailed, as the other organizations promised only terrorism and armed resistance in the mountains, which implied a certain type of exile. Hence, within its caliphate, the Islamic State built court houses, schools, social systems and local governments. They even had a publishing house that printed children’s books and magazines.14

Demolishing symbols and building a new society

The Islamic State became the richest terrorist organization

following an armed robbery of the bank in Mosul, from where the amount of 450 million dollars was taken. They used self-financing through kidnapping and ransom demands, protection fees, refugee trafficking and black market oil transactions. At the same time, they have been able to acquire and sell modern American military equipment following various Iraqi military base takeovers. Among such equipment, they had helicopters, armored conveyors, heavy machine guns, bulletproof vests or uniforms. After becoming a self-sufficient organization, the Islamic State began to consolidate its attributions conferred by the state title.

After the military conquest of Mosul, they continued with the implementation of administration and the new rules. Alcohol and smoking were completely forbidden, as were public meetings, gun possession, with the exception of the Islamic State members, all sheiks and tribe chiefs had to collaborate with the new authorities, all sanctuaries, cemeteries and ,,pagan” monuments were destroyed, women were forced to adopt a strict dress code and cover their entire bodies.15 Behind the absurdity behind all these measures, the elites of the Islamic State focused on a medium and long-term strategy to alter the society. Any change of regime (especially when it comes to a totalitarian regime) is sudden and highly violent in the first phases. Measures are adopted from the very outset with draconian strictness, precisely for the new regime to be able to enforce itself, not necessarily over the old order, but over the customs and collective mind that grew and learnt the old order habits. Thus, the societal takeover and conversion of the former residents to the new governing creed were the next step after the military conquest. This is the motivation behind apparently illogical acts, such as

14 J. Luizard, Capcana Daesh, pp. 151-159. 15 B. Ammar, T. Tanase, T., Terrorism-Causes, Effects and Solutions-ISIS Case Study. Terrorist Organization That Could Destabilize European Security-Islamic State, 2017.


181

the blowing up of ancient Roman sites or significant cultural or historic buildings.

The vision that was violently promoted by the Islamic State was a puritan, fundamentalist one that encouraged the return to the traditional Islamic values from the Prophet’s time, discarding the society of all auxiliary contacts and cultural contacts, especially those coming from the West, which have perverted it culturally and spiritually and enslaved it politically. The new administration of the Islamic State demolishes a world presented as sinful, corrupt and rotten, blowing up the edifices that stand as proof of it. All of this to create a new Islamic society that would underlie the totalitarian administration. The Islamist vision (and of all Islamic terrorist organizations) needed a state on their political agenda. The state was the expression of Islam’s exertion; they saw the state as a means to impose Islam based on rigor and totalitarianism, an entity completely different from the Western model. It confers the necessary political, power and coercive means to impose religion.

The origins of the idea of state were present since the establishment of the organization, and once materialized through the territorialization of power, the Islamic State moved to the state consolidation phase at the level of the occupied societies. A new social contract was thus concluded, and the previous one with the Iraqi and Syrian government authorities was annulled, as two main clauses from both parties ended. Governors could no longer provide security (which was the central element for which the contract was concluded in the first phase; based on the principle of giving up liberties in exchange for protection), and manifest their loyalty to governors, being able, at most, to do that at a level of thought, however, ,,citizen” obligations and duties had to be honored for another entity adverse to the state, namely the Islamic State.

The feeling of betrayal doubled for many who hadn’t had the opportunity to flee the new conquerors and had to stay under the administration of the Islamic State. This first feeling refers to the failure to implement the security clause underlying the social contract with Iraq and Syria. The second feeling came after the attacks and fights between the new lords and the governmental forces. The question asked was a simple one, but no one could provide an answer: What are we to blame for that they (the Islamic State) are ruling us now and why are we collateral victims between them and the governmental forces (which should protect us)? The affiliation to the Islamic State’s territory proved to be an impossible situation for many (although, as presented, a part of the community accepted and even supported the Islamic State militants,


182

as a consequence of the fact that authorities had already violated the terms of the social contract concluded prior to its arrival, idea shared by many Sunni Arabs). Their expectations have been deceived: being a Sunni Arab did not exempt you from forced evictions, from impossible taxes, from impartial judgment without appeal rights or even from non-discriminatory crime. The residents were often used as human shields, especially during the fight for Mosul16 or Raqqa in 2017, which made it even harder for the security forces to advance as they were facing the following dilemma: Do we attack and eliminate terrorists, but kill innocents, or do we advance slowly, with additional costs and higher military risks but protect the non-combatants? For the most part, the second variant was observed, and still there were thousands of collateral victims.

The Islamic State was removed from its strategic positions in Iraq and Syria. The largest urban centers have been freed and the refugees can now return home. However, the question arises: What will they find back home? They will return to the ruins which were once their homes. They will go back to a city whose infrastructure was mostly decommissioned. Houses can be rebuilt and the infrastructure can be restored and improved. There are humanitarian aid financial packages provided by the United Nations, the European Union, etc. The question that is the subject of our study’s conclusions is: How will the social contract between the Sunni communities (and not only, in general between those relocated and affected by war) and the government authorities be re-concluded, given that these communities went through the administration of the Islamic State? What will the clauses for the population to give up liberties in exchange for security be? How credible will be the governments’ guarantee be and how many will be willing to accept it? Or will the idea of autonomy and powerful federalization become another choice? In other words, what will be the new administration to be built in the liberated regions and how will people relate to it? One thing is certain though, up until now the relationship between governments and the Sunni community was clearly a faulty one.

The fabulous rise of the Islamic State resulted from the organization’s ability to consolidate itself (and create the impression that is) the shock wave of a general Sunni riot. It is quite possible that the offensive carried out by the Islamic State in the summer of 2014 meant the end of a Shiite-dominated government in Iraq, following the post-

16 J. Maslin, ,,They Just Took Us. Mosul Civilians on Being Used as Human Shields by ISIS”, in Time, March 30, 2017.


183

Saddam model of 2003. Drawing a new Iraqi political map will be necessary, both nationally and at the level of Baghdad as a power center. The lack of political dialog with the Sunnis and the return to an al-Maliki-like situation after the removal of any Islamic State presence in Iraq, will only mean the physical removal or some Jihadist militants. Keeping to such scenarios will preserve the elements that gave power to the Islamic State in the first phase. An exclusive Shiite-led government, the Sunni community’s perception of being politically excluded, economically disadvantaged and socially alienated will continue to be the ingredients of success for any Salafi-Jihadist organization claiming to fight against such situations. The hatred of the Shiites will then reemerge, an infusion of weapons and militants from the outside will occur soon afterwards, the conflict will be stratified and sub-stratified and Iraq will once again be at point zero. The balanced management of the post Islamic State in Iraq through a serious political dialog between the Shiites, Sunnis and Kurds will be absolutely necessary so that history does not repeat itself.


184


185

Teologie/Theology


186


187

JERUSALEM TEMPLE’S REBUILDING AS A RELIGIOUS AND NATIONAL UNITY FACTOR-A CENTRAL TOPIC IN

PROPHET HAGGAI’S WRITING

Bogdan-Lucian Şopterean ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Abstract: Jerusalem Temple represents a religious and political unity symbol for the

chosen people. The study aim’s is to evidentiate this status of the Temple in Haggai’s book. Therefore the author presents the historical context in which the prophet had lived and prophetised highlighting some important aspects of his message. In conclusion he asserts that the prophet reached his goal: the Temple was rebuilt and the postexilic Israelite community consolidated both religiously and politically around it.

Keywords: Jerusalem Temple, prophet Haggai, religious unity, national unity, postexilic period.

For jewish people the Jerusalem Temple is not only the epicenter

of religious cult but also represents a cohesion symbol which denotes political unity and maturity. This was an actual fact especially during the reign of David and Solomon. The first two members of Davidic dynasty are eager to strengthen the national unity of theirs subjects. Consequently, they made Jerusalem as capital city, an endeavor that had enabled cult centralization. But the ultimate symbol and bastion of national and religious cohesion was the Temple. David is the one who procured proper materials for its building and Solomon was the one who finalized its construction and participate in Temple’s consecration. The main difference between the Temple and the tabernacle resides in its unmovable character being a solid and steady construction for a people that had taken roots in that respective territory. The tabernacle was also a cultic construction but was ambulant thus for a nomadic people ever searching for a stable home. The Temple thus signifies that Israel was finally able to conquer Canaan, having a royal dynasty and God Himself dwelled among them. During Temple’s consecration when king Solomon stood in front of the people and priests they saw the grace of God in a cloud form that filled the Temple (1 Kings 8:11) and Israel knew in the moment that God was present and dwells among them.1

1 For the Jerusalem Temple as a political unifying factor see: Petre Semen, „Templul din Ierusalim-factor de unitate naţionalãşi religioasã”, in Pax et unitas, no. I, 2003, pp. 21-32; Petre Semen, „Importanţa Templului din Ierusalim pentru menţinerea unitãţii religioase şi naţionale”, in Analele ştiinţifice ale Universitãţii „Al. I. Cuza” din Iaşi. Teologie, no. VI, 2001, pp. 101-110; Ioan Chirilã, „Teologia Sionului-ca element de fundamentare a comuniunii şi comunitãţii credinţei”, in Vasile Stanciu, Cristian Sonea (eds.), Misiunea


188

Before the Babylonian exile the Israeli people regarded the Temple from Jerusalem as a religious and national unity factor even after the kingdom split (see 1 Kings 12:26-27). The destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian exile meant a difficult time for Israel for the fact that they were estranged from Jerusalem’s beauty and found it impossible to return. Only after about sixty years (597-538 B. C.) Cyrus king of Persia offered them the opportunity to-and even encourraged them-to return home and rebuild the Temple.2 Subsequently prince Zerubbabel and Joshua led the first groups of people from Persia back into the promised land, in kingdom of Judah. Haggai, a post-exilic prophet, was one of the repatriated.3 Haggai’s writing started only thirty years after the repatriation and the main objective for that endeavor was to encourage the people to rebuild the Temple. Haggai saw the Temple as the sole entity through which Israel could be truly saved and overcome that period of hardship.4

The literature that we had identified concerning Haggai’s writing with the topic of rebuilding the Temple is scarce. Many authors only point to this topic when: 1) they make isagogic analysis regarding Haggai’s personality and the style of its post-exilic writings;5 2) they study the historic period of the second temple;6 3) they consider the large theme of the Temple in general, both the first and the second7 or 4) they evaluate Haggai’s book in an biblical commentary.8 Moreover, there are studies underlying prince Zerubbabel’s personality or the eschatological

parohiei şi a mãnãstirii într-o lume în continuã schimbare, Cluj-Napoca, Renaşterea Printing Press, 2016, pp. 20-32. 2 See: Petre Semen, Introducere în teologia profeţilor scriitori, Iaşi, Trinitas Printing Press, 2008, p. 312. 3 Ibidem, p. 312. 4 D. J. Clark, H. Hatton, ,,A handbook on Haggai”, in UBS Handbook Series, New York, United Bible Societies, 2002, p. 11. 5 Ioan Chirilã et. al., Introducere în Vechiul Testament, Bucureşti, Basilica Printing Press, 2018, pp. 687-695; Petre Semen, Introducere în teologia, pp. 312-319. 6 Lester L. Grabbe, Judaic religion in the Second Temple period, London/New York, Routledge, 2000, pp. 15-17; Daniel L. Smith, „The polittics of Ezdra: Sociological indicators of postexilic judaean society”, in David J. A. Clines şi Phiplip R. Davis (eds.), Journal for the study of the Old Testament supplement series 117, Sheffield, JSOT Press, 1991, pp. 73-97. 7 Ronald E. Regans, God and Temple, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1965, pp. 123-134. 8 See, for example: R. A. Taylor, E. R. Clendenen, ,,Hagaai, Malachi”, in The New American Commentary 21A, Nashville, Broadman&Holman Publishers, 2007; C. L. Meyers, E. M. Meyers, ,,Haggai, Zecharia 1-8: A new translation with introduction and commentary”, in Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries, New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 2008; D. J. Clark, H. Hatton, A handbook on Haggai.


189

theology in Haggai’s book.9 We had identified four studies with an in-depth approach towards rebuilding of the Temple. The first one belongs to David J. A. Clines. Utilizing a deconstructionist approach he shows what the prophet had intended to say in his discourse.10 The other three studies belong to Elie Assis, professor at Bar-Ilan University of Israel, department of Biblical Studies. His first study analyzes the internal polemic in Judah which the rebuild of the Temple lead to. This polemic happens between the prophet and the people, the former trying to explain to the last the fundamental importance and the theological implications of the house of God.11 In his second study, Assis „discuss the Temple ideology that characterizes the book of Haggai” and shows what role had the Temple in the life of Israel.12 And in his third study, he is concentrate on the first part from the second chapter from the book of Haggai emphasizing the reason why Haggai is so eager to see a new temple built: it will be a glorious masterpiece that will overshadow the first construction.13

Although not very extensive, the book of Haggai is important for understanding the process and the problems faced in it when Israel, returned from Persia, decided to reorganize from point zero. Once they returned hardship and need hit them so their first preoccupation resided not on spiritual matters but in setting up the agriculture and households. The daily preoccupation for providing and establishing an income left them no time to think let alone start working on the Temple. It is in this context when Haggai arouse and start preaching that poor material conditions and precarious economy are caused by the very lack of preoccupation towards the Temple of God. Rebuilding of the Temple should have been the main preoccupation not only for political and religious elites (for them this endeavor should have been a must) but for all the people. Haggai’s intention did not neglect the political and social aspects but he knew that by rebuilding the Temple, the political and

9 Bob Wielenga, „Eschatological hope in Haggai: A homiletic reading”, in In die Scriflig, no. XLIX, 2015, pp. 1-13; Greg Goswell, „The Fate and Future of Zerubbabel in the Prophecy of Haggai”, in Biblica, no. XCI, 2010, pp. 77-90. 10 David J. A. Clines, „Haggai’s Temple, Constructed, Deconstructed ann Reconstructed”, in David J. A. Clines, Phiplip R. Davis (eds.), Journal for the study of the Old Testament supplement series 175, Sheffield, JSOT Press, 1994, pp. 60-87. 11 Elie Assis, „To Build or Not to Build: A Dispute between Haggai and His People (Hag 1)”, in Zeitschrift Für Die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, no. CXIX, 2007, pp. 514-527. 12 Elie Assis, „The temple in the book of Haggai”, in The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, no. XIX, 2008, pp. 2-10. 13 Elie Assis, „A Disputed Temple (Haggai 2,1-9)”, in Zeitschrift Für Die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, no. CXX, 2008, pp. 582-596.


190

social cohesion would be implicitly assured, just as before the exile. This is the very topic of this research of which main research hypothesis is that the preoccupation for households and domestic agriculture let to an individualization weakening the already soft national cohesion sentiment. The rebuilding of the Temple would have engaged all the people efforts (as a reverse action of individualization resulted from working their own piece of land) and it would have serve as an incontestable symbol of a national collective effort for unity in faith of Israeli community.

But before we would analyze these theological aspects of Haggai’s book (national unity by faith, rebuilding of the Temple as a symbol of community cohesion) we shall explore the historical context in which Haggai activated. After understanding the context, we can analyze Haggai’s advices towards the rebuilding of the Temple. We considered this topic to be relevant nowadays given the depreciation of religious sentiment and patriotism.14 And we are saying this because the values that Haggai propose could be taken into account anytime in history.

Rebuilding the community by rebuilding the Temple. Some aspects on the prophet Haggai’s message

It is paramount to understand Haggai’s prophetic activity as an

integral part of Israel’s returning from the exile which happened in 538 B. C. after Cyrus king of Persia conquered the Babylonian empire. Unlike Babylonians conquer policy of deporting the defeated nations Cyrus adopted a different strategy. Persian approach was an open one in which cultic practices and national identities were respected and thus guaranteed. In this context, Cyrus decided in 538 B. C. to express his permission for the Israelites to return in their homeland (Ezra 1) without forcing them to do so. The process of returning happened in multiple waves, the first one being led by prince Zerubbabel and Joshua consisting in 50.000 of individuals.15 They settled in Jerusalem and in its

14 Many countries of the world face this problems. For this reason, some scholars searched some ways to draw attention that the religion and the patriotism are important for a nation. In their studies, they treat some political aspects or some remarkable personalities. See, for example, Sahrul, „Religion and Social Conflict in Aceh Singkil, Nanggroe Aceh Darusalam, Indonesia”, in Astra Salvensis, no. II, 2017, pp. 723-736; Lucian Zenoviu, „Sfântul Dimitrie Basarabov-simbol al unitãţii naţionale româneşti”, in Astra Salvensis, Supplement no. I, 2018, pp. 575-581. 15 Petre Semen, Introducere în teologia, pp. 312-313.


191

outskirts16 and one of their first initiative was the rebuilding of the Temple. In the book of Ezra, chapter 3, we found the story of laying down the Temple foundation and the national joy as a consequence of that endeavor. However, two main causes made the construction to cease for 17 years:17 1) the opposition of Samaritans;18 and 2) the precarious economic conditions. According to Ezra 4:24 „[…] the work on the house of God in Jerusalem came to a standstill until the second year of the reign of Darius king of Persia” (520 B. C.).

It is unknown why the work had not been resumed earlier but probably the answer must be sought in Persian political power struggles. What happened than at the top of Persian ruling elites? The death of king Cambyses (530-522 B. C.) the successor of Cyrus left a power void that many military chieftains fought each other in order to fill. In this chaotic situation Darius successfully concentrates the power in his hands. He ruled between 522-486 B. C.,19 but the riots are ended only in 520 B. C.20

Darius inspired himself from Cyrus tolerance policy and even came in aid to foreign nations from his Empire. In the book of Ezra, we find information regarding how king Darius issued an order that the gold and silver articles of the house of God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the Temple in Jerusalem, are to be returned to their places (Ezra 6:1-5). He agreed for the resuming of the construction of the Temple, and endeavor made possible with the implication of prophets Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:14).21

One particular aspect is highlighted more than others in Haggai’s book: the prophet is not concerned with Judas external challenges. For Haggai all the external political aspects in which Judah exists: domination of the Persian Empire and the possibility for the everyday life to be

16 For a detalied work on jews returning from the exile see: Diana Edelman, The origins of the Second Temple. Persian imperial policy and rebuilding of Jerusalem, London, Equinox Printing Press, 2005, pp. 151-206. 17 D. J. Clark, H. Hatton, „A handbook on Haggai”, in UBS handbook series, New York, United Bible Societies, 2002, p. 11. 18 Haggai is not concerned in his book with external affairs, so we do not enter in detalis. For a detalied work on the dispute between the Israelites and the Samaritans see: Ioan Chirilã et. al., Introducere în Vechiul Testament, pp. 688-689; cf. Elie Assis, „To Build or Not to Build, p. 515. 19 Petre Semen, Introducere în teologia, pp. 314-315. 20 Michel Casevitz et. al., „Introducere la Agheu”, in Cristian Bãdiliţã et. al. (eds.), Septuaginta, volume 5, Iaşi, Polirom Printing Press, 2009, p. 471. 21 See: John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, Mark W. Chavalas, Comentariu cultural-istoric al Vechiului Testament, Oradea, 2014, p. 855.


192

affected by decisions taken in Persian Empire simply does not matter. He refers to them as temporarily contexts (Haggai 1:1). This is a result of Haggai’s faith in the mighty God which has the ultimate word concerning his chosen people (and all the people on earth also). But that pride of being the people chosen by God should had been manifested concretely in the preoccupation for the house of God, thus that privilege is not to be taken lightly. This is the reason why Haggai sees the future of Judah not in terms of political autonomy or other social aspects because the rebuilding of the Temple as the true symbol of the presence of God among the people is the main feature of which Israelites should have been obsessed. God will set and decide their history and their well-being not the Persian Empire, subsequently the fact that Judah is a part of that Empire is not a problem because God remains Judah’s ultimate true and sole king around which Israeli kings, priests and people should gather.22

Thus Haggai has two important roles in the Jewish society first being related to religious filed where he reminds Israel that it has to put all his trust towards the Lord because He had watched over Israel’s destiny ever since (Haggai 1:13). In that order it is paramount for them to restart at once the construction of the Temple for God to dwell again among them. Haggai’s second role is linked with the political field because by rebuilding the Temple he sought to restore the Davidic societal environment where the society was closely united by one single religious cult concentrated at Jerusalem.23

Haggai’s advices towards the rebuilding of the Temple and Israelite community

Haggai’s advices towards rebuilding the Temple make up virtually

the entire meaning of his book and in close relationship with it lies the theme of resurgence of the Davidic royal line. Rebuilding the Temple would have been according the Haggai a true evidence of the fact that Israel survived the exile and is ready to reorganize as a coherent people. The Temple thus serves the link between Haggai days when Zerubbabel was the ruler and the glorious period of David or Solomon.24 Haggai 2:9

22 D. J. Clark, H. Hatton, A handbook on Haggai, pp. 11-12; Elie Assis, ,,To Build or Not to Build”, pp. 518-519. 23 R. A. Taylor, E. R. Clendenen, Hagaai, Malachi, p. 42. 24 Zerubbabel was the grandson of Jehoiachin, a descendant of King David. Consequently, „Haggai would not let Israel neutralize the everlasting promises to David, as Second Isaiah was willing to do (Isaiah 55:3)”. Carroll Stuhlmueller, ,,Rebuilding with hope: A


193

express this very desire of restoring Israel’s previous glory and even overcoming it.25

Haggai’s book does not represent a message narrowed to a specific target group. It involves both the ruling political and religious elites and the ordinary people (Haggai 1:2.7.13; 2:1.11.20). But Haggai addresses prince Zerubbabel and high priest Joshua in particular because they served the ultimate example for the people and if they would have been prioritizing the Temple reconstruction the people would have follow in spite of their conviction that it was not the proper time to do it (Haggai 1:2). The main field towards the Israelites thought it would be critical to invest was their own households (Haggai 1:9). On the other side, Haggai shows that the precarious economic conditions and the drought are caused by the ignorance towards the Temple (Haggai 1:6.9.10-11). The exile however flattened the spiritual enthusiasm and created doubt along the Israelites that the Lord is still their protector.26 That was the very attitude that led them to the brink of economic collapse. Haggai felt the need for a spark that will light the dormant religious enthusiasm in Israelites and the rebuilding of the Temple would have done such a thing.

Full of enthusiasm and confidence Haggai instigates the people and its elites to rebuild the Temple first by signaling some important issues. The first one by pointing to the wrong path Israel had taken by putting distance between them and the Lord. The second one is the assurance that the Lord is still with them (Haggai 1:13). Those words of the prophet did not remain in vain but reached their goal and motivated the people in such a way that in only 23 days: „[...] the Lord stirred up the spirit of Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and the spirit of Joshua the son of Josedech, the high priest, and the spirit of all the remnant of the people; and they came and did work in the house of the Lord of hosts, their God” (Haggai 1:14).27

commentary on the books of Haggai and Zechariah”, in International theological commentary, Grand Rapids, Eerdmans/Handsel Press, 1988, p. 13. 25 Ibidem, pp. 13-14. 26 Based on this fact Elie Assis says that: „[...] the people were disappointed that their expectiations for salavation had not been fulfilled, and thus doubts were raised as to whether God was in their midst. The feeling of abandonment by God would seem to be a continuation of the popular and prevalent exilic and post-exilic view that God had abandoned and rejected His people; that they were no longer His chosen people”. Elie Assis, ,,To Build or Not to Build”, p. 518. 27 The expression ,,the Lord stirred up the spirit of” is fairly common in the later parts of the Old Testament; see: 1 Chr 5:26; Jer 51:1; compare Ezra 1:5. It is well translated by Today’s English Version in natural modern English as ,,The Lord inspired”. D. J. Clark, H. Hatton, A handbook on Haggai, p. 36.


194

After a month since the construction, was resumed those who envy the beauty and glory of the first Temple started to discourage those who were working at the construction. The second Temple was considerably smaller than the first one and the materials used were also less precious. It was difficult to maintain a constant effort at the construction when their own kind discouraged them in doing so; thus Zerubbabel, Joshua and the people lost enthusiasm, but Haggai intervened and said to them: „[…] now be strong, O Zerubbabel, saith the Lord; and be strong, O Joshua, son of Josedech, the high priest; and be strong, all ye people of the land, saith the Lord, and work: for I am with you” (Haggai 2:4). King David encouraged king Solomon before starting building the first Temple in a similar fashion: „[...] be strong and of good courage, and do it: fear not, nor be dismayed: for the Lord God, even my God, will be with thee; he will not fail thee, nor forsake thee, until thou hast finished all the work for the service of the house of the Lord” (1 Chronicles 28:20). Just as God helped Solomon and the people to raise the first Temple He will do the same under Zerubbabel in the post-exilic period.28 Israel’s community will be consolidated and will strengthen and the rebuilding of the Temple will be a success because during the entire process God will be with them and His presence generates prosperity, pace, unity and love.

Conclusions

The second Temple was constructed after approximately four years of work (in the sixth year of king Darius-according to Ezra 6:14-15). It is unknown whether Haggai lived to see it finished but what is certain is that his message fulfilled its goal. His influence was paramount for the sons of Israel to start rebuilding the Temple of God (Ezra 6:16). The prophet managed to drag his compatriots form their apathy and desolation and to restore the hierarchical order of priorities showing them that God needs to be central in their priorities. Religious and political unity were thus restored according to the preexilic fashion where the king, the priests and the people shared a spiritual bound around the Temple of Jerusalem, where the peace of God dwelled (Haggai 2:9).

28 R. A. Taylor, E. R. Clendenen, Hagaai, Malachi, p. 146.


195

TAINA ŞI ÎNFÃŢIŞAREA HERUVIMILOR LA SFINŢII PÃRINŢI

The Sacrament and Look of Cherubims in Holy Fathers’ Taught1

PhD. Research Assistant Ioan Popa-Bota,


Abstract: In this research, we propose to approach a topic of iconography from a patristic perspective. In other words, we want to investigate and see how the iconic morphology of cherubims respects the details mentioned or debated in the texts of Holy Fathers and assumes the theological message transmitted by them. Although Holy Fathers texts represent the main inspiration source for iconography, it is possible that the icon painters inspire also from other sources in their realisation of artistic representation There we will try to analize especially the tetramorph morphology, one that challenged very much the creativity of icon painters. We will use the contextualisation and the method of linguistic analyse, but the main method will be specific to the Christian East, where the most important aspects are the unity of text and integrity of theological message.

Keywords: cherubims, iconisation, Holy Fathers, tetramorph, antrompomophism, teorimorphism, Jezechiel.

Dacã pentru omul contemporan îngerii au devenit fiinţe imaginare,

în vechime, bazându-ne pe relatãrile din vieţile sfinţilor, dar şi pe textele scripturistice ale Vechiului şi ale Noului Testament, aceste fãpturi erau percepute ca prezenţe familiare. Sfinţii Pãrinţi au încercat, la rândul lor, sã defineascã firea şi activitatea puterilor îngereşti iar, cu timpul, au apãrut şi primele probleme legate de reprezentarea îngerilor în registrul plastic. Principala întrebare era urmãtoarea: cum anume poate fi reprezentatã în imagini o fiinţã necorporalã? O a doua problemã, legatã de întrebarea anterioarã era aceea a importanţei pe care o au respectivele imagini pentru venerarea şi înţelegerea unei asemenea fiinţe. Nu este de mirare aşadar faptul cã au apãrut încã din perioada Bisericii primare unele respingeri ale reprezentãrilor îngerilor, respingeri legate direct de teama de idolatrie, dar şi de încercarea pãgânilor de a-i identifica pe îngerii creştini cu proprii zei. Astfel, în secolul al IV-lea, Macarie al Magnesiei (episcop al Magnesiei, localitate aflatã azi pe teritoriul Turciei) a combãtut încercãrile pãgâne de apropiere, negând orice asemãnare dintre cultul creştin al îngerilor şi închinarea pãgânilor la zei. Dintre numele

1 Acknowledgments: This work was supported by TeMATIC-Art, Project co-financed by FEDR through Competitiveness Operational Programme 2014-2020, Funding contract: 14/01.09.2016.


196

autorilor care s-au opus reprezentãrilor îngerilor amintim pe (Pseudo) Epifanie de Salamina, Evagrie Ponticul (teoretician al rugãciunii pure, eliberate de orice imagine), Filoxen (episcop monofizit de Hierapolis) sau Sever de Antiohia, care se opunea cinstirii excesive a îngerilor. Reprezentãrile iconografice ale îngerilor şi-au aflat însã şi numeroşi apãrãtori în lumea bizantinã, în rândurile unor Pãrinţi şi Scriitori Bisericeşti: Pseudo-Dionisie Areopagitul (tratatul Ierarhia cereascã), Sfântul Ioan Damaschin, Teodor Studitul, Nichifor Mãrturisitorul şi Fotie.

Antropomorfism şi teriomorfism

în reprezentãrile plastice ale îngerilor

Trecând peste aparenta dificultate legatã de caracterul imaterial şi

incomprehensibil al puterilor îngereşti, iconarii au apelat la numeroasele angelofanii consemnate în Sfânta Scripturã sau în Vieţile sfintilor, mai exact, la acele forme simbolice, antropomorfe sau teriomorfe, care au fost asumate de cãtre îngeri, circumstanţial, pentru a intra în contact cu anumiţi oameni. Dificultatea de a percepe şi recunoaşte îngerii este semnalatã în Sfânta Scripturã prin numãrul de chipuri sub care ei apar ca şi prin impresia pe care ei o lasã. Ei apar ca fiinţe cu multe înfãţişãri, care

inspirã teamã, care copleşesc prin prezenţa lor (Zaharia, tatãl Sfântului Ioan Botezãtorul „s-a tulburat şi fricã a cãzut peste el”-Lc. 1, 12), apar sub formã de nor şi de foc (Ieş. 13, 21-22; 23, 20-23), sau glasuri fãrã chip (Fac. 21, 17), sau, în viziunile lui Iezechiel (Iez. cap. 1 şi cap. 10) şi Isaia (Is. cap. 6), ca fiinţe complexe, greu de descris.2

În cazul reprezentãrilor antropomorfe, artiştii creştini au eludat anumite probleme legate de natura îngerilor, reprezentându-i adesea sub chip de om, dar aceste imagini prezentau dificultãţi de receptare şi înţelegere din partea privitorului, existând o tensiune între reprezentarea materialã şi natura imaterialã a

acestora. Îngerii sunt prezentaţi sub înfãţişarea unor tineri, cel mai adesea înaripaţi, iar figurile lor sunt generalizate pânã la anonimat. Heruvimii şi serafimii pot fi adesea recunoscuţi, deşi nu întotdeauna pot fi deosebiţi

2 Glenn Peers, Trupuri imateriale: reprezentãri bizantine ale îngerilor, Bucureşti, Editura Nemira, 2011, p. 25.

Imagine 1-Miniatură, heruvim,

Pomelnicul mănăstirii Costeşti, Vâlcea, 1834-1886,

<http://byzantion.itc.ro/web/Imagine//818.jpg-818>, 10

septembrie 2019.


197

unul de altul, din cauza numeroaselor aripi şi a ochilor cu care sunt descrişi în Scripturã.3 Cea mai veche reprezentare a unui înger cu chip de om care ni s-a pãstrat apare în secolul al III-lea într-o frescã a Buneivestiri din Catacomba Priscillei, din Roma.4 Este de menţionat faptul cã în aceastã frescã Arhanghelul Gavriil este reprezentat fãrã aripi. Cu toate acestea, în termeni generali, ca element distinctiv consacrat şi uşor recognoscibil al naturii şi slujirii angelice, în reprezentãrile iconografice apar aripile, care, în concepţia Sfântului Ioan Gurã de Aur, simbolizeazã „transcendenţa, necorporalitatea, rapiditatea şi activitatea

neîncetatã”.5 Forma înaripatã, antropomorfã, a devenit semnul unic al fiinţelor fãrã numãr şi nevãzute, care mijlocesc între cer şi pãmânt, la porunca lui Dumnezeu. Dupã unii cercetãtori, formulele iconografice folosite pentru a reprezenta îngerii derivau din modelele pãgâne, în special din imaginile înaripate ale victoriei, prezente pe sarcofage. Astfel, se poate afirma cã imagistica pãgânã a furnizat unele dintre sensurile creştine ale îngerilor purtãtori de biruinţã. Element iconografic comun, care caracterizeazã fiinţele care populeazã zona intermediarã dintre cer şi pãmânt, aripile erau atributele multor personificãri, ca de pildã vântul, sufletele sau simbolurile astronomice.6

Teriomorfismul (naturã sau formã animalã atribuitã divinitãţii sau figurilor divine, n.n.) în reprezentãrile plastice ale

îngerilor poate fi pus în relaţie directã cu cele patru fãpturi vii (heruvimi) care au apãrut în vedenia carului dumnezeiesc, prezentate de proorocul Iezechiel în capitolul 1: „Şi fiecare avea patru feţe, şi fiecare avea câte patru aripi. Picioarele le erau drepte, iar labele picioarelor le erau întraripate; şi scântei erau, ca arama lucitoare, iar aripile le erau uşoare. Sub aripi, în cele patru laturi ale lor, era o mânã de om. Feţele lor şi aripile lor, ale celor patru, erau ţinându-se una de alta; şi

3 Ibidem, pp. 46-47. 4 Marco Bussagli, Storia degli angeli. Racconto di immagini e di idee, Milano, Rusconi Libri, 1991, p. 48. 5 Sfântul Ioan Gurã de Aur, „In Isaiah Dominum (Is. 6, 1) homiliae 1-6, II”, în Patrologia cursus completus, ed. J.P. Migne, Paris, 1857-1866, volum 56, col. 137. 6 G. Peers, Trupuri imateriale: reprezentãri bizantine ale îngerilor, pp. 55-56.

Imagine 2 - Heruvim (sfinx înaripat)

care susține tronul regelui Hiram I al Tyrului. Sursa: W.F. Albright, „What

Were the Cherubim?”, în The Biblical Archaeologist, I, 1, 1938


198

feţele celor patru nu se întorceau când ele umblau, ci fiecare umbla avându-şi faţa înainte. Iar asemãnarea feţelor lor: o faţã de om, o faţã de leu la dreapta celor patru, o faţã de viţel la stânga celor patru şi o faţã de vultur la toate cele patru” (Iez. 1, 6-10).

În virtutea acestei viziuni, precum şi a analogiei acesteia cu descrierea „chipurilor de lei, de boi şi de heruvimi” sãpate pe postamentele/şasiurile de aramã care susţineau cuva spãlãtorului ritual din curtea templului lui Solomon, profesorul William Foxwell Albright, biblist şi arheolog de la John Hopkins University a identificat heruvimul ca fiind sinonim cu fãptura mitologicã a sfinxului înaripat sau a leului înaripat, cu cap de om. Dacã în Egipt, afirmã el, apare sfinxul fãrã aripi şi grifonul (monstru înaripat cu trup de leu, cu cap şi aripi de vultur, consacrat de altfel şi în mitologia greacã zeului Apollo n. n.), în Babilon şi Asiria preveleazã taurul înaripat cu cap de om; în Siria şi Palestina sfinxul înaripat este dominant în arta şi simbolismul religios.7 Cel mai probabil este faptul cã aceastã analogie între heruvim şi sfinxul înaripat pe baza textelor scripturistice în care Dumnezeu este prezentat ca fiind „Cel ce şade pe heruvimi” (1 Reg. 4, 4; 2 Reg. 22, 11; Ps. 17,10), unde heruvimii au rolul de tron, dar şi pe baza descoperirilor arheologice ce îl ilustreazã pe regele Hiram I al Tyrului aşezat pe un tron de heruvimi. Ca o menţiune de ordin istoric, regele Hiram I al Tyrului, în urma unui „legãmânt frãţesc” este cel care a pus la dispoziţia regelui Solomon materiale pentru costrucţia templului, dar şi pe arhitectul Hiram, menţionat în 3 Reg. 7, 14, ca fiind meşter lucrãtor în aramã „plin de mãiestrie şi pricepere”. El este cel care a realizat toate lucrãrile din aramã de la tempu, inclusiv cele zece postamente/şasiuri de aramã care susţineau cuva spãlãtorului ritual din curtea templului lui Solomon, menţionat anterior.

Tetramorfismul heruvimilor

din viziunea profetului Iezechiel Încercãri de pãtrundere în taina acestor patru feţe au existat din

perioada patristicã, pânã în zilele noastre. Notabilã este interpretarea lui D. I. Block care, bazându-şi exegeza pe un simbolism clasic, atribuie leului puterea şi majestatea, vulturului rapiditatea şi mobilitatea, taurului puterea procreaţie, iar omului înţelepciunea şi capacitatea de raţionare.8 Sfântul Dionisie Areopagitul, atunci când ne înfãţişeazã ierarhia celestã

7 W. F. Albright, „What Were the Cherubim?”, în The Biblical Archaeologist, an I, numãr 1, 1938, p. 2. 8 Daniel I. Block, The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 1-24, Revised Hardbound edition, Michigan, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Mich., 1997, p. 96.


199

afirmã cã: „orice numire datã minţilor cereşti redã însuşirea de chip dumnezeiesc a fiecãreia”.9 În viziunea Areopagitului, numele heruvimilor scoate în evidenţã revãrsarea înţelepciunii dumnezeieşti şi, totodatã, bogãţia cunoştinţei lui Dumnezeu: „Numele heruvimilor10 aratã puterea lor cunoscãtoare şi de Dumnezeu vãzãtoare şi primitoare a darului cel mai înalt al luminii, capacitatea vederii mãreţiei dumnezeieşti în cea dintâi putere lucrãtoare acesteia şi a comunicãrii ei de înţelepciune fãcãtoare, dar şi puterea de a împãrtãşi cu îmbelşugare celor de-al doilea grad, prin revãrsarea înţelepciunii dãruite”.11 În mediul alexandrin, numele heruvimilor însemna mulţime de cunoştinţã sau revãrsare de înţelepciune.12 Aceastã însemnãtate poate fi dedusã dintr-o confuzie realizatã de cãtre Sfântul Chiril al Alexandriei care considerã cã termenul serafim a fost calchiat din limba ebraicã şi a primit în greacã sensul amintit. Evident, ierarhul alexandrin oferã însemnãtatea numelui heruvimilor serafimilor. Nu cunoaştem motivul, dar confuzia este evidentã. În mediul latin, Sfântul Augustin13 şi ulterior Grigorie cel Mare,14 opteazã pentru traducerea numelui heruvimilor prin sintagma plinãtatea cunoaşterii, o expresie similarã celei prezente în Rãsãritul creştin.

Sfântul Dionisie Areopagitul dedicã un spaţiu generos heruvimilor în scrierea sa dedicatã ierarhiei îngereşti. Întâi de toate susţine cã alãturi de tronuri şi serafimi, aceştia se aseamãnã cel mai mult dumnezeirii, fiindcã neîncetat se îndreaptã cu statornicie spre dragostea neschimbatã a lui Dumnezeu. Râvnind sã fie asemenea lui Dumnezeu, heruvimii nu se abat de la calea lor. Aceştia sunt minţi vãzãtoare spiritual care îl contemplã direct pe Dumnezeu fãrã intermediare, fãrã a vedea simboluri

9 Sfântul Dionisie Areopagitul, Opere complete, Bucureşti, Editura Paidea, 1996, p. 23. 10 Pentru detalii privitoare la etimologia termenului heruvim, recomand: Freedman şi O’Connor, „Kerub”, în Ringgren Botteweck, Fabry Botteweck, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 318; Shalom, „Cherub”, în Skolnik et al., Encyclopaedia judaica, 600; Ioan Chirilã, , Fragmentarium exegetic filonian, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Limes, 2001, p. 104; Stelian Paşca-Tuşa, „Implicaţiile teologice ale reprezentãrilor heruvimilor în sanctuarul biblic”, în Vasile Stanciu, Cristian Sonea (coord.), Icoanã. Mãrturie creştinã. Totalitarism, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2017, pp. 57-72; Victor Constantin Mãruţoiu, ,,Sfinţii îngeri în tradiţia evanghelicã marcanã”, în Astra Salvensis-Supplement No. 1/2015 ,,New Approaches in Contemporary Theology”, 2015, pp. 146-148. 11 Sfântul Dionisie Areopagitul, Opere complete, p. 24. 12 Sfântul Chiril al Alexandriei, Închinarea şi slujirea în Duh şi Adevãr, Bucureşti, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, 1991, p. 293. 13 St. Augustine, Two Books on Genesis Against the Manichaeans 2.23.35-A. Louth şi M. Conti, ,,Genesis 1-11”, în Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture OT 1, Downers Grove, InterVarsity Press, 2001, p. 101. 14 St. Gregory the Great, Homily 25-J. T. Lienhard şi R. J. Rombs, ,,Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy”, în Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture OT 3, Downers Grove, InterVarsity Press, 2001, p. 124.


200

sensibile şi fãrã a se sprijini pe chipuri sfinte, şi, totodatã, se împãrtãşesc nemijlocit de lumina dumnezeiascã care îi îndumnezeieşte. Heruvimii, la fel ca şi celelalte douã puteri, sunt „plini de o luminã mai presus de orice cunoştinţã nematerialã şi copleşite, pe cât se poate, de vederea acelei frumuseţi izvorâtoare care creeazã frumosul şi este obârşia frumuseţii cei mai presus de fiinţã şi strãluceşte într-o luminã întreitã”.15

Sfântul Dionisie ne recomandã sã-i privim pe heruvimi ca pe nişte fiinţe desãvârşite, fiindcã s-au învrednicit de darul îndumnezeirii la cel mai înalt nivel, lucrare ce poate fi asumatã doar de îngeri. Heruvimii „se înalţã în chip nemijlocit spre dumnezeire prin puterea şi treapta lor mai presus de toate. De aceea, sunt statorniciţi într-o sfinţenie desãvârşitã şi în cel mai mai înalt grad de neclintire se înalţã, pe cât este cu putinţã, spre frumuseţea nematerialã şi spiritualã, spre contemplarea ei. Şi deoarece sunt primii [alãturi de tronuri şi serafimi, subl. n.] în jurul lui Dumnezeu, ele sunt introduse în chip nemijlocit de cãtre izvorul şi obârşia sfinţeniei în planurile lucrãrilor dumnezeieşti, fiind aşezate ierarhic în modul cel mai minunat”.16 Aceste puteri cereşti doresc sã se împãrtãşeascã mai învederat de lumina ce izvorãşte din Dumnezeu. Din acest motiv acestea sunt pline de „cea mai sfântã curãţie a luminii celui nemãsurate ce se rãspândeşte din lucrarea de sfinţire cea mai presus de desãvârşire-sunt curate, luminate şi desãvârşite… Sunt pline de lumina cea mai începãtoare şi prima şi sunt desãvârşite prin deprinderea cu împãrtãşirea de cunoştinţa şi ştiinţa ce i s-a dat cel dintâi. Pe scurt, aş putea spune… cã atât curãţirea, cât şi luminarea şi desãvârşirea nu sunt altceva decât împãrtãşirea de fiinţa dumnezeiascã, care curãţeşte de neştiinţã prin dãruirea cunoaşterii sfinţirii desãvârşite… Aceastã curãţire se face printr-o luminare mai înaltã. În sfârşit, ea desãvârşeşte prin acea luminã, adicã prin ştiinţa statornicã a sfinţirilor luminoase”.17

Pentru a scoate în evidenţã umplerea de luminã a heruvimilor, Scriptura foloseşte adeseori simbolul focului. Acest fapt poate fi constatat îndeosebi în scrierea lui Iezechiel unde aflãm cã heruvimilor le sunt asociate nişte roţi de foc (Iez. 1,15; 6,9; 10,2) care urmeazã cu precizie orice mişcare a acestor puteri cereşti. Fiarele menţionate în viziunea inauguralã sunt înfãţişate ca nişte animale arzãtoare (Iez. 1,14), iar în jurul lor, profetul descrie grãmezi de cãrbuni aprinşi, incandescenţi (Iez. 1,13; 10,2). „Deci socotesc, susţine Dionisie, cã înfãţişarea minţilor cereşti ca înfocate e cea mai asemãnãtoare cu Dumnezeu. Sfinţii teologi [prooroci, subl. tr.] descriu fiinţa mai presus de fiinţãşi fãrã formã prin focul care redã însuşirile

15 Sfântul Dionisie Areopagitul, Opere complete, p. 24. 16 Ibidem, pp. 24-25. 17 Ibidem, p. 25.


201

dumnezeirii18… în forma vãzutã. Acestea ştiind-o înţelepţii în cele dumnezeieşti au plãsmuit pe seama fiinţelor cereşti chipuri de foc, descoperind asemãnarea lor cu Dumnezeu şi, pe cât se poate, imitarea lui Dumnezeu de cãtre ele”.19

Totodatã, Sfântul Dionisie semnaleazã faptul cã aceste fãpturi cereşti sunt asociate şi cu arama, cu chipul lectronului şi cu cel al pietrelor scumpe, cu aurul şi cu argintul pentru a scoate în evidenţã lucirea neputrezitã, neistovitã, nemicşorat şi nepãtatã, şi strãlucirea luminoasã şi cereascã. „Arama trebuie sã fie vãzutã, dupã cuvintele dinainte, ca şi chip al focului, sau al aurului. Iar înfãţişãrile multicolore ale pietrelor socotesc cã se aratã sau luminoase, ca albe, sau aprinse, fiind roşii sau în chipul aurului, fiind galbene. Şi în fiecare culoare vei afla înãlţãtor al chipurilor”.20

Inspirat de viziunea lui Iezechiel, Areopagitul explicã modul în care pot fi tâlcuite chipurile animalelor prin care sunt descrise minţile cele cereşti: „Chipul leului (cf. Iez. 1,10; Apoc. 4,7) e de socotit cã înseamnã puterea conducãtoare, vigoarea, tãria nezdrobitã, asemãnarea, pe cât e cu putinţã, cu ascuţimea negrãitei începãtorii dumnezeieşti prin acoperirea urmelor înţelegãtoare (cf. Ps. 76,18) şi prin învãluirea mersului întins în sus, prin iluminarea dumnezeiascã, spre adâncimea nemijlocitã a dumnezeirii. Iar al taurului (cf. Iez. 1,7.10; Apoc 4,7) aratã vigoarea şi lãrgimea deschisã a brazdelor înţelegãtoare spre primirea ploilor cereşti şi aducãtoare de rod. Iar coarnele aratã pavãza apãrãtoare şi nebiruitã. Iar chipul vulturului aratã puterea împãrãteascã, pornitã spre înãlţimi (cf. Iez. 1,10; Apoc. 4,7); iuţimea şi uşurinţa în dobândirea hranei întãritoare; şi privirea treazãşi uşoarã spre raza îmbelşugatã a revãrsãrii solare a dumnezeirii începãtoare prin

18 Sfântul Dionisie descrie calitãţile pe care le are focul material pentru a putea asocia proprietãţile acestuia cu raţiunea pentru care profeţii au considerat cã este indicat sã asemenea dumnezeirea şi lumina izvorâtã din Fiinţa dumnezeiascã cu focul: „Focul sensibil este, aşa zicând, în toate şi pãtrunde prin toate în chip neamestecat şi e mai presus de toate. Şi fiind întreg luminos şi în acelaşi timp ascuns, este necunoscut prin el însuşi, când nu existã o materie în care sã-şi arate lucrarea proprie. Cãci fiind nestãpânit şi nevãzut, le stãpâneşte pe toate şi atrage la lucrarea sa pe toate cele în care se iveşte. E neschimbat, se transmite pe sine tuturor celor ce se apropie într-un fel oarecare, învioreazã prin cãldura de viaţã fãcãtoare, lumineazã prin flãcãrile neacoperite. E de nereţinut, neamestecat, desfãcãtor, e neschimbat, urcã în sus, e ascuţit în urcuş, e înalt, nu primeşte nicio cãdere în jos, e pururi în mişcare, în aceeaşi mişcare atrãgãtor al altora, cuprinzãtor, dar necuprins, nu are nevoie de altceva, se mãreşte pe sine pe neobservate, îşi aratã mãrimea în materiile primite, e lucrãtor puternic, tuturor prezent în chip nevãzut. De e nesocotit, pare cã nu existã, dar prin atingere se aratã deodatã potrivit cu ceea ce atinge şi cu sine, ca printr-o cãutare; şi iarãşi luceşte fãrã întrerupere, nemicşorat, în toate rãspândirile lui îmbelşugate. Şi alte multe însuşiri ale dumnezeirii ar putea afla cineva în însuşirile focului ca în nişte chipuri”. Sfântul Dionisie Areopagitul, Opere complete, p. 36. 19 Ibidem, p. 36. 20 Ibidem, p. 38.


202

îndreptarea viguroasã, neîmpiedicatã, neclintitã şi directã a puterilor vãzãtoare spre ea (Iez. 1,10; Apoc. 4,7)”.21

Afilierea simbolicã a tetramorfilor şi a Evangheliilor a apãrut încã din secolul al II-lea, când Sfântul Irineu, episcop de Lugdunului, scria: „Cãci heruvimii au patru feţe, iar feţele lor sunt imaginile demnitãţilor şi slujirilor Fiului lui Dumnezeu. Faţa de leu aratã demnitatea Sa împãrãteascã, cât este de puternic şi de impunãtor. Cea de viţel aratã demnitatea Lui arhieresascã şi preoţeascã. Chipul de om redã întruparea, iar cel de vultur reprezintã sãlãşluirea Sfântului Duh”.22

Pentru Nicolae Cabasila „cele pentru fiinţe vii (Iez. 1,5) sunt vestitorii Iconomiei (apostolii) care au strãbãtut lumea toatã propovãduindu-L pe Hristos atât ca om-ceea ce se aratã prin faţa de om-cât şi provenit din seminţie împãrãteascã-ceea ce se aratã prin faţa de leu-şi împãrat nu pãmântesc, ci ceresc-ceea ce sugereazã faţa de vultur-precum şi curãţindu-i pe oameni cu Sângele Sãu-a cãrui prefigurare era faţa de viţel (cf. Iez. 1,10)”.23 Sfântul Grigorie explicã în omilia a IV-a la Iezechiel modul în care se face corelarea celor patru chipuri cu evangheliştii.24

De asemenea, roţile de foc care sunt asociate heruvimilor au şi ele o raţiune pe care Sfântul Dionisie încearcã sã o explice. Aceastã asociere dintre roţi şi heruvimi nu era strãinã mentalului iudaic. La Templu, Solomon a realizat zece postamente de aramã (pentru marea de aramã-3 Rg. 7, 23-26) peste care erau aşezate tãblii ce aveau sculptate pe ele chipuri de boi, lei şi heruvimi. Fiecare postament era prevãzut cu patru roţi de aramã cu osii de aramã. Totodatã şi pe consolele de la cele patru colţuri are fiecãrui postament, dar şi pe policioarele dintre ele, erau gravate chipuri de heruvimi, lei şi finici (3 Rg. 7, 27-37). Aceste elemente specifice Templului se regãsesc şi în discursul profetului Iezechiel: „Când mã uitam eu la fiare, iatã am vãzut jos, lângã aceste fiare, câte o roatã la fiecare din cele patru feţe ale lor. Aceste roţi, dupã înfãţişarea lor, parcã erau de crisolit, iar dupã fãpturã toate aveau aceeaşi înfãţişare. Şi dupã alcãtuirea şi dupã fãptura lor ele parcã erau vârâte una în alta. Ele înaintau în toate cele patru pãrţi, şi în timpul mersului nu se întorceau. Obezile lor formau un cerc larg şi de o înãlţime înfricoşãtoare şi aceste obezi la toate patru erau pline de ochi de jur împrejur. Când mergeau fiarele, mergeau şi roţile de lângã ele, şi când se ridicau fiarele de la pãmânt, se ridicau şi roţile. Ele mergeau încotro le da duhul sã meargã şi roţile se ridicau împreunã, cãci duh de viaţã

21 Ibidem, p. 38. 22 Robert S. Nelson, The Iconography of Preface and Miniature in the Byzantine Gospel Book, New York, New York University Press, 1980, p. 6. 23 Sfântul Nicolae Cabasila, Cuvântãri teologice: la Iezechiel-Hristos-Fecioara Maria. Scrieri I, Sibiu, Editura Deisis, 2010, p. 56. 24 Sfântul Grigorie cel Mare, Omilii la Profetul Iezechiel, Iaşi, Editura Doxologia, 2014, pp. 70-73; 95.


203

era şi în roţi. Când mergeau acelea, mergeau şi acestea, şi când acelea se opreau, se opreau şi acestea; iar când acelea se ridicau de la pãmânt, atunci împreunã cu ele se ridicau şi roţile, pentru cã duh de viaţã era şi în roţi” (Iez. 1, 15-21).

Pentru Sfântul Dionisie roţile înaripate „aratã cã se învârtesc fãrã întoarcere şi neclintit spre cele dinainte, mişcând puterea lor de mişcare pe drumul drept şi neabãtut, spre ţinutã întregii lor învîrtiri spirituale, aflatã mai presus de lume (cf. Iez. 1, 15-21; Dn. 7,9). Dar înfãţişarea chipului roţilor înţelegãtoare se poate lãmuri şi în alt înţeles înãlţãtor. Cãci au fost numite şi gelgel (Iez. 10,13), care înseamnã în limba evreiascã reîntoarceri în cerc şi redescoperiri. Cãci roţile înfocare şi asemãnãtoare lui Dumnezeu le e proprie învârtirea în cerc prin mişcarea nesfârşitã în jurul aceluiaşi bine. Iar descoperirile le sunt proprii prin arãtarea celor ascunse şi prin înãlţarea celor mai de jos şi prin iluminãrile comunicate de cele înalte cãtre cele mai de jos prin dãruire coborâtoare”.25

Privitor la chipul antropomorfizat al heruvimilor, Sfântul Dionisie noteazã cã aceştia se prezintã sub chip omenesc (cf. Iez. 1,10; Apoc. 4,7) „pentru faptul cã au însuşirea înţelegerii şi puterile vãzãtoare îndreptate în sus. Aceasta este cauza ţinutei lor drepte şi înãlţate şi pentru puterea lor din fire stãpânitoare şi conducãtoare. Dar şi din cauza foarte micii lor capacitãţi simţuale în comparaţie cu a animalelor neraţionale, capacitate care însã le cuprinde pe toate prin tãria puterii îmbelşugate a minţii şi prin stãpânirea peste ele, prin ştiinţa lor raţionalã, putere care, pe de altã parte este prin firea sufletului nerobitãşi nestãpânitã”.26

Ordinea ierarhicã a primei triade, în viziunea Sfântului Maxim Mãrturisitorul este: tronuri, heruvimi şi serafimi. Faptul cã Sfântul Dionisie îşi prezintã tocmai invers nu e o contradicţie, acelaşi Sfânt Maxim motiveazã ordinea pe considerentul cã titlul capitolului în care sunt menţionaţi urcã de jos înspre cele înalte: „Acest prim ordin întreit şi în chipul lui Dumnezeu trebuie înţeles de la Iezechiel ca cel ce priveşte cu mintea atentã şi vredicã pe Dumnezeu; cãci numeşte întâi Scaunul pe care a fost vãzut Dumnezeu; apoi îndatã se aflã dumnezeieştii Heruvimi; iar la Isaia stau în jurul lui Dumnezeu, privind, Serafimii”.27

Heruvimii sunt cu ochi mulţi, iar serafimii cu multe aripi.28 Aceştia au patru aripi care indicã pe de-o parte însuşirea lor cereascã care este mai presus de orice fãpturã, iar pe cealaltã rapiditatea şi ideea de ascendere. Picioarele lor sunt sprintene şi simbolizeazã mişcarea neîntreruptã spre Dumnezeu. Copitele de viţel fac trimitere la lucrarea lor slujitoare. Mâinile care se ivesc de sub aripi subliniazã capacitatea de

25 Sfântul Dionisie Areopagitul, Opere complete, p. 38. 26 Ibidem, p. 36. 27 Ibidem, p. 48. 28 Ibidem.


204

împãrtãşire fiindcã mâna este organul care determinã ca voinţa sã devinã faptã.29 În opinia Sfântului Grigorie cel Mare, metafora „ochi mulţi” indicã starea de veghe a heruvimilor, atât internã, cât şi externã.30 Sfântul Grigorie Palama adapteazã aceastã metaforã la viziunea misticã isihastã a luminii dumnezeieşti care a fost experiatã de Sfântul Pavel când a fost rãpit pânã la al treilea cer, unde a vãzut lucruri care nu se cuvin ochilor materiali sã le vadã (2 Cor. 12,2-4). De altfe, Palama îl comparã pe Apostolul Pavel cu profetul Iezechiel şi spune cã acesta a vãzut „o luminã fãrã sfârşit, profundã, de o întindere şi înãlţime fãrã margini”.31 Pãrtãşia Sfântului Pavel la aceastã luminã l-a fãcut cu adevãrat vãzãtor, fapt pentru care metafora „plin de ochi” i se potriveşte şi acestuia.

Sfinţii Pãrinţi ne recomandã cã sã-i privim pe heruvimi ca pe nişte fiinţe desãvârşite, fiindcã s-au învrednicit de darul îndumnezeirii la cel mai înalt nivel, aceste puteri cereşti dorind sã se împãrtãşeascã mai învederat de lumina ce izvorãşte din Dumnezeu. Pentru a scoate în evidenţã umplerea de luminã a heruvimilor, Scriptura foloseşte adeseori simbolul focului. Acest fapt poate fi constatat îndeosebi în scrierea lui Iezechiel unde aflãm cã heruvimilor le sunt asociate nişte roţi de foc. De asemenea, fãpturile vii menţionate în viziunea inauguralã sunt înfãţişate ca nişte animale arzãtoare (Iez. 1, 14). Sfinţii Pãrinţi şi alţi autori au dat câte o interpretare proprie fiecãrui chip de animal prezent în viziunea inauguralã de la Iezechiel, unii asociind fiecare chip cu câte o demnitate a Domnului Hristos (Sf. Irineu), alţii cu câte o caracteristicã a sufletului uman care tinde spre iluminare (Sf. Dionisie Areopagitul), alţii cu misiunea de propovãduire a apostolilor (Nicolae Cabasilla). Reprezentarea aripilor heruvimilor are ca rol indicarea originii lor cereşti, dar şi rapiditatea şi ideea de ascendere, aripile apãrând inclusiv în detaliul roţilor înaripate de la Iezechiel. Mulţimea ochilor heruvimilor indicã starea de continuã veghe a acestora, iar asocierea heruvimilor cu chipul omenesc indicã faptul cã heruvimii au însuşirea înţelegerii şi puterile vãzãtoare îndreptate în sus, dar şi o deschidere personalã spre comuniune.

29 Ibidem, p. 37. 30 Sfântul Grigorie cel Mare, Cartea Regulei Pastorale, Bucureşti, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, 1996, p. 23. 31 Gregory Palamas, The Triads, Mahwah, Paulist Press, 1983, p. 38.


205

PSEUDO-MACARIUS: MYSTICISM AND COMMUNITY

Rastko Jović University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract: In this paper, I will try to explore the social consequences of mystical

theology that we can find in Pseudo-Macarius’ works. When we mention Pseudo-Macarius, usually we associate this name with a teaching of prayer that leads to an ascension towards God. However, in my opinion, his understanding of love towards other people and toward God’s creation still remains unexplored. Through his Homilies and his Great Letter, I will try to draw an outline that will show practical implications of his mystical theology upon human relations towards creation and fellow man.

Keywords: mysticism, community, mind, person, individual, love.

We usually perceive that Pseudo-Macarius’ works explain and

imply spirituality which has nothing to do with the practical life in the world. It is quite often that spirituality has been understood as life in solitude and isolation from the surrounding world, best achieved in monastic communities. In this paper, I’ll try to point other side of the spirituality through his Homilies and Great Letter.

To be more understandable this work is divided into subtitles: -Historical context of Homilies and Great Letter; -Anthropology; -Mystical theology of Pseudo-Macarius; -Consequences of communion with God in Ps-Macarius’ writings;

Historical context of Homilies and Great Letter Today we still do not know the name of the original writer of the

works that are ascribed to Pseudo-Macarius. Andrew Louth in his The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition suggested that the original writer was probably someone from the Messalian sect. Other scholars suggested either that the writer was someone who was actually using Gregory of Nyssa’s treatise1 for his work or either someone who produced something original that even Gregory of Nyssa was using for his own treatise.2

1 Werner Jaeger, Two Rediscovered Works of Ancient Christian Literature: Gregory of Nyssa and Macarius, Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1954. 2 Aelred Baker, "Syriac and the Spiritual Quotations of Pseudo-Macarius," in The Journal of Theological Studies, 20 (1969), p. 38.


206

The salient point here is that although we are still unsure of the exact writer these works found good acceptance in the Christian tradition through the centuries. Pseudo-Macarius’ works were written in the fourth century, and they were primarily written for monastic communities in those years. From his own experience, he was trying to illuminate what is important for monastic communities, for their everyday life. In those days, many men and women became monks, and eventually they started to take monastic life as salvific per se, without consideration that they were called to strive for perfection. “The author of the letter takes issue with the tendency toward increasing laxity in the monastic communities for which he is writing”.3

The achievement of a servant who goes about his work without hesitation, even if he cannot fulfill his task completely, will be greater than that of the lazy servant who begins by saying that it is impossible for him to do all this work and wastes much of his time in procrastination.4

Through his experience, he wanted to empower monastics with the understanding that a living faith and relationship with God are the strongest powers in their lives.

In his homilies, he was addressing the contemporary problems in the monastic communities of that time. One of the problems was the distinction between `praying monks` and `serving brethren`,5 and especially he addressed this problem in Homily 3.6 We will see later consequences of this writing for our life ìn the world`.

In the conclusion of this chapter, we could say that Pseudo-Macarius was insisting on prayer as a living relationship with God towards attaining His love. It was a calling for monastics to strive for perfection, and God will provide them with the aid in their journey. These writings were:

essentially for monks and were intended for monks as they pursued their life of solitude and prayer, a life which is, for Macarius, a descent into the depths – the depths of sin, the depths of one’s own heart.7

3 Werner Jaeger, Two Rediscovered Works of Ancient Christian Literature: Gregory of Nyssa and Macarius, p. 201. 4 Ibidem. p. 203. 5 Ibidem, p. 206. 6 Pseudo-Macarius, The Fifty Spiritual Homilies and the Great Letter, New York, Paulist Press, 1992, p. 47. 7 Andrew Louth, The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981, p. 125.


207

Anthropology

Before we start to talk about some basic elements of Macarius’ mysticism, we need to understand his anthropology. Is it only the mind that is the most important element in the human being, or is the whole human being necessary in the journey of ascension towards God? Each of these two answers will shape the relationship between mystical experience and practical consequences on the community life. If we accept that only one part of man is important, intellect as an example, for our relationship with God, it means that mysticism is nothing else than inner experience that matters only for one individual. In that case, Orthodox Mysticism becomes a good excuse for individualism in modern society.

A monk of Cellia in the Egyptian desert, Evagrius has been called the first codifier of a monastic doctrine of prayer. In his writings, Evagrius defined prayer as "the ascent of the intellect to God," and in so doing he emphasised the necessity of intellectual prayer, as a means toward achieving union with God. Because Evagrius held to a neo-platonic anthropological dualism reminiscent of Origenist teaching, he elevated the role of the intellect in prayer to the detriment of the role of the body, and as a result, Evagrius taught a mysticism which was purely intellectualistic.8

On the other hand, if the mystical journey towards God is a matter of the whole human being it means that consequences of this approach are completely different from the previous one. If the whole being is illuminated and transfigured through God’s love, (inwardly and outwardly) then the expression of that love will be exercised through practical deeds of one person with the others. In this case, mystical experience is not closed into an inner experience but touches the whole person and consequently the other people in the community. “The soul is called to ‘mirror the eternal good things’ – we recall the hierarchies as “mirrors” of God – and to “attain to repose and sure foundation and untroubledness… in the peace of Christ”.9 When man is enlightened then he is transformed into light. Macarius now stresses that if we are enlightened through the whole our person, then we need to be a light of the world, to testify that encounter with God.10 Here it is obvious that

8 Gregory K. Hillis, To Be Transformed by a Vision of Uncreated Light: A Survey on the Influence of the Existential Spirituality of Hesychasm on Eastern Orthodox History, http://www.euphrosynoscafe.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=6106, accessed 21.03.2016. 9 Hieromonk Alexander Golitzin, Et Introibo ad Altare Dei, Thessaloniki, 1994, p. 378. 10 Homily I, 4; Pseudo-Macarius, The Fifty Spiritual Homilies and the Great Letter, p. 39.

http://www.euphrosynoscafe.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=6106


208

this mysticism is not the mysticism of individuals, but the mysticism of living persons that only exist in communion with other persons.

The writings of Pseudo-Macarius, an unknown fourth century monk, provided a counterbalance to Evagrius’ ‘prayer of the mind.’ In contrast to Evagrius’ dualistic anthropology which elevated the intellect, Macarius elevated the heart as being the "source of all intellectual and spiritual activity" in a human. In other words, Macarius viewed the heart as being the centre of a person’s will, intellect, and body. Therefore, by focusing on ‘prayer of the heart,’ rather than ‘prayer of the mind,’ Macarius advocated an experience of God which penetrated the heart, thus implying that the body participates in union with God. In other words, Macarius’ spirituality entailed more of an affective element than did Evagrius’ spirituality.11

Pseudo-Macarius considered that the heart is the center of the human being that it is a more holistic approach than what we find in the writings of Evagrius. “Macarius insists on the total encountering in ever-increasing awareness and even “feeling” of the presence of the indwelling Trinity through the power of the Holy Spirit.”12 In order to explain what the heart is, Macarius described the nature of encounter between God and man:

His very grace writes in their hearts the laws of the Spirit. They should not put all their trusting hope solely in the Scriptures written in ink. For divine grace writes on the “tables of the heart” (2 Cor 3:3) the laws of the Spirit and the heavenly mysteries. For the heart directs and governs all the other organs of the body. And when grace pastures the heart, it rules over all the members and the thoughts. For there, in the heart, the mind abides as well as all the thoughts of the soul and all its hopes. This is how grace penetrates throughout all parts of the body.13

Such an understanding of the heart as the center of human beings is similar to the biblical understanding of the heart as a moral and spiritual center of man.14 “Thus, Macarius sought not a disincarnation of the mind, but the transfiguration of the entire person through union with

11 Gregory K. Hillis, To Be Transformed by a Vision of Uncreated Light: A Survey on the Influence of the Existential Spirituality of Hesychasm on Eastern Orthodox History, http://www.euphrosynoscafe.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=6106, accessed 12. 06. 2016. 12 Pseudo-Macarius, The Fifty Spiritual Homilies and the Great Letter, p. 3. 13 Ibidem, p. 116. 14 Paul Evdokimov, The Sacrament of Love, Crestwood, St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1985, p. 51.

http://www.euphrosynoscafe.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=6106


209

God.”15 From this foundation, we can understand his mystical theology about the transformation of whole man, the whole person.

Mystical theology of Pseudo-Macarius Pseudo-Macarius will express the experience of communion with

God through the images of flight and intoxication, and the source of the man’s intoxication is divine nature.16 The central theme of his Homilies is man’s longing for God, who provides grace which penetrates man’s soul. In the end, the whole man is transformed when the divine lights enters into him.

Whoever approaches God and truly desires to be a partner of Christ must approach with a view to this goal, namely, to be changed and transformed from his former state and attitude and become a good and new person, harboring nothing of “the old man” (2 Cor 5:17). For it says, “If any man is in Christ, he is a new creature” (2 Cor 5:17). Homily 44:1

The longing of the soul for God is often rewarded by “an awakening of the spiritual senses, raptures, miracles, freedom from sin, profound peace, charity toward all, and becoming one spirit with God, deification itself”.17 For Pseudo-Macarius, intoxication with divine nature is a transient experience, and so it can never be a permanent experience available in the present age. Intoxication is the gift of God; it is the work of His Grace upon man’s heart. As free beings, we can accept and co-operate with God’s divine grace, or we can reject this gift. In his homilies, ‘Macarius’ explained this many times-and what is more important is that he explained this always through a loving relationship between two subjects. In his Homilies, he is not speaking about a rational relationship between object and subject, where the subject is called through its rational powers to achieve and explore God. Moreover, he is stressing the free-will of man “to turn away from the pursuit of God, and become intoxicated by bad/evil, a phrase not found in Gregory”.18

“Although Ps-Macarius refers to being intoxicated with the spirit, or with the Godhead, he also uses the terminology of being intoxicated

15 Harvey D. Egan, S. J., An Anthology of Christian Mysticism, Collegeville, Minnesota, The Liturgical Press, 1987, p. 81. 16 Stuart Burns, "Divine Ecstasy in Gregory of Nyssa and Pseudo-Macarius: Flight and Intoxication", in The Greek Orthodox Theological Review, VIL (1999), No. 1-4, p. 312. 17 Harvey D. Egan, S.J., An Anthology of Christian Mysticism, p. 83. 18 Stuart Burns, "Divine Ecstasy in Gregory of Nyssa and Pseudo-Macarius: Flight and Intoxication", p. 313.


210

with “good”, and “joyfulness”. Goodness in this instance, being the sheer abundance of God. This is to be contrasted with that of “badness” or “evil” intoxication, which he refers to in Collection I Homily 6.4”.19 In his Homily 8, Ps-Macarius explained that there are “twelve steps a person has to pass to reach perfection.” (Homiliy 8.4). As we said before, union with God is in the present age always transient, but in Paradise this stage will be permanent.

Ps-Macarius expressed communication with God through the image of the soul’s flight towards God. Stressing the role of the prayer within the flight of the soul is a unique contribution of Ps-Macarius:

To fly into the divine air and enjoy the liberty of the Holy Spirit (2 Cor 3:18) may be one’s desire, but, if he does not have wings given him, he cannot. Let us pray to God that he gives us “the wings of a dove” (Ps 55:7) of the Holy Spirit so we may fly to him and find rest and that he may separate and take away from our soul and body such an evil wind, namely, sin itself, inhabiting the members of our soul and body. For this he alone is able to do. Homily 2.3.

To explain this journey of the soul, Ps-Macarius insisted on the image of “the eagle who is ‘constantly upon the wing’ yet with much stillness and rest, with the flight of the soul who receives the ‘Wings of the Spirit’ and is ‘furnished with wings’. This use of the eagle as an image is connected to the power and rest that the bird displays in flight”.20 The soul in flight is described as free, free from all the weights of the earthly distractions to prayer, and protected from evil during the journey of prayer. It is interesting that in Ps-Macarius’ understanding even God’s grace is not constant, grace ebbs and flows according to the divine will. For this reason, someone could attain a higher level, but because of God’s grace he “descends to the next lower level, now standing on the eleventh step” (Homily 2.4.). The most important thing in a monk’s life is his persistence in prayer.

All other virtues can be acquired by it for prayer establishes the communion of the soul with God, the source of all spiritual power, and links it with Him in ineffable love. He who compels himself to persevere in prayer is inflamed to divine eros and receives the grace of the sanctifying perfection of the Spirit.21

For our work it is necessary to mention The Healing Motif in the Homilies of ‘Macarius’.

19 Ibidem, p. 312. 20 Ibidem, p. 320. 21 Werner Jaeger, Two Rediscovered Works of Ancient Christian Literature: Gregory of Nyssa and Macarius, p. 210.


211

The healing motif found in the Macarian Homilies and in 4Q374 include another important feature. Both texts interpret healing to be the healing of the human heart…

The Homily II.20.7 also links the motif of healing with the theme of the curing (or cleansing) of the human heart. It tells that “man could be healed only by the help of this medicine and thus could attain life by a cleansing of his heart by the Holy Spirit.

…In the Macarian Homilies the motif of “healing” is understood as the restoration of the former Adamic glory, the glorious garments with which the first humans were clothed in Eden before their transgression.22

Consequences of communion with God in Ps-Macarius 1. Spirituality: After these preliminary descriptions, we are ready to speak about

the consequences of Ps-Macarius’ teachings on our life. Even though Ps-Macarius was writing his works for monastic communities, his work can be brought into the Church’s everyday life with some observances.

One of the problems in his time was the distinction between `praying monks` and `serving brethren`,23 and this problem he addressed especially in Homily 3.24

The brethren should conduct themselves toward one another with the greatest love, whether in praying or reading Scripture or doing any kind of work so that they may have the foundation of charity toward others. Homily 3.1.

The brethren, therefore, regardless of what work they are doing, ought to conduct themselves toward each other in love and cheerfulness. And the one who works should say of him who is praying: “I also possess the treasure which my brother possesses since it is common.” And let him who prays say of him who reads: “What he gains from reading redounds also to my advantage.” And he who works let him thus say: “The work which I am doing is for the common good.” For as the members of the body, being many, are one body (1 Cor 12:12) and help each other while each still performs its own function – as the eye sees for

22 Andrei A. Orlov, Vested with Adam’s Glory: Moses as the Luminous Counterpart of Adam in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Macarian Homilies, p. 15-16, in www.marquette.edu/maqom/moses3.pdf, accessed 27. 03. 2012. 23 Werner Jaeger, Two Rediscovered Works of Ancient Christian Literature: Gregory of Nyssa and Macarius, p. 206. 24 Pseudo-Macarius, The Fifty Spiritual Homilies and the Great Letter, p. 47.

http://www.marquette.edu/maqom/moses3.pdf


212

the whole body and the hand labors for all the members and the foot walks sustaining all the members, and another members suffers with all the others-so also the brethren should be among themselves. Homily 3.2.

This passage we can use as a pattern for our understanding of spirituality. Ps-Macarius through these words signifies that there are different ways to express Christian spirituality. If our work is conducted for the sake of the common good and for the whole community, primarily out of love, then it also equally expresses a road towards God. This understanding, if we expand it to the whole community where we are spending our everyday life, teaches us that the expressions of spirituality that we find in all at our work have potential for us to participate in a passionate love towards God (eros) and towards others.

‘Macarius’ writings are also important for understanding other varieties of mysticism, because in comparison with others, he insisted on the diversity of the Holy Spirit’s manifestations.

It is, therefore, possible that anyone, who thus really strives and perseveringly attends to himself either in prayer or in obedience or in doing any work according to God, should be able to escape from the darkness of the evil demons. Homily 9.11.25

In addition, Ps-Macarius will speak about spirituality and how it has different expressions in different people. If man is in communion with God, then although the gifts are the same, their expressions can be different.

Those various manifestations of grace that we spoke of, even though they are expressed differently, still they act on such persons in a progression, one operation following another. Finally, when a person reaches the perfection of the Spirit, completely purified of all passions and united to and interpenetrated by the Paraclete Spirit in an ineffable communion, and is deemed worthy to become spirit in mutual penetration with the Spirit, then it becomes all light, all eye, all spirit, all joy, all repose, all happiness, all love, all compassion, all goodness and kindness. As in the bottom of the sea, a stone is everywhere surrounded by water, so such persons as these are totally penetrated by the Holy Spirit. They become like to Christ, putting on the virtues of the power of the Spirit with a constancy. They interiorly become faultless and spotless and pure. Homily 18.10.26

This understanding of spirituality deliberates us from every ‘conventional’ way of thinkig where we radically limit the varieties of

25 Pseudo-Macarius, The Fifty Spiritual Homilies and the Great Letter, p. 87. 26 Ibidem, p. 145.


213

spirituality’s expressions, descerning what is acceptable and what is not to be called ‘spiritual’. Usually in our life, we connect spirituality with one of the monastic communities. And many times, that kind of spirituality could be “cheap pseudo-spirituality”.27 But people “enjoy cheapness, as long as it is covered with beards, crosses, and comfortable words.”28

It is dangerous if we forget that spirituality can be expressed in everyday life, if it is immersed in any work according to God and out of love for Him and others.

2. To Approach God: Through the Homilies, Ps-Macarius insists on showing us the

abundance of God’s love. He uses various examples to draw a living picture of that love, many of these pictures he was using from the Bible or through the usage of his own parables. His intention is to call us that we can conduct ourselves to approach to this abundant love. To approach it means to strive for perfection, both inner and outward man.29

Let us, therefore, strive to approach him with a truly converted heart, not despairing that we will ever attain salvation (for such a thought itself is evil and depraved). The rememberance of our past sins can easily lead us to despair, to sloth, negligence, and resignation that we may not be converted to the Lord and ever attain salvation, even though the great goodness of the Lord covers the whole human race. Homily 4. 24.30

Even before someone wants to approach to God, he needs to force himself to love, and to wait for His mercy.

It is, however, necessary at first for one coming to the Lord to force himself thus to do good and, even if he should not in his heart be so inclined, he must constantly await his mercy with unshakened faith and push himself to love, even if he has none, to mercy and to have a merciful heart. He must force himself to be disregarded, and when he is looked down upon by others, let him rejoice. When he is made light of or dishonored, let him not become angry according to the saying: “Beloved, do not avenge yourselves” (Rom 12:19). Let him push himself to prayer even when he does not possess the prayer of the Spirit. And so, God, seeing him striving so and pushing himself by determination, even if the heart is unwilling, gives him the authentic prayer of the Spirit, gives

27 The Journals of Father Alexander Schmemann 1973-1983, New York, Sv. Vladimir’ Press, 2002, p. 2. 28 Ibidem. 29 Pseudo-Macarius, The Fifty Spiritual Homilies and the Great Letter, (1992), Paulist Press, New York, p. 48. 30 Ibidem, p. 61.


214

him true charity, true meekness, “the bowels of mercies” (Col 3:12), true kindness, and, simply put, fills him with the fruits of the Spirit. Homily 19.3.31

3. Reject the Whole World as a Center of our Lives: Many times Ps-Macarius was speaking about a rejection of this

world if we want to attain communion with God. If someone refused “to deny himself, but rather loved something of this world, all those worldly desires and evil passions of the flesh resulted.” (Homily 5.6.).32 He was saying the following:

After I received the experience of the sign of the cross, grace now acts in this manner. It quiets all my parts and my heart so that the soul with the greatest joy seems to be guileless child. No longer am I a man that condemns Greek or Jew or sinner or worldling. Truly, the interior man looks on all human beings with pure eyes and finds joy in the whole world. He really wishes to reverence and love all Greeks and Jews. Homily 8.6.33

So then, how is one to understand something like this, a ‘rejection of the world’ and then a ‘love for the world’? Ps-Macarius is not speaking about a rejection of the world in a way that we should view this world as sinful, trying to do nothing to save it. If we are investing all our hopes and dreams into this world, if we are relying our beings only on this world, then all the evil passions of the flesh will become visible. Moreover, if we begin to look into this world through the eyes that are enlightened by God’s love and communion with Him then we are reflecting God’s love toward every creature. Creation becomes our road towards God, and joy. “All visible things God created, and gave them to men for recreation and enjoyment, and he gave them also a law of justice”.34

In the same time, this world is becoming a place in which we strive for our salvation. This mutual relationship between man and the world is further emphasized through Ps-Macarius’ teaching that the experience of God is transient, which is the reason why we need to strive in this world. ‘Macarius’ mentioned that Satan wants to lead us into despair promising to us that we cannot be saved because of multitude of our sins. That is the reason why this world is the theater where we are coping to reflect God’s love to the world, so that he allowed us that we can approach Him.

31 Ibidem, p. 147. 32 Ibidem, p. 65. 33 Ibidem, p. 83. 34 Ibidem, pp. 104-105.


215

For how lovely it is when a spiritual person consecrates himself totally to the Lord and clings to him alone. He walks in his commandments, never forgetting. Reverently honoring the overshadowing presence of the Spirit of Christ, he becomes one spirit with him and one being, just as the Apostle says: “He that is joined to the Lord is one Spirit” (1 Cor 6:17)… Let us, therefore, prepare ourselves so that we may approach the Lord with perfect promptitude and full intent. And let us become passionately in love with Christ to do his will. And let us “think upon his commandments so as to do them” (Ps 103:18). Homily 9.12-13.35

4. The Fruits: a) Love Ps-Macarius continues, stressing that prayer without love and

deeds of love is nothing. Moreover, we could say that his message is that “it is not enough to say prayers; one must become, be prayer, prayer incarnate”.36

If a person pushes himself to attain prayer alone, when he has none, in order to attain its grace, without striving earnestly for meekness and humility and charity and all the other commandments of the Lord, neither taking pains nor struggling and battling to succeed in these as far as his choice and free will go, he may at times be given a grace of prayer with some degree of repose and pleasure from the Spirit according as he asks. But he has the same traits he had before. He has no meekness, because he did not seek it with effort and he did not prepare himself beforehand to become weak. He has no humility, since he did not ask for it and did not push himself to have it. He has no charity toward all men, because he was not concerned with it and did not strive for it in his asking for the gift of prayer. And in doing his work, he has no faith or trust in God, since he did not know that he was without it. Homily 194.37

Later he emphasizes that from a communion with God, our love is growing more and more. “The Spirit himself graces him with all of these virtues and teaches him authentic prayer, authentic charity, authentic meekness, for which he pushed himself and sought to possess them. And he had a concern and thought about them and they were given to him”.38

b) Love toward Fellow Man

35 Ibidem, p. 87. 36 Paul Evdokimov, The Sacrament of Love, Crestwood, St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1985, p. 62. 37 Ibidem, p. 147. 38 Ibidem, p. 149.


216

The love towards God and our offering of ourselves to him is the beginning of a process when a communion with God starts in loving relationship with the world and fellow men. This mutual communion is inseparable, and that’s why our relationship towards God is not our private affair without the fruits of the Spirit that empower us and spread themselves through us.

…We must first beg of God with struggle in the heart through faith that he grants us to discover his riches, the true treasure of Christ in our hearts, in the power and energy of the Spirit. In such a way, first, by finding the Lord to be our help within us and our salvation and eternal life, we may be of help and profit to others also, insofar as it is possible and attainable, by drawing upon Christ, the treasure within, for all goodness of spiritual discourses and in teaching the heavenly mysteries. Thus the goodness of the Father was pleased to wish to dwell in every believer who asks this of him. Homily 18.6.39

The Father’s goodness that dwells in us, while we are in communion with Him, empowered us not only in practical help to the others, but also in spiritual help to others. Those who are rich in the Holy Spirit,

they truly possess the fellowship of the Spirit within themselves. And when they speak words of truth or deliver any spiritual conference and wish to edify persons who listen to their spiritual discourses. And they do not fear lest they run short since they possess within themselves the heavenly treasure of goodness from which they draw to feed those who hunger for spiritual food. Homily 18.5.40

On the subject of love, Ps-Macarius further explain that there is no salvation except through one’s neighbors.

For the Lord, in commanding many things regarding love, enjoined us to seek the “righteousness of God” (Mt 6:33). For he knows that it is the mother of love. There is no other way to be saved except through the neighbor as he has commanded: “Forgive and it will be forgiven you” (Lk 6:37). This is the spiritual law which has been written in faithful hearts, “the fulfillment of the first law” (Rom 13:10). For he says, “I did not come to destroy the Law but to fulfill it” (Mt 5:17). Homily 37.3.41

c) Inseparable Connection Between Virtues

39 Ibidem, p. 143. 40 Ibidem, p. 143. 41 Ibidem, p. 149.


217

Ps-Macarius quoted the apostle Paul in a way that stressed the idea that charity is the “bond of perfection” (Homily 26.16.).

Do you not hear what Paul says? “If I have all gifts, if I hand my body over to be burnt, if I should speak with the tongues of angels and, yet, I have no charity, I am nothing” (1 Cor 13:1ss). These gifts really are to encourage us. And those who settle for these, even though they are in light, they still are infants. For many of the brothers have reached this degree and enjoyed the gifts of healings and revelation and prophecy. But because they did not reach perfect charity which is the “bond of perfection” (Col 3:18), war came upon them and, because they were negligent, they fell. Homily 26.16.42

On the subject of charity, Ps-Macarius is speaking in a more profound way that it is a practical experience of a communion with God.

Charity… is perfect… other things are of little importance, and he who possesses charity cannot fall. I tell you this, that I have seen men who received all the gifts and were participators of the Spirit, but, not reaching perfect charity, they fell. Homily 27.14.43

Reading carefully works of Ps-Macarius, we can see that from the core of his theology prayer is inseparably connected with other virtues.

Concerning external asceticism and what practice is better and primary, know this, Beloved Ones, that all the virtues are mutually bound to each other. Like a spiritual chain, one is dependent upon the other: prayer to love, love to joy, joy to meekness, meekness to humility, humility to service, service to hope, hope to faith, faith to obedience, obedience to simplicity. Homily 40.1.44

Even prayer as a virtue is nothing if it is not followed with love and charity that is inseparably bounded with a life in community with other human beings.

…If through the activity of the Spirit we do not perceive within ourselves the fruits of love, peace, and the other qualities mentioned by St. Paul (Gal 5:22), then our labor for the sake of virginity, prayer, psalmody, fasting, and vigil is useless. The Great Letter.45

d) How to Conduct Life in the Community Addressing the monastic community, we can see how a

community needs to live in love. To deny the soul is to deny one’s will, even to suppress it. It is

always to embrace the Word of God and also to lead the congregation of

42 Ibidem, p. 149. 43 Ibidem, p. 180. 44 Ibidem, p. 214. 45 Ibidem, p. 268.


218

brothers, like a good steersman in a boat, in harmony to the port of God’s will. However, you must possess nothing, not claiming anything as your own beyond what is common to all, except what garment covers your body. For if one has none of these things, but gives up even the care of his own life, the community will take care of all necessities as he performs with pleasure and hope whatever he is commanded to do as the honest and simple servant of Christ, redeemed to serve the common need of the brethren. The Great Letter.46

In his Great Letter, Ps-Macarius devotes an entire part to explain the importance of love towards God and towards one’s neighbor. A strong bond with God empowers us so that we can fulfill all the good deeds in our local community, and the community of the whole world.

Discovering the knowledge of God and understanding the fear of him, you will properly succeed at what follows, namely, to love your neighbor… If the love of God dwells within you, it is necessary that such love bring forth other fruit, such as fraternal love, meekness, sincerity, perseverance in prayer, and zeal and all virtues. But since the treasure is precious, so also great are the labors necessary to obtain it… Much struggle is needed, therefore, and much inward and unseen travail, much scrutiny of our thoughts and training of our soul’s enfeebled organs of perception, before we can discriminate between good and evil. The mind that follows God knows how to exercise the soul, binding it to itself out of love for God and by hidden virtuous thoughts and good works healing what is weak and joining it to what is strong… The fulfillment of the commandments becomes easy and delightful to those who love God, since his love makes the struggle for us easy and lovable. The Great Letter.47

Even though this Great Letter is addressed to the monastic communities, ‘Macarius’ will extend his understanding of love to the extent that God’s empowered love is a love for all mankind!

…No one who seriously seeks salvation will lack power to do good. The Lord says: “Whoever will give even a cup of cold water to someone simply in the name of a disciple, amen, I say to you, that he will not go unrewarded” (Mt 10:42).

What can be more powerful than this commandment? Heavenly reward follows upon a cup of cold water. And look at the immense love for mankind! The Great Letter.48

46 Ibidem, pp. 260-261. 47 Ibidem, p. 264. 48 Ibidem, p. 271.


219

When we carefully read Ps-Macarius, we can see that communion with God is not a matter of an individual, but of a person. “Ps-Macarius stands with Gregory as one who began to illuminate the process by which the reception of heavenly wisdom occurs and who grounded his theology into community life”.49

We see that to move towards God means to move towards the whole Creation. This enables us to conclude that man, for Ps-Macarius, is “catholic” man. It is this “catholic” man that gathered the whole creation and offered it to God, and he needs to approach not as an individual, but as the one who unites the whole world in himself.

Many times, society repeats that religion is a matter of one’s individual being. Every social involvement of the Christians is often reduced by these accusations. Society actually has only recognized something that is a reality in our Christian life. We as Christians have understood that our spirituality is an individual communion with God. In order to achieve enlightenment, we are ready to break every bond with society, and creation. We need to stress openly that every kind of Christian spirituality that is separated from the God’s creation is a false spirituality. It is not possible for someone who is empowered and fulfilled with divine love to remain silent and passive upon the troubles of the world around him.

Becoming closer to God, our healed heart will be empowered for perfect love towards every being. Through God, our being becomes immersed in the depths of his love. From this perspective, spirituality is not some kind of independent intellectual or emotional relationship ‘God-man’ where the whole creation is despised and abandoned. Moreover, creation is put in its proper place as a space where we are striving for communion with God and a place where we are called to reflect divine love. This understanding of communion with God teaches us to act and to commit deeds of love. In addition, communion with God is a calling to strive unceasingly in this time and this in this world for every fruit of the Spirit, for the healing of the heart, and for the reflection of divine love.

49 Stuart Burns, "Divine Ecstasy in Gregory of Nyssa and Pseudo-Macarius: Flight and Intoxication", p. 323.


220


221

THE DIVINE LIGHT. THE SIGHT AND EXPERIENCE OF IT IN GREGORY PALAMAS THEOLOGY*

Ioan Chirilã, Stelian Paşca-Tuşa,

Adrian Mãrincean, Bogdan Şopterean ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Abstract: In the paper, the authors focused Gregory Palamas theology regarding the

divine light which he had developed during the hesychast controversy that occurred in the 14th century. Palamas entered in an intellectual debate with his adversary Barlaam with the purpose of explaining to him the fact that the man could experience a union with God and thus see the divine light, different form any other physical light or light source. This divine light represents the topic of the paper. Our research begun with reviewing theological literature of contemporary theologians like Dumitru Stãniloae, John Meyedorff, Patrícia Calvário or Florin T. Tomoioagã which had previously studied and spoked about Palamas theology. Throught the paper the authors show and explain what divine light is, its apophatic charachter and what are the means through which it could be seen. They concluded that the uncreated light is beyond words and transcend earthly realm being knowable and perceptible only in relation with God mediated by the grace of the Holy Spirit.

Keywords: Gregory Palamas, divine light, apophatic theology, prayer.

Can man unite with the Divine Trinity from this earthly life? That

was the major question which triggered the hesychast controversy of the 14th century. The discussions that this question arose were due to the fact that it implies that the created entity, the material man would enter in a unity connection with the uncreated incorporeal Creator. The archbishop of Thessaloniki, Gregory Palams shed light on this apparently complicated contradiction by appealing to the continual ministry of the Holy Spirit in Christ’s Church. Having in mind the words form 2 Pt 1, 4: „Through these he has given us his very great and precious promises, so that through them you may participate in the divine nature”, Palamas indicates that humans could become gods.1 The essence of God remains unknowable to humans but his uncreated energies that radiate from within his essence

* Acknowledgments: This work was supported by TeMATIC-Art, Project co-financed by FEDR through Competitiveness Operational Programme 2014-2020, Funding contract: 14/01.09.2016. 1 We have to be cautios though abut this term. It never meant breaching the absolute ontological distinction between God and his creation. The man becomes god only because God wills it.


222

onverflow over the world offering the possibility for man to unite with his Creator and thus participating genuinely to God’s essence or nature.2

It is this action of unifying that confers the possibility man to see the divine light. Being toghether with God the man stops seeing with his own eyes and receives by graces spiritual eyes which unlockes new possibilities to the mind to contemplate. But in order for the spiritual eyes and the mind to be compatible in this new reality shown by the divine light, the mind must be cleansed and engulfed by the energy of God’s light. Only after this spiritual process the mind being erased from transgressions it can truly overcome the limitations of thinking, contemplating and experiencing. This new spiritual mind is enhanced by God in its sensible capabilities in order to see and feel his divine light that is a uninterrupted togetherness with the Creator.3

We had made several references concerning Gregory Palamas in our previous studies4 but the present study innovates in terms of dealing solely with his theology of the light. The core stone of his writings that we used as a starting point is Palamas treaty On the Divine Light against Barlaam5 and several works regarding biographical data. Dumitru Stãniloae, John Meyendorf and Ioan I. Icã jr are some of the theologians for which Gregory Palamas occupies a central interest that was manifested in translations of some of his work and summing introductions to his life and work. It was inevitable that in the process to encounter the divine light theology so they analyzed it and further presented it in their works. Dumitru Stãniloae underlines the closeness between seeing the light and being in union with God. The light means

2 See Dumitru Stãniloae, Viaţa şi învãţãtura Sfântului Grigorie Palama. Cu patru tratate traduse, Bucureşti, Scripta, 1993, pp. 65-78. 3 John Meyendorff, O introducere în studiul vieţii şi operei Sfântului Grigorie Palama, trans. by Mãriuca and Adrian Alexandrescu, Bucureşti, Nemira, 2014, pp. 344-349. 4 Ioan Chirilã, „Întru lumina Ta vom vedea luminã (Ps 35,9)-despre luminã şi taina întunericului în care se aflã Dumnezeu (Ieş 20,21)”, in „Voi pune înainte Ierusalimul, ca început al bucuriei mele”. In Honorem Pr. Prof. Univ. Dr. Dumitru Abrudan la împlinirea vârstei de 80 ani, eds. Aurel Pavel and Nicolae Chifãr, Sibiu, Astra Museum, 2018, pp. 214-237; Ioan Chirilã, Stelian Paşca-Tuşa, Ioan Popa-Bota, Claudia-Cosmina Trif, „Light-Icon/stained glass-illumination”, in Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies, XVII, 50, (2018), pp. 96-108; Ioan Chirilã, „Veniţi sã umblãm în lumina Domnului” (Is 2,5)-discursul isaian despre lumina dumnezeiascã”, in In honorem pr. prof. univ. dr. Vasile Stanciu, ed. Daniel Mocanu, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitarã Clujeanã, 2018, pp. 91-107; Paşca-Tuşa Stelian, „Iconizarea serafimilor-reperele biblice şi patristice care au stat la baza realizãrii acestei morfologii iconice şi a mesajului ei teologic”, in In honorem pr. prof. univ. dr. Vasile Stanciu, pp. 337-345. 5 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, trans. by Dumitru Stãniloae, Bucureşti, Institutul Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, 1977, pp. 263-372.


223

unity and the unity with the light enables the seeing.6 John Meyendorff points to the character of the light as being a gift that humas receive as a consequence of their elevation.7 Ioan I. Icã jr. merges the aformentioned theologians perspectives and shows interest in canonical procedures regarding Palamas.8 We have to mention some of the newest studies about Palamas; one of Patrícia Calvário: „Theosis and the Metaphysics of Light of Gregory Palamas”9 and the other of T. Tomoioagã: „The vision of Divine Light in Saint Gregory Palamas’s Theology”.10 Citing biblical and Eastern Church Fathers writings both texts conclude that seeing God is the ultimate experience of the divine in Palama’s theology. Besides these two studies mentioned Dimitrios Chr. Koukourdinos comes with another one which aims (and succedes) to prove that the concept of light being understood in Palama’s vocabulary is based on Dionysius the Areopagite’s corpus. This shows the continuity with and the membership of Palamas among the Eastern Church Fathers like Maximus the Confessor or Symeon the New Theologian.11

The present paper aims to highlight what does the concept of light means in Gregory Palama’s theology, its nature and what are the means for the man in order to be able to see it. We will underline and analyze the main ideas extracted from Palama’s treaty On the Divine Light written against Barlaam. Our primary objective is not a mere scholastic display of what the light is but rather pointing to its spiritual experience importance using as methodology the reasoning of thr Eastern Chruch Fathers whom spiritual interpretative skills we tried to internalize. The main argument of such spiritual approach is that Palamas himself never he had thaught about his treaty as a mere scholastic theological research on the light. The intention was the adress the spiritual implications as a consequence of the possibility to experience this light in belivers life.

6 D. Stãniloae, Viaţa şi învãţãtura, p. 58. 7 J. Meyendorff, O introducere, p. 347. 8 Sf. Grigorie Palama, Scrieri I. Tomosuri dogmatice-viaţa-slujba, trans. by Ioan I. Icã jr, Sibiu, Deisis, 2009; Idem, Scrieri II. Fecioara Maria şi Petru Athonitul-prototipuri ale vieţii isihaste şi alte scrieri duhovniceşti, trans. by Ioan I. Icã jr, Sibiu, Deisis, 2005. 9 Patrícia Calvário, „Theosis and the Metaphysics of Light of Gregory Palamas”, in Analele Universitãţii Bucureşti, LXVII, 1, (2018), pp. 227-234. 10 Florin T. Tomoioagã, „The vision of Divine Light in Saint Gregory Palamas’s Theology”, in Acta Teologica, XXXV, 2, (2015), pp. 142-153 11https://www.academia.edu/30353469/_Light_as_an_Orthodox_Christian_concept_Gregory_Palamas_and_the_understanding_of_Divine_Light_in_the_Corpus_Dionysiacum, accesed in: 13.02.2019.


224

What the divine light is The core stone of the theological thought and writings of Saint

Greogory Palamas regarding the heavenly light starts with the unquestionable assumption that God does not represent anything that falls under the influence of senses and that is a universal truth. In order to strengthen his thesis, developed the term Super-God having in mind not only the fact that God is beyond any possible affirmation meaning that His existence could not be encircled by any positive definition but He stays beyond any negation that mind could perceive. Palamas sees these as universal thrust available in any culture/religion. Christians, persans or hindu regardless, they all know that is not part of this earthly, corrupt existence.12

Saint Gregory Palamas augmented his theological arguments and developed terms or concepts in order to describe what God is not as part of a polemical dialogue with another thinker of his era, namely Barlaam. He believed and preached about the possibility to fully understand God’s nature by a mental effort of speculation. Barlaam was convinced that purity implies theoretical philosophy knowledge.13 In this respect one has to purify himself in order to know God; purifying meaning in this context the fulfillment of philosophical knowledge. The uneducated was impure. For Palamas on the other hand purity means cleanness form passions. That process does not involve knowledge or any philosophical teaching. What Palamas underline are the basic assumptions of Eastern Church Fathers.14 Mind could be subjected to corruption and pride which led to ignorance or even arrogance but honest heart is the proper or the sole manner in which one could dwell in God’s revealed presence.

Palamas says that the divine light is the essence of God, it is life and reason. More than that it is a mirror image of the human mind’s nature. The Eastern Tradition does not contradict natural revelation which propels man closer to God through man’s deduction of divine existence from contemplating nature’s wonders and perfections. This, the Fathers say is the first step in experiencing God. In all cases though God remains inaccessible in His essence and our experiencing of His

12 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, p. 266. 13 J. Meyendorff, O introducere, p. 102. 14 Gregory Palamas borrow theological ideas from Eastern Chruch Father like: Dionisyius the Areopagite, Macarius the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Basil of Caesarea, Maximus the Confessor or Symeon the New Theologian. Our study focuses solely on Palamas tehology, the other Father being just mentioned. Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, pp. 266-270.


225

light is limited according to our nature and contemplation power. Every man, again, regardless of their culture/religion know God through His light for ,,The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it” (John 1, 1).

Speaking about this divine light, Saint Gregory Palamas mentions in the first place what it is not: dimensional/spatial, perceptive physically, nor it is govern by physics/optic laws. Any theory that could imply that the divine light is in some aspect material or sensitive is completely rejected. It is intelligible, incorporeal not overshadowed by matter. The Spirit represents the source of this light whom ministry and power could not be comprehended by mind. Having said that the Holy Spirit is its source, that does not mean that the divine light exists only through him. The Father and The Son also are equaly engaged in light’s existance.15

One divine light experience example from the New Testament is identified in the transfiguration of Jesus Christ. The evangelist Matthew describes this event in the following words: „His face shone like the sun, and his clothes became as white as the light” (Mt 17, 2). The light was the instrument through which Jesus had revealed himself as the true God. But that light was no ordinary one although its brightness was so powerfull. Its divine feature do not reside in that external brightness manifestation but rather in the personal nature that it has. Peter experienced a personal light for he heard words coming from the bright cloud. The fact that Peter heard the bright cloud is important for revealing the divine nature of the light for it surpasses the natural function of orinary light for the fact that it shines the hearing. Saint Symeon the New Theologian interpretating the personal nature of the divine light concluded that it was the hypostais of the Son which is manifested trought it that makes the light a personal one. In order for the Taboric light to shine in our hearts just like Peter lived to experience one has to purrify his heart from transgressions that opacitate it impending the light to penetrate his essence. Once the divine light do penetrate our soul’s window it becames a perpetual need for that kind of divine presence within us. Peter too never wanted to leave that place after encountering the light. No other light or light source could equate the divine light because they are intelligible and created thus being subjected to the laws of creation which is not the case for the uncreated divine light.16

15 Cf. D. Stãniloae, Viaţa şi învãţãtura, p. 56. 16 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, p. 289. For a more detalied perspective regarding the transfiguration of Jesus according to Gregoy Palamas, see Patrícia


226

The Three Holy Hierarch equate this light as divinity. It was the divinity that had shown its flashes on Mount Tabor. Based on their assumptions, Greogory Palamas develops a new christological dimension by coupling the divine light with the uman nature assumed by Christ in the divine act of hypostatic union. All the divine glory was abundant in both God and man Jesus Christ so that glory mannifested as glare errupted from within the divine hypostasis of Christ that being the perfect union between the divine and human resulting in one person of Jesus Christ Son of God. Palamas acknowledges though that the divine light did not came form the human nature of Christ alone but it was a result of perichoresis. In that respect the divine nature did not let all the glory to be mannifested through Christ’s human body in order not to be overwhelming. The taboric light was therefore a sample of the divine glory which God had shared to us and its meaning is to point to a future event where the gory would not be constraint but rather displayed in all its power.17

Apophatic charactheristics of the divine light

Gregory Palamas sees apophatic theology as a positive

experience.18 The union with God means a delightfulness comparable by grace to the status existence of angels. Barlaam had not such a spiritual approach towards the apophatic theology. According the him, the ephemeral and relativity of the creation leads to the idea of an Absolute Person. Such comparison between the creation and God is not enough to stress unknowable nature of God. Barlaam’s approach deals with the created matter whilst Palamas approach implies a more intimate relation with God where we experience Him in transcendent realm by means of His grace. Although Palamas underlines the importance and superiority of that intimate union he did not rejected the negative theology for it remains an instrument for understanding God, although an incomplete one.19

Faith is the bridge that links man and God, it is the core stone of the union. Apophatic theology gives the means necessarily to understand

Calvário, „Theosis and the Metaphysics of Light”, pp. 229-230; D. Stãniloae, Viaţa şi învãţãtura, pp. 55-56. 17 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, p. 290. 18 John Meyendorff underlines the fact the Plamas acknowledges the incomplete realm of the negation theology of which he opposes the concept of seeing the unseen. J. Meyendorff, O introducere, pp. 393-395. 19 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, pp. 327-328.


227

the receiving of divine light, but this could remain only at this understanding level and not elevate it to the actual lived experience. The union is not determined by this understanding or knowledge because the divine light might be experience even in the absence of such knowledge (which does not incorporate the feeling). Faith overshadows knowledge and it is the true instrument through which the believers live for Christ and accept Him to live within themselves. It is an ontological difference to talk about the divine light and to actually experience it.20

What negation means in this perspective is to acknowledge the deep govern of the light which covers all that is known. In this respect Gregory Palamas uses the negation theology, by accepting that the light and the experience of light goes beyond words in order to transpose it into a definition. The mind can understand and view all that exists in creation for it is the purpose of the mind to know or to offer knowledge. Having said that, the scope of mind’s knowledge is limited to creation God being beyond creation the mind can not know God through its cognitive processes because of that very limitation. Only God can unlock that processes of the mind which results in knowing him and the means by which God do this is by offering His grace. Through grace mind becomes a subject that has the power to know the divine Subject. We define it knowledge in lack of other terminology but that knowledge does not interfere with the cognitive processes of intelligible mind for the divine light transcends that perception field. That mind is not able to know God by its own capabilities is an neo-platonic philosophical theory. Thus the spiritual elements augment the mind in order to strengthen it for being able to receive the above-mind and above-human understanding spiritual stimuli.21

Experiencing the divine light could not be labeled as ,,science” because again no word encompasses the entire true meaning of that experience. The light itself is beyond the bounds of any object that supports a definition so is the experience of coming in contact what it; the interaction between man and light is speechless. Again knowledge signifies too little and it’s a narrow term to place along with the union between man and light (light as the divine Subject). That is the reason

20 In order to strenghten his arguments, Palamas uses the writings of Saint Dinosyius the Areopagite and Saint Gregory of Nyssa which offers as exemple the case of Moses which had seen the immaterial tabernacle in the darkness of the mountain. Being surrounded by darkness, Moses saw Christ, being filled with glory at the sight of eternal life. Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, p. 333-337. 21 For a holistic approach towards these concepts see D. Stãniloae, Viaţa şi învãţãtura, pp. 60-62.


228

why the Fathers had chosen to describe that experience with the help of negation. That, of course does not mean that if we can not define it the union with the light is senseless since it subsumes all the existing senses being both intelligible and non-intelligible. The former term refers to the possibility that we can actually talk about the existence of the sight and the last one implies that we don’t know how this sight works meaning that it is impossible to us to understand rationally its mystery.22

Having in mind what we have previously said we can understand why Gregory Palamas decided to describe the divine light unknowable given its transcendent character being distinctive of any other natural knowledge. The light may be seen only under the grace of the Spirit which enables us to be worthy of a sight that surpasses any sight or knowledge in creation, the sight beyond the sight, the feeling beyond the feeling and the touch beyond any touch.23 Palamas conceives this entire argumentation in order to disprove Barlaam’s narrow philosophical system which constrained hesycast experience to rational thinking.

Seeing of the divine light

Seeing and perceiving the spiritual light is a genuine experience not

just a symbolic gesture. It is a light accessible only to spiritual eyes facilitated by grace for it is grace only that can unlock the mind and sight to receive the light. God makes himself available to us through a light that we can slightly perceive but can not fully comprehend it by logic. For the fact that we can even slightly perceive the light that means that it is not one thing with God’s essence which is completely inaccessible and can not be shared.24 It is impossible to us to know and understand God in its essence but what we can know and contemplate are its manifestations that being enough for our deliverance.25

What is important is both our spiritual and physical eyes may be delighted with the sight of divine light if the body was cleansed from sins.26 If we relinquish Bralaam’s perspective that the light may be experienced by logic only and accept that the seeing of light requires a

22 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, pp. 339-341. 23 Ibidem, p. 342. 24 Cf. J. Meyendorff, O introducere, pp. 348-349. 25 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, p. 273. 26 Gregory Plamas does not deny the signifiance of the human body in the act of divine light sight saying that it too is a part of that process, thus he deny the antropoligical dualism. J. Meyendorff, O introducere, pp. 296-298; P. Calvário, „Theosis and the Metaphysics of Light”, p. 233.


229

spiritual approach it will be accessible to us. The mind becomes ready to view the divine light only after the acknowledgement of its limits, which is a process concomitant with purification form sins. Only after that God allows spiritual views for the mind to comprehend and experience.27 The superior level of the mind, the spiritual one is thus possible but only in the Spirit of God not by its natural skills.

Saint Gregory Palamas shows that a close relation with God do not involve a high education because not the mind purified by the lack of knowledge permits the experience of light but the purification from sins, continual prayer and a humble heart are the means to the real joy. Relinquishing pride and ignorance we make room for the Spirit to overflow our mind with grace which opens new spiritual sight channels. An early paramount condition to achieve that state of mind is the observance of the commands given by God. Jesus equals the love for him with the observance of the commands as a logical consequence of carrying love for Him (Jn 14:23). The Father and The Son will coinhere in such a man and will make him worthy of the divine light’s sight.28

An advanced and exercised prayer bridges the seeing or union with the light, such a prayer creates the context for us to leave behind the earthly concerns and to contemplate by negation the glory of God.29 In other word negation means to accept that God is not only what we define Him in a scholastic manner as love, justice or essence being beyond such definitions. It is not a negation in terms of denial something, it means just that we acknowledge that our mind simply can not comprehend God’s entire glory through logic. The Holy Spirit (whom presence is preceded by advanced prayer) is the divine subject that can enable our mind to be able to receive God’s mind. Prayer is thus a form in which we can experience high levels of connection with God, a greater form than negation theology. We are not alone in this process because the Spirit comes in our aid in order to enable the mind to connect and view the light. But before the Spirit to come that advanced state of prayer relies only in our will and once we learn how to detach from every earthly thought even from the mind itself our struggle end and the Spirit comes to give us by grace new spiritual powers, prayer being the foundation over which those spiritual powers are built on. In the moment the Spirit starts its work in our mind it is able to receive the

27 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, p. 274-276. 28 Ibidem, pp. 368-369. 29 Since the beginning of the treaty we can trace the importance of prayer when it comes to the sight of divine light. Moreover this very treay is an extention of a previous treaty dedicated to prayer. Ibidem, p. 263.


230

divine light which will grow accordingly with our personal effort of elevation which in turn will enable a continuous work of the Spirit.30 The Spirit’s work starts at the end of prayer but lasts forever ever-growing, being in perpetuum beyond physical time. Any earthly process or feeling will fade in that state of union because the sight of the light means union with it.31

Our mind has the capacity to overcome itself through God and in God. Saint Gregory Palamas makes an ingenious comparison saying that anyone knows other persons but only when a particular person opens with the heart to another one, only then the persons could say that he truly knows that other person. Same is with God, the mind has to overcome itself, to deny its own logic capabilities of knowledge in order to know God which opens with His light to that pure mind. Palamas named the sight of the divine light in a negative form as beyond sight and beyond understanding because it is much more than intelligible sight. The light is not in conflict with knowledge and sight thou; Palamas uses such a negation approach just to underline its uncreated character that can not be comprehended by natural processes of the mind. There is sight just not a natural one as we understand it that’s the reason why Palamas names it beyond sight.

The sight of the light is possible through spiritual eyes in times of pure prayer catalyzed by strong faith. Our mind can not go after the intelligible realm, and that ,,after” is where true knowledge of God resides.32 The union with God’s mind is over and above natural processes of thought and comprehension. It is the deepest knowledge unparalleled by knowledge of any created object. The sight of divine light can not be recall in words which are products of mind’s processes. Those who experience such a sight bear the grace of the Holy Spirit.

30 Ibidem, pp. 275-276. 31 D. Stãniloae, Viaţa şi învãţãtura, p. 58. 32 Sf. Grigorie Palama, „Despre sfânta luminã”, p. 338.


231

SAINT FAUSTINA KOWALSKA AND SAINT TERESA OF CALCUTTA-TWO AUTHORS OF SPIRITUAL

AUTOBIOGRAPHIES FROM CATHOLIC SPACE OF THE 20TH CENTURY

Iuliu-Marius Morariu

„Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Abstract: Using information provided by the spiritual autobiographies of Saint Faustina Kowalska and Saint Teresa of Calcutta, two exponential personalities of Catholic spirituality, the author tries there to emphasize the way how spiritual autobiography developed in this confessional area during the 20th century. Mystical experience, its forms and role in the transformation of the author is underlined there while the way how the context of life and work contributed to the change of the two personalities it is also presented.The research also tries to show how they defined their selves and their call according to the intrinsic relationship with God, but also to create bridges between spiritualties from different confessional space by bringing into attention the common points of the genre that can be found in the investigated works.

Keywords: Teresa of Calcutta, Faustina Kowalska, poor, God, mystical experience, Catholic space.

Important genre for the theological space, with interdisciplinary

values,1 spiritual autobiography has not been enough investigated until today. Many aspects that could be used both for spiritual and pastoral life, literature, philosophy or history or even to create bridges between spiritualties. These are some subjects that can be found here. Therefore, through the articles like this one and others,2 we try to bring into

1 Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,An interdisciplinary genre in the Theological Literature: the spiritual autobiography and its landmarks for the Orthodox space”, in Journal of Education, Culture and Society, year VII no. 1, 2018, p. 145. 2 See: Idem, ,,The spiritual autobiography in the Eastern space in the second half of the XIXth and XXth centuries”, in Astra Salvensis, year III, Supplement no. 1-,,New Approaches in Contemporary Theology”, 2015, pp. 166-174; Idem, ,,Aspects of political theology in the spiritual autobiographies of the Orthodox space? New potential keys of lecture”, in Astra Salvensis, year V,no. 10, 2017, pp. 128-133; Idem, ,,Aspects of Applied Ethics in the Spiritual Autobiographies from the Orthodox Space in the 19thand 20th Centuries”, in Camelia Ignătescu, Antonio Sandu, TomiţăCiulei (eds.), Proceedings Volume: Rethinking Social Action. Core Values in Practice, Iaşi/London, Lumen Printing Press, 2017, pp. 548-557; Idem, ,,Aspects of political theology in the spiritual autobiography of Dag Hammarskjöld”, in HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, year LXXIV, no. 4, 2018, pp. 1-5; Idem, ,,Aspects of political theology in the spiritual autobiography of Saint John of Kronstadt (1829–1908)”, in HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, year 74,no. 4, 2018, pp. 1-5; Idem, ,,Educational aspects in the spiritual autobiography from the Orthodox space of the 19th and 20th centuries”, in


232

attention works from this area, coming from different confessional backgrounds and to highlight the important and actual elements that can be found there. Here, we will try to present the spiritual notes of two important Catholic women of the 20th centuries, Saint Faustina Kowalska and Saint Teresa of Calcutta. Both of them were important personalities of their times and contributed to the development of spiritualty through their lives, fact that explains why even today there are so many works dedicated to their life and activity.3 Therefore, we will try to see how their contribution and experience is reflected inside the texts they wrote.

Saint Faustina Kowalska and Saint Teresa of Calcutta-two authors of spiritual autobiographies from Catholic space of the 20th century

Faustina Kowalska’s diary

Ion Albulescu, Adriana-DenisaManea, Iuliu-Marius Morariu (eds.), Education, Religion, Family in Contemporary Society-Proceedings of the Conference, Saarbrücken, Lambert Academic Publishing, 2017, pp. 113-123; Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ŞtefanJosan, ,,Elements of spiritual autobiography in the literary works of Virgil Gheorghiu”, in Research and Science Today,year 6, no. 1 (11), 2016, pp. 83-88; Maxim Morariu, ,,Saint Silouanel’Athonite el l’autobiographiespirituelle dans l’EgliseOrthodoxe”, in Presence d’EnCalcat,year LV,no. 1, 2016, pp. 35-39; Idem, Autobiografiaspirituală a lui Dag Hammarskjöld: o abordareteologică, Cluj-Napoca,Argonaut Printing Press, 2016. 3 See, for example: J. M. Silveyra, ,,Lo spirito di Madre Teresa mi ha aiutatonellasofferenza”, in Asia News, year XXXIII, no. 321 (2), 2019, pp. 20-21; Brian Kolodiejchuk (ed.), Where there is love, there is God: a path to closer union with God and greater love for others-Mother Teresa, Waterville, Me., Christian Large Print, 2012; Paul Murray, Matka Teresa: kochalamJezusa w ciemnosciach, translated by StanislawaPelechata, Poznan, WydawnictwoPolskiejProwincjiDominikanów,,W drodze”, 2010; GëzimAlpion, Mother Teresa: saint or celebrity?, London/New York, Routledge, 2007; Edward Le Joly, Madre Teresa e le missionariedellacarità: lo facciamo per Gesù, Milano, San Paolo, 2003; PerleScemla, Passione ardente: viteparallele di Santa Teresa del Bambino Gesù e Madre Teresa di Calcutta, Milano, Rusconi, 1998; Teresa di Calcutta, ,,...Anchequando costa...”: conversazionispiritualidella Madre alle sue suore, Leumann/Torino, Elledici, 1992; Malcolm Muggeridge, Something beautiful for God: mother Teresa of Calcutta, New York, Ballantine Books, 1976; Georges Gorrée, Jean Barbier, Madre Teresa di Calcutta: amore senza frontiere, Roma,Publisher: Roma, Città Nuova, 1973; IgnacyRózycki, Il cultodelladivina misericordia: studio teologico del ,,Diario” di santa Faustina Kowalskasultema del ,,Culto”,Città del Vaticano, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2002; ***, Cracovien. Canonizationisservae Dei FaustinaeKowalskaInstitutiSororum B.V.M. a Misericordia (1905-1938): positio super virtutibus, Cracow, Congregatio de Causis sanctorum, 1991; Maria Winowska, L’iconadell’amoremisericordioso: ilmessaggio di suor Faustina Kowalska, Roma, EdizioniPaoline, 1987; Franciszek Antoni Cegielka, SiostraFaustyna: szafarkaMilosierdziaBozego, North Tonawanda, New York, Pallottinum, 1954.


233

Born to Glogowiec in Poland on 25th of August 1905 and baptised Elena, the future religious will study only three years and will be forced to leave the family when she was only 16, for working as a housekeeper in Alexandrov and Lodz.4 Since she was very young (at the age of seven), feels the monastic call, but will arrive to do it only on 1st of August 1925, when she will be received in a monastery belonging to the Congregation of the Sisters of Happy Virgin Mary from Warsaw.5 There she will work inside the congregation in Cracow, but also Plock and Vilnius, in the kitchen, gates or garden. After 13years of monastic life, she will die on 5th of October 1933, and is beatified by Pope John Paul III on 18th of April 1993.6 Inside her legacy, the diary that describes her personal and spiritual life is for sure the masterpiece.7 There she describes the relevant aspects of her biography, presents also elements related to her noviciate or the life inside the convent, but also describes her visions. In some situations, the interference between mystical experience and the practical life are also described. Such an example can be considered the event from 2nd of January 1934, when she seeks for the painter E. Kazimirovski, accomplishing an order of her spiritual father, and asks him to paint the image of Merciful Christ that she saw in vision. Up to the end of the month, the icon will be painted, but she will be sad because Jesus is not as beautiful as she saw Him.8

The notes of Faustina Kowalska alternate the descriptions of contemporary life, program of the congregation with the inside feelings and the presentation of their causes. The work is remarkable both for its stylistic richness that is similar with the one of Dag Hammarskjöld,9 as for its density of the message. Among the paragraphs, there can be found prayers, descriptions, plans or other texts. Doxological texts are between the most beautiful and make her diary similar with the Orthodox Silouan the Athonite, almost a contemporary monk.10 Her

4 Maria Elizabieta Siepak, ,,Introduzione”, in Maria Faustina Kowalska, Diario. La misericordia divina nella mia anima, Rome, Libreria EditriceVaticana, 2001, p. XV. 5Ibidem, p. XV. Cf. Franciszek Antoni Cegielka, Siostra Faustyna: szafarka Milosierdzia Bozego, p. 7. 6 Maria ElizabietaSiepak, ,,Introduzione”, p. XVII. 7 Maria Faustina Kowalska, Diario. La misericordia divinanellamia anima. 8Ibidem, p. XXVIII. 9 Dag Hammarskjöld, Markings, London, Faber and Faber, 1972. 10 Saint Silouan the Athonite, Între iadul deznădejdii şi iadul smereniei-însemnări duhovniceşti, Alba-Iulia, Deisis Publishing House, 1994; Saint Silouan the Athonite, Ecrits Spirituels-extraits, traduits par L. A. Lassus, BegrollesenMauges, Abbaye de Bellefontainte, 1976.


234

prayers will be related with the state of the heart,11 name of Jesus or mystical experiences. For example, starting from the mention of the name of Jesus, she will write a text similar with the hesychast12 texts from the Eastern space:,,The name of Jesus. Oh, what great is Thy name, o Lord! It is the sustainment of my life when the force miss to me and when the darkness infiltrate inside my heart, Thy name is my son, whose’ rays illuminates and bathes my soul and it makes it to rise light, getting splendour from Thy Light”.13

The desire to see The Lord is very strong and it is often expressed inside the pages of her notes. It motivates here to leave faithfully, to meditate, be always ready to die and to have a ceaseless dialogue with Him. Sometimes, their relationship it can be compared with the one of love between two lovers because of the sweetness of the words. The reinforcement of this love is almost always brought by Eucharist. Therefore, in 30th of January 1938, shortly before her departure from this world, she will declare very strong her love for God:,,Oh, my Jesus, life of my heart, my Saviour, my sweet husband, and in the same time, my judger, You know that in my last moments I will not trust in one of my merits, but only in your mercy. Starting from this moment, I entrust myself to the chasm of your mercy, which is always open for any soul.Oh, my Jesus, I have only one mission in my life, in my death for all the eternity, and this is the one to adore you and your uncountable Mercy. Nobody, not even between the angels, nor between people will succeed to praise the mystery of your Mercy”.14

The increase of the intensity of her love for Christ can be seen in the days before her departure. Without intending to use metaphoric formulas or be poetic as the aforementioned Swedish author,15 but just trying to express the deep feelings that she has for God and Eucharist, which is seen as a wedding dinner. This is what she will write in the penultimate note, while in the last one she will declare herself ready to start the road to sky:,,Today my heart prepares for the Holy Communion like for a nuptial banquet, where all the ones who participate shine an unbelievable beauty. I

11 Sometimes, the wish for being as soon as possible for ever with God even creates her sadness, like in the case of the aforementioned monk. For example she says: ,,My heart is filled with a continuous sadness because I want to come to you, Lord, in the plenitude of Thy like. O, Jesus, what a horrible desert seems to me this life; on this earth, there is not an aliment for my heart and my soul. I suffer of nostalgia for you, O God. You had left me, oh Lord, the Holy Ostia, but these wake up even more the nostalgia of my heart for Thee”. Maria Faustina Kowalska, Diario. La misericordia divinanellamia anima, p. 316. 12 Cf. IuvenalieIonaşcu, L’esperienzadella preghiera di GesunellaspiritualitaRomena, Citta del Vaticano, LibrariaEditriceVaticana, 2002, p. 154. 13 Maria Faustina Kowalska, Diario. La misericordia divinanellamia anima, p. 314. 14Ibidem, p. 511. 15 Dag Hammarskjöld, Markings.


235

am also invited to this banquet, but I do not see myself in this beauty, but in an abyss of dirtiness. And because I do not feel worthy to sit at the table, I infiltrate myself at the legs of Jesus and eat the crumbs that fall under the table. Because I know your Mercy, for this I come to Thee, oh Jesus, because I want to leave my dirtiness before it will run out the piety of Your Heart...16. Today, the Majesty of God wraps me. I do not succeed in any way to react in order to prepare me better. I am taken and totally surrounded by God. My heart burns of his love. I have the total confirmation of the fact that I love and I am loved. And this is enough for me. I will endeavour during the day to be faithful to the Holy Spirit and to correspond to His expectances. I try to have the interior silence, for being able to hear His voice”.16

Full of prayers and doxologies, describing the road of unquiet heart17 that wants to arrive as soon as possible in the house of her beloved, and written in order to motorize the interior evolution (therefore without any tendency of the notes of censorship or cosmetisation), the notes of Saint Faustina are veritable pages of mystical texts. Compared with other works of the same genre, but coming from different confessional backgrounds, they will surely reveal the fact that there are the same elements that define the spiritual inquiry and define the intrinsic seeking for God.

Saint Teresa of Calcutta Together with the aforementioned one and the notes of Saint John

Paul II,18 the spiritual autobiography of Saint Teresa of Calcutta19 is for sure one of the most important texts of the genre from the contemporary Catholic space and the Christian one too. Influenced by Saint Teresa of Avila,20 whose name will also receive, she will leave also some notes that define her vocation, the purpose of the congregation, but also the intrinsic call that she heard when decided to found a new congregation. While for Faustina, the mercy of God provides mystical ecstasy, contemplation and desire to arrive faster at the end of the human life for enjoying the eternal one, for Teresa the aspects are a little bit different. Of course, it does not misses the contemplation, visions

16 Maria Faustina Kowalska, Diario. La misericordia divinanellamia anima, pp. 598-599. 17 Cf. Garry Wills, ,,The trials of an unquiet heart”, înNew Statesman, yearCXL, no. 5049, 2011, p. 24. 18 Saint John Paul II, In God’s hands, San Francisco, Harper One Press, 2017. 19 Its latest edition is: Teresa of Calcutta, Come Be My Light: The Private Writings of the Saint of Calcutta, New York, Doubleday, 2007. We will use there: Teresa di Calcutta, La mia vita, Milano, Rusconi, 1990. 20 Cf. Thérèsed’Avila, Œuvrescomplètes, Paris, Les Editions du Cerf, 1948.


236

and desire to be forever with the Lord, but her vision is rather a pragmatic one. Inspired by the Sermon of the Mountain that represents one of the landmarks of moral and spiritual Christian life,21 she will find Jesus in the poorest people on the earth. Decided to become missionary she will join Loreto Congregation and will depart for India, where, in 1948, after twenty years, will decide to follow the call.22 One could read that, burdened with daily apostleship dedicated to the assisted pours, Teresa will lose little by little her mystical vocation, becoming a religious that has no time to read or write anymore. In fact, her vocation, her concern for interior life as the custom to write not only correspondence but also a diary will not leave her for the entire life.

It should be for sure mentioned that, in comparison with the notes of the aforementioned Polish religious, her notes are not as rich in mystical content and they do not have such a stylistically diversity. But the context and purpose are also diverse. While Faustina wrote for having a detailed presentation of her spiritual life, Teresa will also think that her notes can be latter used by other for understanding the reasons of her foundation and her spirituality. Therefore, without being so poetic, the religious from Calcutta will present her spiritual life inside her notes. She will underline from the beginning that ,,my vocation was nothing than a prolongation of the belonging to Christ and of my way of being totally His”.23

Almost always linked with practical life and aspects like poverty,24 her notes are a testimony of the relevance of love for the Christianlife and action. Using a beautiful chiastic structure that reminds by Davids’ psalms, she will note about this virtue and its relevance the following words: ,,Our mission is a mission of love. The purpose of our existence consists in bringing Christ in houses and bringing people to Christ”.25

21 Paul Valadier, Lo spirituale e la politica, Torino, Lindau, 2011; Hannah Arendt, Che cos’e la politica, Milano, Edizioni di Comunita, 2001. 22 Teresa di Calcutta, La mia vita, p. 24. 23Ibidem, p. 25. Cf. Edward Le Joly, Madre Teresa e le missionariedellacarità: lo facciamo per Gesù, p. 12. 24 That will not scare her as it often happens with other people. For example, she notes about the way how poverty made her feel in the moment when she left the congregation and decided to dedicate her life to the pours: ,,I had in my pocked 50th rupiahs. In that moment I had the feeling that God started to bless the work and now I was not anymore abandoned”. Teresa di Calcutta, La mia vita, p. 27. Cf.Brian Kolodiejchuk (ed.), Where there is love, there is God: a path to closer union with God and greater love for others-Mother Teresa. 25 Teresa di Calcutta, La mia vita, p. 35.


237

As it often happens in spiritual autobiographies from the Eastern Orthodox space,26 Teresa also prefers to speak about some of her experiences as if they belong to others. Sometimes she describes the activity of the congregation, speaking in a hidden way about her conception and experience27 and in other situation she just expresses what she thinks, but it is easier for the reader to understand that she experienced what she says. Such an example can be considered the comparison that she makes between her congregation and the Jesuits:,,Together with the other three traditional votes, of poverty, chastity and obedience, the Jesuits make also a forth one of obedience to the Holy Father in questions of mission.From the very first moment of our congregation, we had a fourth vote: the one to serve, from all our heart and totally for free, the poorest from the pour”.28

Anticipating a concept that later, through the work of thinkers like Anastasios Yannoulatos or father Ioan Bria will become a keyword in the ecumenical space, namely the ,,liturgy after liturgy”,29 she will consider equal the Eucharist and love for the neighbour manifested in the assistance provided to him.

The deepness of her faith and the true living of her vocation, makes Mother Teresa congregation to grow up in a short time. Her sincere attitude towards the pour is blessed even by conversion. She even describes such a moment inside the diary:,,I cannot forget it anymore: once arrived to our house of moribund from Calcutta an atheist. A few moments before his arrival, diverse people have brought inside a man collected from the street (maybe they had collected him in a sewer or in a garbage dump, since it was covered with worms).Here there was a sister that was sitting nearby him, without seeing that one

26 Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,The spiritual autobiography in the Eastern space in the second half of the XIXth and XXth centuries”, p. 168. 27 For example, she says: ,,From the very first moment, we try to teach all the young girls that want to became part of our congregation to transform the work in labour, understand Jesus and do it for Him. This wakes up inside them the love for Jesus and the possibility to discover him under the face destroyed by pain of the poorest from the poor, as we can met Him under the image of Eucharistic bread”. Teresa di Calcutta, La mia vita, p. 45. 28Ibidem, p. 56. 29 Ion Bria, The Liturgy after the Liturgy: Mission and Witness from an Orthodox Perspective, Geneva, WCC Publications, 1996; Idem, ,,Liturgy after the liturgy”, in International Review of Mission, year LXXXVII, no. 265 (1), 1978, pp. 86-90. Cf. JooseopKeum, Together towards Life Mission and Evangelism in Changing Landscapes with a Practical Guide, Geneva, World Council of Churches Publications, 2013, p. 9; J. C. van der Merwe, ,,Bria, Ion 1996-The liturgy after the liturgy, mission and witness from an orthodox perspective”, in HTS Teologiese Studies/HTS Theological Studies, year LIII,no. 4, 1997, p. 1452; Anastasios Yannoulatos, Misiune pe urmeleluiHristos: studiiteologiceşiomilii, Sibiu, AndreianaPrinting Press, 2013, p. 67.


238

was watching how she was touching the inferno, was watching her, was smiling and all the rest. By chance, I also was there in this moment. The atheist was sitting and observing the sister. In one moment, he came nearby me and told me: I have arrived there without God. I could see the love of God in action.30I saw Him in the hands of that sister, in her face, in her youth attitude, in her love for this sick people. Yes, Mother, now I believe!”.31

What is important there is the fact that the conversion takes place suddenly, without any theological dialogue, preparation or intellectual inquiry. The example and the vocation lived with honesty reveals God. In fact, the accent of the entire work of Missionaries of Charity has as its own purpose to show the love of God in action.32 But in order to be able to do this and to have a clear message, each sister needs a good instruction. This explains why so often in her notes can be found so many descriptive notes, with pedagogical value and why, in many parts, the diary seems to be so different by the one of Kowalska and other authors of spiritual autobiography and so focused on current problems like the foundation of new houses, activities, travels, the reception of the message, preparation of sisters and their spiritual guidance.

In the same time, the presence of those aspects is relevant because it makes them useful also for the research of topics like political theology.33Counscious about the power and greatness of the pour that is the image of God,34 she will use her knowledge and relationship to create better life conditions for them. This will create bridges between people and culture and in the same time will transmit the message of Christianity. In the same time, will not neglect the spiritual life and will be rewarded for her work with great mystical experiences.

Filled with information related with the way how her soul developed once that she decided to answer to the call of Christ, the autobiography of Mother Teresa of Calcutta is both an important historical source, a complementary document of the constitution of her

30 Like for Mother Teresa, love of God in action is a leitmotiv of the entire spiritual autobiography. Cf. Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,The spiritual autobiography in the Eastern space in the second half of the XIXth and XXth centuries”,p. 168. 31 Teresa di Calcutta, La mia vita, p. 78. 32 Cf. Mary Poplin, ,,Finding Calcutta: What Mother Teresa Taught Me About Meaningful Work and Service”, in The Christian Century,year 126, no. 20, 2009, p. 37. 33 Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,Aspects of political theology in the spiritual autobiographies of the Orthodox space?”,p. 128. 34,,I cannot stop to repeat: the pours are big! We must love them, but with the love of compassion.We must love them because is Jesus who hides under the appearance of the pain. The pain of pours!”. Teresa di Calcutta, La mia vita, p. 146.


239

congregation and a beautiful spiritual writing that can be used by the ones who want to develop their mystical life.

Conclusion Like the Protestant space,35 the Catholic one knows also a huge

diversity of spiritual autobiographies during the history. The Confessions of Saint Augustine36 constitute a real template for future works like the one of Saint Patrick,37 Teresa of Avila, Faustina Kowalska, Pope John Paul the Second or mother Teresa of Calcutta. Among them, important ones are the two investigated one. Different as style and content, they reflect the richness of Christian spirituality, its diversity the actuality of its message and the beauty of its literary production. Religious can found there texts that help them to develop their vocation, the Church important elements that can be used in pastoral life and offered as examples to its enemies, while the simple reader can use them to find answers to the questions that concern him. Written with spiritual and not editorial purposes, these works not only reflect the real image of their authors and are not censored or cosmetised in one way or other, but they are also sincere and direct and this makes them easy to read. In the same time, they are a huge and important testimony about the life, work and vocation of their authors.

35 Not like the Orthodox one, where the amount of works is rather pour, but despite of this fact, there can be found a huge diversity of topics approached in the three most representative works of it and many memorial writings that also contain passages of spiritual autobiography. Cf. Iuliu-Marius Morariu, ,,The spiritual autobiography in the Eastern space in the second half of the XIXth and XXth centuries”,p. 170. 36 Saint Augustin, Confesiuni,2nd edition, Bucharest, Nemira Printing Press, 2006. 37 ***, ,,Select cronology”, in Liam Harte (ed.), A history of Irish autobiography, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018, p. XV.


240


241

THE QUESTION ABOUT A COMMON GOOD IN THE SECULAR STATE

Inocent-Mária V. Szaniszló OP

Angelicum Pontifical University, Rome, Italy

Abstract: What we witness today is secularism in church and state relation and moral pluralism in society. The modern state separates state and church, if not on all the levels, surely on the level of separation of governmental and religious institutions. State and church relation is based on the principles of equality, liberty and neutrality. But secularism of state means not the end of religion! Before we look on a conscientious objection of individual subject in modern secular state, we try to analyze concept of common good with his historical context. If the common good is not provided for, people’s individual goods are not sure either. We can therefore see that individual goods cannot be put in opposition to the common good. St. Thomas Aquinas has shown that since every man is part of our common existence, it is impossible for any man to be good without having a good relationship towards the common good. Our aim is to find a role of Christian character of secular society and basic elements of a good secularism for a politic society and the Church in a modern time.

Keywords: Common good, secular state, social teaching of the Church, conscientious objection of singular person, public place.

Is it true, false or just too daring to say that the modern state did

lose its universalism? What we witness today is secularism in church and state relation and moral pluralism in society. The modern state separates state and church, if not on all the levels, surely on the level of separation of governmental and religious institutions. State and church relation is based on the principles of equality, liberty and neutrality. But secularist of state means not the end of religion!

Therefore before we look on a conscientious objection of individual subject in modern secular state, we try to analyze concept of common good with his historical context. Our aim is to find a role of Christian character of secular society and basic elements of a good secularism for a politic society and the Church in a modern time.

The concept of common good plays a central part in the Church’s social teaching.1 It stems from Greek polis and is expressed by Aristotle’s Politics: the good in the political field, that, the general advantage, is justice2 (political good is just, thus contributing towards what is social in nature3), where the

1 A. Anzenbacher, Christliche Sozialethik, Paderborn/München/Wien/Zürich, Schöningh, 1998, p. 200. 2 Aristotle, Politics III, 1282b 14-18, 107 (121), available on: www.perseus.tufts.edu, accessed 12.02.2019. 3 Idem, Politik, ed. O Gigon, München, Fink, 1984, p. 5, 115.


242

common good is closely linked to justice, as well as with the principle of solidarity. John Paul II pointed out that solidarity is a firm determination to commit oneself to the common good. Solidarity means „the correlative response as a moral and social attitude, as a "virtue".4 Aristotle held view that justice is accomplished through observation of the law of polis, and therefore called it law-based justice. Contrariwise, Küppers states that according to St. Thomas Aquinas, the common good decisively refers to general justice, that is, to something that goes beyond a positive, i.e. man-approved law. To him, the constitutional law is of secondary importance, and its role is to direct the action of virtues towards the common good.5 The role of special justice is to ensure equality among citizens and polis.

Arzenbacher points out that this contributing good is called „bonum commune“ in social ethics, as expressed by Utz or „concrete freedom“ by Hegel. To put it in other words, according to the traditional Church’s social teaching inspired by Aristotle, the common good, as a comprehensive good pertaining to the social order as a whole, is a special object of politics, or political community.6 The state should therefore act in the interest of the common good, which, additionally to the principle of solidarity, is also achieved with the aid of the principle of subsidiarity.

Isensee adds that determining the common good is an essential goal of an open political process. The common good ethos of an office must be defended face to face with external and internal threats of pluralistic democracy, and state functions entrusted in a credible way must be protected against selfish abuse on the one hand, and instrumentalisation by interest groups on the other.7

A brief historical excursion into

the Church’s social teaching

4 John Paul II, Solicitudo rei socialis (abbrev. SRS) 38,6, available on: www.vatican.va, accessed 12.02.2019. 5 ST II-II, 57-61; also see A. Küppers, "Soziale Gerechtigkeitim Verständnis der Katholischen oziallehre," in A. Rauscher (ed.), Handbuch der Katholischen Soziallehre, Berlin, Duncker&Humbolt, 2008, p. 165. 6 Cf. Documets of the Second Vatican Council, Gaudiumet Spesz (abbrev. GS), p. 74, available on: www.vatican.va, accessed 12.02.2019. 7 J. Isensee, "Staat", in A. Rauscher (ed.), Handbuch der Katholischen Soziallehre, p. 754. Cf. Inocent-Mária V. Szaniszló, OP, "Die Ethik des Seinsoder Was fürein Mensch solltezum Objekt der Ethik, Philosophie und der Theologie werden?", in Astra Salvensis, III, Supplement no. 1, (2015), p. 191.


243

According to Pope Pius XII, human rights are the very precious part of the common good.8 Rauscher underlines that in the traditional Church’s social teaching the common good has its roots in the Roman law. Since humans are social beings, dependent on cooperation and community, the common good cannot be conceived as the sum of private goods of individuals. It is rather an interconnected structure of many goods, that is, in the process of pursuing common tasks, those goods cooperate in order to achieve common goals. If the common good is not provided for, then individual goods of people are not sure either. We can thus see that it is not possible to put personal goods in opposition to the common good.9

In ancient times, the common good unambiguously had priority over private goods. A modern question concerning the common good can be formulated as follows: is it not necessary to distinguish between a person’s fundamental rights (or, to put it in other words, human rights) and what an individual is due to the society? As pointed out in the Second Vatican Council document, the common good allows people, either as groups or as individuals, to reach their fulfilment more fully and more easily.10

The common good necessarily draws upon a common sense, which postulates the mindset of a human involved in social life and requirements on a social group arising from a more extensive need for the common good and the imperative of social life. Where citizens miss readiness to engage on behalf of the community, the common good is impaired.

A crucial element of the common good doctrine by St. Thomas Aquinas is the anchoring of the secular, political common good in the sum of goods with reference to transcendence, as well as its characteristic, naturally lawful direction thanks to the makeup of ethics and law based on human nature (naturahumana).11 St. Thomas Aquinas writes that the good of any part is such that what it is belongs to the

8 A. Rauscher, "Das Christliche Menschenbild", in A. Rauscher (ed.), Handbuch der Katholischen Soziallehre, p. 21, note 24: Address by Pius XII dated 25.9.1949 in Utz, Groner, No. 369. 9 Ibidem, p. 28. 10 Cf. GS 26, and also see the definition in: Kompendium Sociálnejnáuky Cirkviod Pápežskejrady Iustitia et Pax (The Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church published by the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace), Trnava, SSV 2008, p. 164. See also: www.vatican.va, accessed 12.02.2018. 11 U. Nothelle-Wildfeuer, "Die Sozialprinzipien der Katholischen Soziallehre", in A. Rauscher (ed.), Handbuch der Katholischen Soziallehre, p. 144.


244

whole.12 Since every man is part of a common being (pars civitatis), it is impossible that any man should be good without being related in the right way to the common good (bonum commune).13 Anzerbacher adds that an individual good is integrated here as a sub-function of the common good.14 In his concept of the common good, St. Thomas Aquinas refers to the idea of personal good of a socialized man who is standardly subject to any (economic and cultural) social nature (socialite) as well as to politics. Such common good therefore cannot be conceived as predetermined or unintentional, as if it was an automatic product of competitive mechanisms, or removal of classes through revolution, but is conceived as the outcome of solidary cooperation.15

In his important encyclical Rerumnovarum, Leo XIII reminds us that the basic and essential obligation of the state is to „require the common good“. In accomplishing such good, „the labour of the working class is especially responsible and quite indispensable“.16 Pius XI on the other hand develops the concept of distributing the land’s goods according to the common good, and he also covers ownership and property rights in the context of the common good.17 Encyclicals of John XXIII claim that the universally human, universally common good has to do with development aid as part of international solidarity. Anzerbacher adds that Revelation shows us the anthropological substance of a sin: what is it due to, and that both individuals pursuing their destination and social interactions accomplishing the order of goods, and especially the common good, may likewise fail.18 John Paul II is the first one to clearly talk about the principle of solidarity: it is a firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good; that is to say to the good of all and of each individual, because we are all really responsible for all.19

12 Saint. Thomas Ayuinas, Summa theologicae Complete Set (Latin-English Edition), volme I-II, New York, 2012, p. 96, 4 (it will be quoted there as ST). Cf. Inocent-Mária V. Szaniszló, OP, "Denken des Hl. Thomas von Aquinalseinegute basis für gerechte sozial politik", in Astra Salvensis, IV, no. 7, (2016), pp. 10-19. 13 ST, I-II p. 92, paraghraps 1 and 3. 14 A. Anzenbacher, Christliche Sozialethik, p. 46. 15 Ibidem, p. 135. 16 Leo XIII, Encyclical Rerumnovarum (abbrev. RN), 26; notes by A. Anzenbacher, in: A. Anzenbacher, Christliche Sozialethik, p. 139. 17 Pius XI, Encyclical Quadragessimo anno (abbrev. QA), 58 and 49; notes by A. Anzenbacher, in: Ibidem, p. 145. 18 Ibidem, p. 182. 19 Cf. John Paul II, Encyclical Centessimus annus (abbrev. CA), 15 and SRS, 38, in: Ibidem, p. 196.


245

However, the conception of common good stretches from the medieval through to the modern times because of the absolutist power claimed by the rulers.20 As if „Raison détat“ indicated that the common good is directed by someone from above, that is, as if the monopoly of a sovereign holder of power to define it preceded common needs. Liberalism, emerging in the middle of the 18. Century counteracted that. During the course of the Enlightenment, more and more emphasis was laid on individual rights, dignity and freedom of individuals – up to the point where the concept of common good kept losing its importance and, conversely, the individual good grew in importance. Later on, this concept was misused by states with totalitarian ideology.

In Nothelle-Wildfeuer’s view, the significance of the concept of common good has been diminishing in the contemporary social ethics. This is frequently presented not as an independent principle, but rather as part of the principle of solidarity. There is the background issue of finding a generally unifying definition of this concept in terms of its substance and content in the process of individualization of the present-day society. On the other hand, in the secular world, this concept seems to come in fashion again (such as in the debate between liberalists and communists at the beginning of 80-ies).21

In the period between the wars, the concept of common good has been elaborated so as to become more dynamic: i. e. being an idea relating to order, it cannot be captured either in liberalist or collectivist terms, but it rather maintains the conditions and prerequisites for order, which must be provided so as to enable people in a political community to coexist meaningfully.22 The common good is thus the most universal goal of the state that is comparable with the public interest.23

Multiple meaning of the concept of common good

According to the classical social doctrine, the common good is

constituted of the family, state and ownership. Nevertheless, such common good has several meanings:

20 Ibidem, p. 204. 21 U. Nothelle-Wildfeuer, "Die Sozialprinzipien der Katholischen Soziallehre", p. 145. 22 R. Uertz, "Zur Enteiklung des katholischen Staats denkens", in A. Rauscher (ed.), Handbuch der Katholischen Soziallehre, p. 778. 23 M. Heintzen, "Der moderne Verfasungsstaat des Grundgesetzes", in Ibidem, p. 839.


246

1) One of them is the so-called value of the common good as service.24 The common good is understood as means and possibilities required in order for all individual members of the society to be able to (fully and quickly)25 accomplish their existential goals as designed in their life plans. Concerned is a good position or condition of a social structure or a municipality, thanks to which it is able to help its members, facilitate or empower them, by means of their own endeavours or what they are striving for, that is, to achieve their own good or their own fulfillment, or to achieve some of their common goals.26 The common good is likewise conceived by the Second Vatican Council as „the sum of those conditions of social life which allow social groups and their individual members relatively through and ready access to their own fulfillment“ (GS 26).

According to Anzerbacher, the common good understood in this way is instrumental in nature, that is, it serves the self-actualisation of persons. If understood as a condition, it involves the order of societal goods determined by solidarity. Finally, when it comes to distinguishing the issues of justice and good life in modern times, it involves social order of modern goods. However, it not only concerns the accomplishment of life goods of individuals, but also of their various groupings.

It is important that the common good conceived in this way is not the sum of all goods, but only of those that constitute a prerequisite for the realization of all values of common goods (mainly in the sense of structures, institutions and social systems). Thus the common good stands in the service of an individual human.27

2) Another meaning of the common good (i. e. an inclusive meaning as opposed to an exclusive one) is the one that includes a goal at which suchinstrumentalisation is directed. This is where „the very“ real core of society is constituted. Such interpretation of the meaning aims to indicate that the common good, that is, personal good (of individuals as they are) of all the members of society pertains to

24 O. Von Nell-Breuning, Gerechtigkeit und Freiheit. Grundzuege katolischer Soziallehre, Wien, Europaverlag, 1980, p. 35; Cf. U. Nothelle-Wildfeuer, Die Sozialprinzipien der Katholischen Soziallehre, p. 145. 25 See also GS 74; GS 26; Documents of the Second Vatican Council Dignitatis humanae (abbrev. DH) 6; John, Encyclical Mater etmagistra (abbrev. MM), 65; John XXIII, Encyclical Pacem in Terris (abbrev. PT ), p. 58; Cf. U. Nothelle-Wildfeuer, Die Sozialprinzipien der Katholischen Soziallehre, p. 145. 26 O. Von Nell-Breuning, Gerechtigkeit und Freiheit. Grundzuege katolischer Soziallehre, p. 41; Cf. A. Anzenbacher, Christliche Sozialethik, p. 201. 27 John XXIII, MM, p. 219.


247

socialized persons, since such common good can be achieved via social cooperation, and since such persons strive to achieve it through their personal responsibility.28 All members of a social structure are thus enriched, accomplished and appreciated. In this sense, the common good is not conceived instrumentally, but is an independent value by nature, providing that it also includes an autotelic person, who is the agent of solidarity and cooperation. The purpose of such restrictive interpretation of social cooperation is to show clearly that the realization of personal goods does not solely depend on social cooperation, but, in major part, also on whether a person conducts their life responsibly, that is, on how such person handles the means and possibilities offering cooperation. More specifically, this meaning is reflected in the work of volunteers, who do not ask what the state can do for them, but conversely, they ask what they can do for the state. In this way, they establish a true community.

A traditional rule that the common good has precedence over the individual good needs to be understood in this context too. This will however apply only in cases where a man is a subordinated member of a certain social structure (such as an employee relative to their employer, a citizen relative to the state, and the like).

Finally, the common good can be conceived as a target value only if we realist that the coexistence of humans in the society can only succeed under the precondition that there is at least a minimum consensus with regard to certain indispensable basic prerequisites of common life of members of this society, who share common values.

State and the common good in the light of questions relating to the worldview

A target idea behind the entire social cooperation, the idea of

world order of people with human dignity pursuing a universal (the common) good in the society, in which subsystems are aligned and arranged with regard to each other so as to fully accomplish their tasks: at the end of the day, all these prerequisites by and large depend on the questions of worldview. Answering these questions in turn depends on

28 A. F. UTZ, Sozialethik, p. 4: Die Prinzipien der Gesellschaftslehre, Heidelberg, 1958, p. 136. Inocent-Mária V. Szaniszló OP, "Tangenten der Wissenschaft und des Glaubens Suche Nach der Interaktion der Natur-und Human wissenschaften in Ihrer Beziehung zur (Moral) Theologie", in Astra Salvensis, VI, Special Issue, (2018), p. 1003.


248

the perspective, from which the man’s existence and determination are viewed.29

Anzerbacher tries to translate the Aristotle’s statement in modern terms: a person can only be guaranteed the status of a person with human rights, which depends on mutual exchange of recognition, providing that political power is replaced with positive law. The state must then necessarily become the guarantor of solidarity, and/or of the common good (as the principle of law). Aristotle’s theory that a man is by nature a political being, and that the state pertains to the nature of man, is thereby reconstructed. The state guarantees concrete human freedoms and realization of an extensive common good. In this context, the Second Vatican Council reminds us of the following: „Men, families and the various groups which make up the civil community are aware that they cannot achieve a truly human life by their own unaided efforts. They see the need for a wider community, within which each one makes his specific contribution every day toward an ever broader realization of the common good. For this purpose they set up a political community according to various forms. The political community exists, consequently, for the sake of the common good, in which it finds its full justification and significance, and the source of its inherent legitimacy. Indeed, the common good embraces the sum of those conditions of the social life whereby men, families and associations more adequately and readily may attain their own perfection.... It is clear, therefore, that the political community and public authority are founded on human nature and hence belong to the order designed by God, even though the choice of a political regime and the appointment of rulers are left to the free will of citizens“.30

On the one hand, realization of the common good necessitates the existence of the rule of law and state sovereignty On the other hand, the common good is the only basic norm behind all rights and political activities. In the final analysis, the particular content of a politically just common good, i. e. the way concrete freedoms as well as civic and social rights are to be exercised, can only be determined within the framework of civic society and the rule of law abiding by the principle of democracy, that is, through public discourse and the process of forming the will, as well as a democratic method enshrined in the constitution.

Treating the common good as a service presupposes that the members of society consent to common goals and values. Nevertheless,

29 A. Anzenbacher, Christliche Sozialethik, p. 94. 30 GS, p. 74; Cf. RN, p. 26.


249

when it comes to this point, a problem can be envisaged in our modernpluralitarian society, but also a necessity for a public authority of last instance that would oversee the compliance with and realization of the common good. The society can only get unified, as a prerequisite for the development of its members, if such bonding factor of last instance is present at all. The common good, or the state authority, consists in the right of society to lead to the common good (Johannes Messner), and concurrently in the coercive power used to enforce such common good despite the opposing individuals and groups. According to the social encyclical by Pope John Paul II, the common good authority may only be successfully constituted in conjunction with the ethos binding on all citizens, and is based on the man’s transcendent truth, without which the society is at risk of individuals enforcing their interests and the force of power taking over.31 However, not only the state, but also non-state organizations must strive to enforce the common good.32

In a law-abiding democratic establishment, such care by the state of the common good must be incorporated in the constitution, and elaborated on. In this connection, the state can be assigned three tasks:

1) Introducing a legal order binding on all people, who, in accordance with their understanding of the individual nature of man, and the concept of common good, orient themselves on universally applicable elements, or an order that may not contain whatever contradicts such elements.

2) Safeguarding such a lawful space in a society subordinated to the state, and protecting it against both external and internal threats. To that end, both the state and state power, that is, military and police forces are required.

3) Capturing the necessary prerequisites for ensuring, by the social state, of the material welfare of all its members. Law, power and welfare are thus the basic constituents of the common good as a state service.

Already Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas knew that the common good is a basic norm, and the principle, by which the legitimacy of law and politics is judged. In the process of Modernism it became clear that such legitimacy can only be successfully pursued in a democratic way, that is, by leading those concerned, citizens and legislators, to collaborative action in respect to its content.

31 Cf. CA, p. 44. 32 Cf. U. Nothelle-Wildfeuer, Die Sozial prinzipien der Katholischen Soziallehre, p. 147.


250

Anzerbacher concludes that the correctness moral and human rights foundations of Modernism, and, by that token, a precondition for a solidary order of goods oriented towards the common good, principally depends on a definite point of view regarding the man’s nature and destination (as mediated through philosophy and religion).33 This is also evidenced by the design of law and the end target of politics, as well as questions of creed relating to the economy’s social and ethical purpose, or the standing of family in our society. Likewise, the interdisciplinary nature of sciences and the concept for an educational system raise questions relating to the worldview, although a neutral worldview is required in case of political and legal subsystems, so that they do not just become an executive branch of some religion. For this very reason the state should care how the society tackles the questions of worldview, as well as of the human existence and transcendence in its media and the process of training and education. Also, the total output of the media should be judged by the contribution it makes to the common good.34

Christian and secular state

A conviction that political and legal subsystems should coordinate

the operation of other subsystems with a view to achieving an extensive common good is contradicted by those, who (starting from Machiavelli through to Eichmann) claim that politics is just about the technique of gaining, expanding and ensuring the power. From the Christian social perspective, politics is nevertheless conceived as responsible pr axis.35

Oppenheimer asserts that Christians have an option, and/or obligation to participate in the process of secular democratic culture, and even to co-create it. This is referred to as the Christian secularism as an ideal of Christian secular democratic citizenship. Such an ideal has maintained a degree of „differentiated identity“, which enables Christians to concurrently live as Christian believers and citizens of a secular state.36

Secularism and democracy must be universally recognized as political values. This ensures the readiness to accept democratic

33 A. Anzenbacher, Christliche Sozialethik, p. 207. 34 Pastoral instruction written by order of the Second Vatican Council on the means of social communication, Communio et progressio, 16 (1971). See: www.kbs.sk, accessed 12.02.2019. 35 A. Anzenbacher, Christliche Sozialethik, p. 208. 36 Wien (kath. net/KAP), Gegen Abtreibung hilft nur gesellschaftlicher Bewussts einswande (online). 13 September 2010 (quot. 2014-12-30). See: www.kath.net , accessed 12.01.2019.

http://www.kath.net/


251

decisions even in cases where they contradict one’s own beliefs, where a person considers them as deeply unjust and detrimental to the common good. Convicted Catholics should constructively cooperate with those who believe otherwise, thus recognizing the secular nature of a modern democratic citizenship, as well as the legitimacy of political decisions, even though these „might contradict their own beliefs in respect to the real good.37

Christians, in their own view, are at the same time committed and predestined to become a force changing the world. Nevertheless, decisions and laws may only be altered by legal democratic tools, using which people strive to persuade their co-citizens of the meaningfulness of their own position. However, a lot of patience is required for a man to be able to follow such procedure. Oppenheimer talks about „a long-lasting cultural process“. In this process, it is not sufficient to use solely religious arguments on why are we for or against a specific law or a trend. It is much more necessary to arrange rational reasons that can also be accepted by citizens who are non-believers or have different faith.

A Christian should consider their secular citizenship as „a positive challenge, even something normal“. Such an ideal has been repeatedly referred to as Christian secularism.

Public life plurality should not be conceived as a stressful burden, or as something scandalous, but as the outcome of civic freedom. Freedom, although posing certain risks, must be trusted-since history shows that any time humans feared freedom, and disguised it by way of censorship, repressions, or discrimination, such conduct finally yielded bitter fruit. Nevertheless, this so-called double identity is in no case identical with the so-called double life-on the contrary, Christians unambiguously maintain their obligation to courageously voice out their beliefs.

Christians may never abandon their Christian nature with its potential to change the world, contrariwise, with the aid of a well-formed conscience they are invited to actively cooperate in building up the modern world in accordance with their fundamental religious and moral values.

Such changes are however instilled by legal means-by „Christians trying to persuade other citizens about the meaningfulness of their own requirements“ in all the areas they deem as incompatible with the

37 Wien (kath.n et/KAP), Plädoyerfür 'christliche Säkularität' im modernen Staat (online). 14 December 2010 (quot. 2014-12-30). See: Ibidem.


252

common good of human society (fighting against the culture of death manifested by abortion and active euthanasia).

As stressed by Benedict XVI in the Council rules for the interpretation of reform, a distinction has to be made between two levels: the level of principles and the level of their application. Benedict clearly states that thanks to the Second Vatican Council, the Church has accepted substantial aspects of the idea of a modern state, notably its neutrality in terms of religion.

In his interview with Professor Oppenheimer, a journalist by the name of Maksan raises a question: where the state, in its legislative capacity, must constantly make true or false statements, to what extent can morality and law be defended through such quest for the common good?38 InRhonheimer’s view, the state may only punish such deeds that make people’s peaceful and just coexistence in the society either impossible, or at least substantially more difficult. Therefore, the criterion is unambiguously political, i. e. the common good, and not moral in nature. The point is not to bring up people so as to make them good, but to maintain public order, and provide for people’s coexistence in peace and freedom, which also includes a minimum public morality and the validity of criteria of justice resting upon a rational political consensus. The state is only able to keep track of what can be seen from the outside. Only God knows what is going on in the man’s heart, hence the Divine Judgment This protects human law from becoming totalitarian: motivations cannot be punished, only outside attitudes can. Anyway, motives can still be amoral, providing they harm the common good. From this point of view each law has an „educative function“, or put in an even better way, it protects crucial ethic values, thus alleviating and/or aggravating our moral attitudes.

Such an approach is totally impossible in a pluralistic and democratic society, which disallows any laws that disregard majority. Virtuous law of nature is not a positively valid law, but a Meta law, by which the justness of positively valid law can be measured. No one can refer to it just in order to invalidate the positive law. And this is good, unless the state turns lawless.

Here comes another question: Is not such an argument underhandedly critical towards the democracy, since in pursuing the truth, a detour into the majority always has to be made? Oppenheimer principally notes that what matters is not the truth, but the common

38 O. Maksan, 'Der Staat fällt keine Wahrheitsurteile' (online). Wien (kath.net/KAP), p. 6. December 2010 (quot. 2014-12-30), available at: Ibidem.


253

good! Such majority-based decision-making is not a detour, but the most straightforward way of practically ensuring the common good. It does not involve any cynical pragmatism or resignation, but expresses the conditions for political conduct. In the event that this majority principle is removed, everything would become much more complicated. What would be replaced? Enlightened or Christian monarch or a politburo? Who would legitimize them? Who would empower them? In addition, it will in no way guarantee just laws, rather the opposite way round. The principle of democratic majority is the most transparent and direct way of achieving rational political decisions. Statements on what is good and just are also constituted by, or depend on consensus, and this equally pertains to the common good, and is a precondition for peaceful coexistence.

In conclusion Maksan tries to defend a view that the state is a moral idea that enables us to advance our social nature. It is therefore more than the mere sum of its members. Oppenheimer agrees, but only when it comes to decisions depending on individuals! Calling the state a moral idea may prove dangerous. In the past, this has lead people to make the mistake of waiving their civic responsibility. In the final analysis, morality of the state and of its institutions, which is more than the sum of its members, lives on the morality of its citizens, on the moral nature of our society, as argued by a philosopher of law and German constitutional court judge, professor Böckenförde. The man’s social nature is accomplished not only through their citizenship and identification with a supreme authority (establishment) or nation, but also in their family, at worksite, and via different social networks of the civic society. When it comes to the common good, the sense of duty is tried. So Christians must change the society and the hearts of people. Only then can we be granted different laws, or help to make them such!

This objectively justifies the existence of conscientious objection.

Religions principles and a modern society In this particular section we like to give one special example of

possibility of common life of different theories about a common good’s principle. That because an existing common good can be different from a conviction of certain members or groups of civil society. If a faith or conscience of somebody can not to be prepare to accept a law imposed by lawgiver like a parliament, in this case is very good possibility to have a right to turn to conscientious objection.


254

On the individual level, modern states guarantee equal treatment before the law, religious freedom (to choose religion, belief or not to choose any) and neutrality where information about religious beliefs is not an essential public matter or public interest. Belief should not be criteria in recruiting civil servants as state should treat everyone neutrally (in creating a law or policy or applying a law).39

Even concepts previously based mostly on religious grounds, arising from conflicts of different religions or out of tolerance and respect between them are nowadays more often based on principles of religious freedom, equality and neutrality such as conscientious objection.40 Certain modern authors means that conscience is autonomous, independent from ideology or religion, it has its own legitimacy.41

Conscientious objection is not a new phenomenon in political or legal theory. Far from that. It is embedded in the „classic conflict“ betweeniusnaturalist and positivist concept of law. Whereas iusnaturalism, generally speaking, tends to embrace the idea of disobedience towards law in order to comply with the imperative of conscience which is considered the ultimate source of guidance that should be followed by laws; positivist conceptions tend to disregard conscientious objection on the grounds it is not a right and should not be recognized as one.

Therefore, it may seem that conscientious objection is not vivid subject in secular state anymore. Nevertheless, although we are common with the problem of disobedience almost since Antigona had refused to comply with Kreon’s order and buried her beloved brother, conscience has still its relevance. However, it has changed. Examining modern conflict of individual’s morality and laws shows that

a) the distinction between iusnaturalism and positivism suggests the evolution in the phenomena of conscientious objection from being regarded as an illegal act (contra legem) towards some forms that are

39 C. Proeschel, "Výhradavosvedomí a sociálnasúdržnosť/Constientious objection and social cohesion", in M. Moravčíková (ed.) Výhradavosvedomí-Constientious objection, Trnava, Ústav pre vzťahyštátu a cirkví, 2007, p. 144. Cf. Iuliu-Marius Morariu, "Bioethics in the discussions of the Pan-Orthodox Synode from Crete (2016)", in Astra Salvensis, IV, no. 7, (2016), p. 251. 40 L. Madleňáková, Výhrada svědomí. Jako součást svobody myšlení, svědomí a náboženského vyznání (Constientious objection as part of freedom of thought, conscience and denomination), Praha, Linde, p. 65. 41 C. Proeschel, Výhrada vo svedomí a sociálna súdržnosť (Constientious objection and social cohesion), pp. 144-145.


255

regarded exceptional but recognized as being in accordance with law (secundumlegem)

b) conscientious objection does not cover only acts expressing religious beliefs, it takes into consideration acts driven by other motives than religious ones

c) it expanded into new areas which I will speak about mostly about today, that is-healthcare or area of bioethics study in general (cases of vaccination, in vitro fertilization-assisted reproduction, euthanasia, blood transfusion).

The definition of conscientious objection Conflict is what defines conscientious objection as it arises

from conflict between individual’s morality and enforceable law, from conflict of obligations or loyalties.42 This conflict results in „refusing to comply with the law (legal obligation) which is enforced by authorities or required by legal norms „in the name of“ conscience that opposes such acts and implies supremacy of moral rule over legal rule.“43

Furthermore, some authors note that every act of conscientious objection must display certain essential features such as non violent act, higher law justification-axiological motivation, an act must be public.44

Vincenzo Turchi, however, observes the methamorphosis of conscientious objection from an act of Antigona that is legitimate, refers to „Law“ and principles that should be followed because it highlights the difference between legality and legitimacy to modern objections which are arbitrary and extrema ratio in plural societies with cohabiting diverse identities. Nevertheless, he still finds the common basis in modern era which is according to him-human dignity represented in human conscience and guaranteed in modern constitutions.45

That means he describes several forms of conscientious objection a) conscientious objection that in Dworkin words „test the law“

(conscientious objection contra legem)

42 V. Turchi, "Všeobecnýpojem „výhradasvedomia“ Talianskaprávnaskúsenosť s odvolanímsanaporovnávacieprávo (The general concept of „constientious objection“. Italian legal experience with reference to comparative law)", in M. Moravčíková (ed.), Výhradavosvedomí-Constientious objection, Trnava, Ústav pre vzťahyštátu a cirkví, 2007, p. 19. 43 C. Proeschel, "Výhradavosvedomí a sociálnasúdržnosť/Constientious objection and social cohesion", pp. 144-145. 44 V. Turchi, "Všeobecnýpojem „výhradasvedomia“, p. 19. See also J. Rawls, Spravodlivosť ako férovosť (Justice as fairness), Bratislava, Kalligram, 2007. 45 V. Turchi, "Všeobecnýpojem „výhradasvedomia“, pp. 23-24.


256

b) conscientious objection that is respected by state and substitutes one obligation with an alternative (conscientious objections secundumlegem)

c) conscientious objection as a tool of recognition of collective identities

d) conscientious objection-as an outcome of modern democracy that upholds legality and improves legislation.46

In the regard of recognized objection Lucia Madleňaková emphasizes important difference between conscientious objection which is an act, a decision, a result of internal conflict and right to conscientious objection that provides an option to refuse legal obligation on the grounds of the decision of conscientious objector.47

Conscientious objection in healthcare

Is it a right to apply conscientious objection in health care in

Slovakia? Conscientious objection of medical professionals and healthcare workers is guaranteed by international multilateral treaties such Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 18 and Covenant on Civil and Political Rights as well as through Health Care Act and Ethical Code of Healthcare Professionals. It is conceived as a dimension of freedom of thought, conscience and religion and taking into consideration its regulation it might be considered as recognized by law.

Nevertheless patients’ objection is not regulated by any Act, yet medical and healthcare professionals’ objection has its flaws. Since it is framework legislation comparing to Italy it does not regulate any details how to apply objections and most importantly how to proceed in the situation when objection was applied. Should a physician provide a referral?

According to principles guiding application of objection in secular society: objection may affect only an objector and cause no harm to third party. Secondly, conscientious objection secundumlegem still requires demonstration of loyalty towards law by imposing alternative-different legal obligation. In our opinion, that must also be a case in conscientious objection in healthcare, in particular in reproductive medicine. All others decisions need a process described higher in the section „Christian and secular state“.

46 Ibidem, pp. 24-25. 47 L. Madleňáková, Výhrada svědomí, p. 67.


257

Attempted conclusion Anzerbacher infers that even the Christian social ethics is unable

to offer any alternative projects other than the ones offered in the modern times. It may however commit itself to the common good, social justice and social establishment of good so as to be able to cooperate with modern projects, recognizing them as legitimate. In this way, the Christian social ethics will be able to more clearly manifest the humanitarian goals, providing that it accomplishes the process in modern conditions and with modern tools. But in interpreting this process, it must defend an opposition that establishes the Revelation’s social dimension. Then we shall see that even the roots of such a modern project originate from Christian motifs.48

However, subjective rights are not any absolute rights subordinated to the common good, but they are principal rights in service of the common good, and as such they need to be legitimized.49 This is based on the possibility of integrating them into a project dealing with the conditions for recognizing the common good, which, along solidarity lines, puts the person’s status in terms of human rights on a universal basis.

Also, the secularization of state, upheld over a long historic period against the opposition by Christian churches, is the historical consequence of Christianity. At the end of the day it pursues dualism of two kingdoms, the polarity of immanence and transcendence, of the Church and state, as well as of the law and conscience. However, the state is no longer societa perfecta as conceived by Aristotle or St. Thomas Aquinas.50 We therefore believe that the secular process nowadays equally provides a positive challenge for religions, and the search for an answer to the question of common good. In the process, conscientious objection not only helps us to maintain the identity in this relativistic environment of no simple truth, but also hope that universal norms will be preserved.

48 A. Anzenbacher, Christliche Sozialethik, p. 124. 49 A. F. Utz, Sozialethik, p. 4. 50 Cf. J. Isensee, Staat, p. 756.


258


259

Ştiinţe sociale/ Social Sciences


260


261

PROFESSIONAL RETRAINING OF PEDAGOGICAL AND MANAGERIAL PERSONNEL AS A PERSPECTIVE

DIRECTION OF THE SYSTEM OF IDENTIFICATION DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT OF GIFTED CHILDREN

AND YOUTH

Svetlana Novikova, Irina Mushkina, Galina Romanova, Irina Ukraintseva, Elena Shmeleva

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education ,,Sochi State University”, Sochi, Russian Federation

Education Center ,,Sirius”, Sochi, Russian Federation Abstract: The purpose of the study: an independent evaluation of the professional

retraining programs quality and organization of the dialogue between the community of employers and educational organizations; to improve the quality of the pedagogical and managerial personnel professional retraining; to develop the system for the identification and support of gifted children and young people. Research methods: The leading method for the study of this problem is the accreditation expertise method. Experts of the working group of FSBEI HE Sochi State University and students of the programs of the professional retraining of pedagogical and managerial personnel took part in the research. Research results: Organization and holding of the professional retraining programs of pedagogical and managerial personnel that implement programs to identify, train and support gifted children and young people in the region. Significance of the study: the study presents the results of the system indicators development to evaluate the project goals and objectives achievement by monitoring the learner’s enrolment; educational process; synthesis of experts’ opinions and format for the decision preparation.

Keywords: expertise, organizational-methodical support, professional retraining, the identification and support of gifted children and youth, efficiency criteria, expert decision.

Now the role of additional professional education system for

teachers has been actualized, the primary purpose of which is recognized as:

-development of vocational and personal qualities of teaching staff; -satisfaction of real educational needs of teachers; -increasing the general and vocational-pedagogical culture of a teacher. The problems of the education efficiency determining and, in

particular, the professional retraining as additional education for adults are the meaningful issues. Their consideration and solution require


262

taking into account not only, the standard of the profession, but also the rapidly changing realities of life.

General approaches to defining the content and characteristic of adult education results are presented in the works of native scientists. Nowadays there are not many works that characterize the educational results of the professional retraining of pedagogical and managerial personnel in the system for the identification and support of gifted children and youth.1

Analysis of a number of studies, as well as of regulatory and legal documents in the field of additional professional education, allows to characterize refresher training as a process aimed at gaining the additional knowledge and skills by the students, necessary to implement changes in their professional activity, or to realize its other kinds. In the situation of refresher training a professional context is mastered, fundamentally different to the prior gained education and experience.2

Refresher training is a professional education that is directly connected with the subsequent realization of professional activity on another level of performance. In its nature it is additional to the basic vocational education, the existence of which is presented by a diploma. The necessity of constant training of teachers is dictated by the need for the expeditious and intensive development of new activities by the specialists to identify and support gifted children and young people.3

1 N. Balyk, O. Barna, G. Shmyger, V. Oleksiuk, "Model of professional retraining of teachers based on the development of STEM competencies", in Proceedings of CEUR Workshop, no. 2104, (2018), pp. 318-331; A. J. Boulton, A. Williford, "Analyzing skewed continuous outcomes with many zeros: A tutorial for social work and youth prevention science researchers", in Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, IX, no. 4, (2018), pp. 721-740; K. E. Larson, E. T. Pas, C. P. Bradshaw, M. S. Rosenberg, N. I. Day-Vines, "Examining how proactive management and culturally responsive teaching relate to student behavior: Implications for measurement and practice", in School Psychology Review, 47, no. 2, (2018), pp. 153-166. 2 A. Lohbeck, G. Hagenauer, A. C. Frenzel, "Teachers' self-concepts and emotions: Conceptualization and relations", in Teaching and Teacher Education, no. 70, (2018), pp. 111-120; N. N. Vasyagina, S. A. Vasyagina, A. V. Seryy, "Features of professional and personal orientation of the teacher", in Astra Salvensis, VI, no. 12, (2018), pp. 141-153; R. J. Sternberg, "Direct Measurement of Scientific Giftedness", in Roeper Review, 40, no. 2, (2018), pp. 78-85. 3 N. A. Mazilina, "Didactic conditions for training of a competent specialist in the system of Secondary Vocational Education", in Secondary Vocational Education, no. 11, (2006), pp. 34-35; I. A. Mushkina, S. S. Novikova, I. I. Ukraintseva, "The basis of Secondary Vocational Education students professional self-determination", in Proceedings of the international scientific conference "Methods and mechanisms for implementing the competence approach in psychology and pedagogy", no. 8, (2017), pp. 51-53; E. V. Yakovlev, Theory and practice of university quality management, Chelyabinsk, Chelyabinsk State University Press,


263

Into the retraining program one may include the following categories of learners:

1) the teachers of regional centers on identification and support of gifted schoolchildren;

2) the teachers of general and additional education system, working on the preparation of students for competitions (Olympiads, contests, conferences) on the high level;

3) the high school teachers providing vocational guidance, selection and support of the gifted youth at the pre-university education stages and training at the junior courses;

4) the managers who are responsible for implementing the programs to identify and support gifted children and young people in the region.

In the process of mastering the program a listener will possess the competencies and skills to effectively implement the educational programs for gifted children and young people:

1) can build (and justify) the model of giftedness, allowing to design effective educational environments and programs;

2) will develop valuable bases for designing educational environments for gifted youth in the context of the 21st century educational request;

3) will identify the design patterns for the short-term intensive specialized programs; the programs of additional education;

4) will study the organization peculiarities of research and project work with gifted children;

5) will master the methodology on the preparation of students for competitions (Olympiads, competitions, festivals) at the Russian and international level (the highest level of qualification);

6) will develop a package of methodological materials for their implementation within the framework of the activities of the Regional Centre on the work with gifted children (specialized program, educational module, club association program);

7) will learn through his/her own educational practice a range of modern educational technologies (case study, critical thinking at reading and writing, scientific debates, etc.);

8) will take part in designing the educational environment for the implementation of the programs for gifted learners;

2000. p. 181; S. I. Gilmanshina, F. D. Khalikova, Y. A. Cherkashina, I. R. Gilmanshin, "Formation of the future engineering chemical elite in lyceums for gifted adolescents at universities", in Proceedings of IOP Conference, Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 412, no. 1, (2018), pp. 48-55.


264

9) will undertake a study in the laboratory; 10) as a part of the project team will develop a project of the

scientific and technological orientation; 11) as a part of the authors team will develop an educational

resource of new generation (including distance education system); 12) internship will take place on the key types of educational

process organization (input analysis, verification of works, consulting project teams, etc.).4

Professional retraining program can be modular in nature, can be generated by the learner by choice (in the part of the calendar period of full-time subject module studying), and contains basic and variable parts.5

Implementation in the full-time and part-time forms, at that not less than half of the program content is mastered distantly.

1) A learner performs the work on the educational program or distance education module development (based on the submitted samples) as well as its implementation in the educational environment in his/her region (the subject of the work is submitted to the employer’s approval and confirmed by the program council).

2) According to the results of the training each participant is interviewed according to the materials of the works, performed during the educational process.

3) The presentation form of the results: the developed educational program, report on the presented program testing.

The main directions of the program can be: "Biology", "Computer Science",6 "Mathematics",7 "Physics", "Chemistry", "Philology", "Management".8

4 I. Rissanen, E. Kuusisto, E. Hanhimaki, K. Tirri, "Teachers’ Implicit Meaning Systems and Their Implications for Pedagogical Thinking and Practice: A Case Study from Finland", in Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 62, no. 4, (2018), pp. 487-500; S. Moran, "Purpose-in-action education: Introduction and Implications", in Journal of Moral Education, 47, no. 2, (2018), pp. 145-158. 5 G. Fournier, C. Gauthier, E. Perron, H Zimmermann, L. Lachance, "Processus de reconversion professionnelle de travailleur: Entrele de uildumétieret le désirderéin vestirsavie autrement", in Orientation Scolaireet Professionelle, 46, no. 3, (2017), pp. 363-399. 6 F. M. Zakirova, S. K. Pozilova, "Creative learning with inprofessional development courses for IT-teachers of higher educational institutions", in Novosibirsk State Pedagogical University Bulletin, 8, no. 3, (2018), pp. 23-36. 7 D. N. Munahefi, S. B. Waluya, "Rochmad analysis of creative mathematic thinking ability in problem based learning model based on self-regulation learning. Creative learning with professional development courses for IT-teachers of higher educational institutions", in Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 983, no. 1, (2018), pp. 57-62.

https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=57194027637&zone=

https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85045639771&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&nlo=&nlr=&nls=&sid=3074024b07578912b480ca7c3a62bd36&sot=a&sdt=a&sl=15&s=gifted+children&relpos=710&citeCnt=0&searchTerm=


https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/130053?origin=resultslist


265

Materials and Methods Any professional retraining program shall be subjected to the

evaluation procedure. The contents of additional professional programs must take into account the professional standards, qualification requirements specified in the skilled manuals on the corresponding positions, professions and specialties, or qualifying requirements for professional knowledge and skills required for the performance of official duties.

Expertise of the programs is carried out by the team of professionals taking part in the independent expertise implementation of the additional professional education programs. In our study, the expert group included: 2 doctors of science, 4 candidates of science of FSBEI HE Sochi State University with the specialized education.

Expertise functions: helps the specialists, professional and teaching staff to formulate the main idea of the program, supports the teacher’s innovative search, stimulates the professional growth and productivity of the study, estimates on the basis of a set of basic and specific criteria.

Criterion is a sign, on the basis of which one makes an assessment of the educational program compliance with the requirements of the professional standards, to the labor market requirements to specialists, workers and employees of the corresponding specialization. Indicators by the criterion are directly estimated signs of the educational program, which aggregate gives an opportunity to evaluate the program by this criterion.

The reason for the expertise criteria of the professional retraining program were the regulations: of the Federal law "On education",9 the order "On approval of the procedure and organization, and the implementation of educational activities for additional professional programs",10 the criteria for the evaluation of educational programs formulated in the requirements specification for the methodology design

8 O. V. Shatunova, E. E. Merzon, "Social and psychological factors of influence on athletic progress of gifted students in non-sporting academic disciplines", in Teoriya i Praktika Fizicheskoy Kultury, no. 3, (2018), pp. 12-14. 9 Federal Law, "On Education" 273-FZ of December 29, 2012 with amendments in 2018. 10 Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (Ministry of Education and Science of Russia) of July 1, 2013 N 499 Moscow "On approval of the procedure for organizing and conducting educational activities for additional professional programs".




266

(table 1), prepared by the working group experts; the sample methodology, prepared by the working group experts. (table 2).

Table 1: Requirements specification

№in order

Name of the event. Quantity specification of

the work

Results

1 Development of the analytical reference for the study of the educational space in order to identify and support gifted children and young people in the Russian Federation.

Not less than 1,5 sheet, 1 presentation.

Analytical report "Study of the educational space in order to identify and support gifted children and young people in the Russian Federation".

2 Estimation of the predictable risks, possible ways of preventing and minimizing the negative effects of the project implementation.

1 presentation. Presentation.

3 Development of the requirements specification on pedagogical and managerial personnel retraining in order to implement the programs of identification and support of gifted children and youth.

1 requirements specification.

Requirements specification developed and agreed with MES of RF.

4 The auction holding for the right to conclude a contract on rendering services of pedagogical and managerial personnel retraining in order to implement the programs of identification and support of gifted children and youth.

Organization of 1 auction.

The contract conclusion with the service provider.

5 Development of the system of indicators to estimate of the goal and objectives of the project.

Methodology ofthe system of indicators to estimate the achievement of the goal and objectives of the project.

Survey of learners.

6 Monitoring of the enrollment of learners.

From 10 and more regions.

Reporting in MES of RF.

7 The retraining program implementation.

Formation of the package of educational and methodic provision of the program.

The educational program implementation.

8 The concluding attestation holding Quantitative The concluding


267

by the results of the program mastering

analysis of the results of the concluding attestation (at least 5indicators).

attestation holding.

9 The monitoring organization of the educational process.

Work on the preparation of 1 report.

Report on the monitoring conducting.

10 Presentation of the vocational retraining diplomas to the learners, who successfully completed the educational program.

The qualification documents were issued.

The order of dismissal of the learners.

11 Sizing up on the retraining program conducting

Reporting on the program results.

The report adoption in MES of RF.

Table 2: Expertise criteria

Expertise subject Expertise criteria

Orientation of the program

Compliance of the program focus on improving and (or) obtaining a new competence necessary for professional activity, and (or) increasing a professional level within the present qualification.

Structure of the program Presence of the following components in the program: - list of professional competences in the framework of the present qualification, qualitative change of which takes place as a result of training in accordance with the program structure; - objective; - planned results of the training; - syllabus; - training program; - organizational and pedagogical conditions; - form of attestation; - evaluation materials.

Structure of the syllabus Presence of the following components in the syllabus; - listing, distribution and sequence of the sections, topics (modules), other types of learning activity of the learners; - term of study/labor intensiveness; - form of attestation.

Content of the program Compliance of the program content with: - the professional standard "Teacher", the qualification requirements for educators on appropriate positions, or qualification requirements to professional knowledge and skills; -abilities to achieve the expected results of the program mastering and obtaining the new competencies (professional skills), declared in the program.

Term of the program mastering

- compliance of the term of the program mastering with the ability to achieve the expected results of its mastering and obtaining the new competencies (professional skills), declared in the program; - compliance of the term of the program mastering with the requirement to the minimum allowable term.

Category of learners Compliance of the learners’ education with the required level-complete/incomplete secondary professional and (or) higher education.

The forms of the program realization

Compliance of the forms of the program realization with the possible forms: traditional organization of training, training in the


268

form of internship, distance learning, e-learning, learning on the individual curriculum, network learning.

Types of training classes and educational works

Representation of the training classes and educational works from the list in the program: lectures, practical and seminar lessons, labs, round tables, workshops, business games, role-playing, trainings, seminars to exchange experience, visiting classes, consulting, execution of attestation, project work, etc.

Concluding attestation Compliance of the attestation forms and assessment materials with the expected results of the program mastering.

Expertise is carried out in accordance with the group of criteria

established by the basic principles with the clarifications that are just for professional retraining of pedagogical and managerial personnel in the system of identification and support of gifted children and youth.

In addition, the expertise of the program includes the following sections:

In the first section “General characteristics of the program” the structure of the program, its total volume, and its modular nature are analyzed.

The second section “Basic requirements to the content and structure of the set of teaching materials” provides a list of specific criteria and benchmarking indicators.

Evaluation and content of the structure of the set of teaching materials is conducted on 15 criteria, each has from 1 to 3 indicators.

Evaluation of criteria and indicators of the content and structure of the set of teaching materials of the following point system:

0 points is exposed when the criterion does not manifest, manifests sometimes or is poorly expressed;

1 points-rarely and insufficiently expressed; 2 points-often and quite expressed; 3 points-always and brightly expressed. Each indicator in all the groups is assigned with a weight

coefficient based on the meaning content of indicators and comparability of their significance. Weight coefficient determines the degree of indicator influence on the quality and effectiveness of the set of teaching materials, and in the light of which the integrated result is calculated. Weighting coefficients of the partial criteria were established by experts and accepted by equal values.

The main requirements for the content and structure of the set of teaching materials are shown in table 3.

Table 3: The main requirements for the content and structure of

the set of teaching materials

https://context.reverso.net/%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4/%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9-%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9/A+set+of+teaching+materials


269

Criteria and indicators Point Weight coefficient Result

Abstract Relevance and novelty

Goal-setting The presence of clearly and diagnostically specified goal

Tasks Tasks specify the goal Tasks do not correspond to the theme, the goal of the program

Competences, generated in the process of implementing programs

Teaching load Rational distribution of hours by the forms and kinds of classes Misallocation of hours by the forms and kinds of classes

Methods and technologies of teaching Diversity of the presented methods and technologies

Requirements to the learners meet the qualifying characteristics of the target audience

Requirements to the results of the program mastering Requirements formulated in accordance with the presented objectives

The content of the program sections Name of the sections is fully reflected in the content of the program

Forms and kinds of control

Variety of forms and kinds of control is presented (input survey, methods and forms of reflection) Survey example shown in tables 4, 5

Test questions for quality control of learner training by the program

Requirements for the graduation work of a learner

Instructor’s manual is presented for the graduation work execution (0-3)

Criteria for evaluating the graduation work is presented (0-3)

Educational-methodical provision of the course promotes the quality mastering of the provided material.

Abstracts of lectures and demonstration materials to them

Methodical instructions to all the practical lessons and laboratory works (include the theoretical part; assignments to each lesson and algorithm of their performance; control questions)

Methodical instructions for the independent work of the learners (problematic issues; a list of information sources; forms of presentation of the work results)

Total points


270

The third section "Guidelines for authors" includes the comments

of experts-specialists in the subject area, and recommendations for the further improvement of the program.

The fourth section-"Final conclusion". According to the results of the performed work a final conclusion is submitted on the possibility or impossibility of a positive evaluation of the program.

During the development of the program, expertise and feedback questionnaires we have taken into account the experience of the native and foreign studies.11

Table 4: Sample feedback questionnaires by the modules

Questionnaire

Assessment of the training ability of the module Title of the module:

___________________________________________________ Surname, name, patronymic, profession of an expert

________________________________________________________ Evaluation criteria Comment

Subject content of the module (relevance, maturity, novelty)

Motivation to action (meaningful challenges, problematic situations, practical relevance.)

11 Y. L. Zhukovskiy, N. I., Koteleva, M. S. Kovalchuk, "Development of course feedback questionnaires of continuing professional education in the mining industry", in Innovation-Based Development of the Mineral Resources Sector: Proceedings of 11th conference of the Russian-German Raw Materials, no. 1, (2018), pp. 589-597; I. R. Gilmanshin, S. I. Gilmanshina, "Technology of e-learning in the university education", in Proceedings of IOP Conference, Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 412, no. 1, (2018), pp. 112-118; I. R. Gilmanshin, S. I. Gilmanshina, "Stages of formation of scientific thinking ofstudents in terms of engineering education at the university", in Proceedings of IOP Conference, pp. 69-75; R. H. Stupnisky, N. C. Hall, L. M. Daniels, E. Mensah, "Testing a Model of Pretenure Faculty Members’ Teaching and Research Success: Motivation as a Mediator of Balance, Expectations, and Collegiality", in Journal of Higher Education, 88, no. 3, (2017), pp. 376-400; S. Koshova, V., Horachuk, V., Pishchykov, "Psychological features of the motivation component in the training of doctors in the system of postgraduate education", Wiadomosci lekarskie, 71, no. 3, (2018), pp. 723-727; Z. Jamil, S. S. Fatima, A. A. Saeed, "Preclinical medical students' perspective on technology enhanced assessment for learning", in Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association 68, no. 6, (2018), pp. 898-903; R. J. Sternberg, "Direct Measurement of Scientific Giftedness", in Roeper Review, 40, no. 2, (2018), pp. 78-85.



https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=7102020106&zone=




271

Research independence of the learners (kinds of works, share in comparison with the teacher’s initiative)

Project independence of the learners (kinds of works, share in comparison with the teacher’s initiative)

Ideas for using the content in the educational process

Table 5: Questionnaire of indicators for evaluating the achievement of the goal and objectives of the project

Indicators for evaluating the achievement of the goal and objectives of the project

Please rate the level of difficulty of the learning content for you personally 5 – very high, 4 − high enough, 3 – medium, 2 − below average, 1 − low

min Scale of assessment max

1 2 3 4 5

Your comment:

Please give an assessment of the quality of teaching materials on the program 5 − very good, 4 − good enough, 3 – acceptably, 2 – insufficient, 1 − bad


1 2 1 2

Your comment:

Your opinion about the work of the program teaching staff 5 –excellent, 4-good, 3- acceptably, 2-below average, 1-bad


1 2 3 4 5

Your comment:

Which of the topics included in this program seemed the most useful to you, in terms of the application of the acquired knowledge in the professional activity, and how much it


1 2 1 2


272

Results and Discussion

With the introduction of criteria for detailed evaluation and self-

evaluation of the additional professional retraining program for pedagogical and managerial personnel, in the system of identification and support of gifted children and young people, the authors of the methodology:

-analyzed the specification of the criteria for the professional retraining program of pedagogical and managerial personnel in the system of identification and support of gifted children and young people;

-defined the lists of indicators that are set in the sample methodology and the requirements specification for the development

1) Explanatory note to the report on the program of professional retraining of pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support of gifted children and young people.

2) Order of the program conducting of professional retraining of pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support of gifted children and youth № 72/1 of April 11, 2018.

3) Regulations on the Competition commission to conduct the competitive selection for pedagogical and managerial personnel admission to the retraining program for implementation of the programs on the identification and support of gifted children and young people on the basis of the Educational center "SIRIUS” (504 hours).

interested you? 1 – not interested at all, 5 − aroused the highest interest

Your comment:

Did the Program meet your expectations in general? 5 − completely met, 4 − rather yes than no, 3 – neutral, 2 − rather no than yes, 1 − did not meet at all


1 2 1 2

Your comment:

What institutional proposals you could mention?

Your suggestions and recommendations for the organizers of the program


273

4) Order of enrolment of learners for the professional retraining program of pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support of gifted children and youth № 73/1 of April 12, 2018.

5) Order of dismissal of the learners from the professional retraining program for pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support of gifted children and youth № 148/2 of June 26, 2018.

6) Order of enrolment of learners to the professional retraining program for pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support of gifted children and youth (supplementary list) № 152/2 of June 30, 2018.

7) Teaching staff of the program. 8) Event schedule (schedule of classes) of full-time sessions: -The full-time session program "E-learning and training of school-

children to participate in the high rating contests, competitions, Olympiads" (specialization "Mathematics").

-The full-time session program "E-learning and training of school-children to participate in the high rating contests, competitions, Olympiads" (specialization "Informatics").

-Event schedule of the full-time session "Project and research methods of cognition".

-The full-time session program "E-learning and training of school-children to participate in the high rating contests, competitions, Olympiads" (specialization "Chemistry").

-The full-time session program "E-learning and training of school-children to participate in the high rating contests, competitions, Olympiads" (specialization "Physics").

-The full-time session program "E-learning and training of school-children to participate in the high rating contests, competitions, Olympiads" (specialization "Management").

-The full-time session program "E-learning and training of school-children to participate in the high rating contests, competitions, Olympiads" (specialization "Biology").

9) Report on mastering of the distance modules. 10) Methodical recommendations for the processing of graduation

examination works on the retraining program "Big challenges". 11) Order of approving the topics of the graduation examination

works for learners of the professional retraining program of pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on


274

identification and support of gifted children and youth, and assignment of the scientific supervisors.

12) Order of approving the membership of the certification commission of the professional retraining program for pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support of gifted children and youth.

13) Order of admission of learners to the concluding attestation of the professional retraining program of pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support of gifted children and youth.

14) Order of graduation of learners of the professional retraining program of pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support talented children and youth.

15) Meeting minutes of the Concluding certification commission of the retraining program for pedagogical and managerial personnel for implementation of the programs on identification and support of talented children and youth of November 28, 2018.

16) The registry of issuing the diplomas on vocational retraining. 17) Copies of the diplomas on vocational retraining. 18) Photo report (submitted in the electronic form). In our research the experience of development and

implementation of the programs and the experience of conducting the expertise educational retraining programs were taken into account, considering the demands of the requirements specification.

The program, submitted for expertise, demonstrates the quality of the educational-methodical base, possibility to use the infrastructure of the educational organization and receive the most up-to-date knowledge with the use of the advanced techniques, which are fundamental in mastering the professional retraining program for pedagogical and managerial personnel in the system of identification and support of gifted children and young people, by the authors of the method.

A thorough analysis of the program, undertaken in our study, has allowed committing a wide range of the set goals and objectives of refresher training. In such a diversity of proposals there is the possibility of choosing the subject-matters, problematic of courses, their informative content.

Results of the study will be presented in the methodical recommendations.


275

FORMATION OF MENTAL SET OF SUBJECTS OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION FOR MANAGEMENT BY THE

CORRECTION GAME METHOD

Vitalii Bocheliuk, Mykyta Panov, Valentyna Nechyporenko, Ellina Pozdniakova-Kyrbiatieva Zaporozhye National Technical University, Zaporizhzhia

Municipal Institution of Higher Education, Zaporizhia, Ukraine Khortytsia National Educational Rehabilitation Academy of Zaporizhzhia Regional Council, Zaporizhzhia, Zaporizhia,

Ukraine

Abstract: The relevance of the research: the article is devoted to the problem of formation of mental set of educational activities participants for management of higher educational institutions, namely the refusal of the command-bureaucratic style of leadership that is relevant and necessary in these days. The aim of the research: the sense of this process is the formation of mental set of participants of educational activities for management of higher educational institutions, restructuring of certain personal characteristics - the conceptual and value orientations of each subject of management and the clarification of the impact of this restructuring on their age, intellectual and characterological peculiarities. At the same time, the effectiveness of this kind of management is conditioned not only by changing goals, tasks and methods of activity, but also by formation of a positive I-concept of a manager. Research methods: in accordance with the stated goal-to determine the ways of mental set formation of participants of educational activities for management of higher educational institutions, we have developed and experimentally tested the system of psychological factors and conditions of the formation of this kind of mental set. Results: we offer a correction game, which is carried out in the natural conditions of the activities of participant of educational process as the way of psychological and managerial training. In its external form it is an event that can be carried out by any participant of an educational process with a high level of mental set for managing activity and a psychologist with a subject who is not ready for it. Significance of the research: our proposed corrective measure for increasing the level of mental set of participants in educational activities for management of higher educational institutions has proved its expediency and effectiveness at the level of the managerial process.

Keywords: mental set formation, management, correction game, higher education institute.

Management in the recent past considered to be a process of command and bureaucratic leadership. Herewith, a monopolistic and multilevel linear functional structure was used. The management process was carried out on the basis of a strict form of organization with the use of administrative means of management and strict hierarchical links. There was an unconditional subordination of lower management levels to the higher ones, the neutralization of horizontal link forms,


276

orientation to power, order, control, but not to motivation. Such an administrative command and bureaucratic management led to a low organizational culture, the introduction of hard vertical links and underestimation of the independence of the government subjects. This article is devoted to this actual problem.

Literature review

Necessary background for solving the problem of higher educational institutions management creates certain groups of research. Some aspects of the psychologists and educators research are related to our research the most directly. Among them there are A. V. Voznyuk,1 P. E. Herchanivska,2 Des Derlow,3 S. B. Zharaia,4 L. M. Karamushka,5 S. L. Markov,6 I. R. Petrovskaia,7 N. I. Pinchuk,8 G. Ponomareva9 and others. We formed the psychological mental set of participants in educational activities for management of higher educational institutions by the method of correction game. There are games for people without any experience in practical work and for its improvement. The scientists M.

1 A. V. Voznyuk, “Model of psychological training of managers for the management of pedagogical workers in educational districts”, in S. D. Maksimenko, L. M. Karamushki (Eds.), volume 1, Organizational Psychology. Economic psychology: Social Psychology, 42, (2015), pp. 44-48, Kiev, Institute of Psychology named after G. S. Kostiuk NAPS of Ukraine, 2015. 2 P. E. Herchanivska, Culture of management: teaching manual, Kiev, ICTS Publishing House “Politekhnika”, 2005. 3 Des. Derlow, Key management decisions: Technology of Decision Making, Kiev, Naukova dumka, 2017. 4 S. B. Zharaia, “Development of communicative competence of heads of educational organizations in the system of postgraduate education”, in Current problems of public administration, pedagogy and psychology, 1 (8), (2016), pp. 77-81. 5 L. M. Karamushka, Psychology of Educational Management: teaching manual, Kiev, Lybid’, 2014. 6 S. L. Markov, “Psychological factors of managerial competence of the manager”, in S. D. Maksimenko, L. M. Karamushki (Eds.), volume 1, Organizational Psychology. 7 I. R. Petrovskaia, “On the Problem of Personal Development of Educational Leaders”, in Conf. Proc. on Management in Education, April 14-16, 2011, pp. 247-248. 8 N. I. Pinchuk, “Content and components of psychological training of managers and staff of educational organizations for work with gifted children in postgraduate pedagogical education”, in S. D. Maksimenko, L. M. Karamushki (Eds.), volume 1, Organizational Psychology. 9 G. Ponomareva, “Formation of the pedagogical professionogram: traditions and innovations of the high school”, in V. I. Sipchenko (ed.), volume 3, Ch. 2, Humanization of the educational process: collection of scientific papers, Slavyansk, SDPU, 2015, pp. 33-40.


277

Banks, A. Grum, A. Oppingheim,10 R. N. Maydment, R. N. Bronshtein,11 R. Mendel,12 who developed business and pretend game, note that as a result of the game, its participants learn the technique of decision-making, understand the need for theoretical training for practical work.

T. M. Khlebnikova,13 Ch. Elgger14 say, that according to this game, they get familiar with the problems and difficulties that may occur in real activity. As R. Dawson15 notes, it develops the skills of interaction with others participants. According to L. Olivas and I.V. Newstrom,16 a person learns to perform roles. R. Dawson17 especially states that in the game there is a role-based behavior. M. Beckmann18 also points out that the game with traditional teaching methods not only transmits a certain amount of knowledge, but primarily develops the ability to analyze, synthesize and use the received information. According to C. Grinblett, R. Duck,19 all this is possible due to the fact that the games allow you to get a complete picture of reality by reproducing only the essential components of the system, reducing the time and space intervals, the ability to repeat game, and so on. Pretend game increase the motivation of learning through involving its participants in the situation (R. N. Maydment, R. H. Bronstein),20 creating an informal learning environment (L. Olivas, I. V. Nustroma),21 the need for quick action (Ch.

10 М. Banks, A. Grum, A. Oppingheim, “Gaming and simulation in international relations”, in Political Studies, 16 (1), (1968), pp. 27-35. 11 R. Maydment, R. H. Bronstein, Simulation games: Design and implementation, Zanesville, Ohio, Columbus, 1973. 12 R. Mendel, “Political gaming and foreign policy making during crisis”, in World Politics, 30 (4), (1977), pp. 610-625. 13 T. M. Khlebnikova, Business game as a method of active teaching of the head of the university: teaching methodological manual, Kharkiv, Osnova, 2015. 14 Ch. Elgger, “Use of the inter-nation simulation in undergraduate teaching”, in H. Guetzkow (ed.), Simulation in international relations: Developments for research and teaching, New York, 2003, pp. 150-189. 15 R. Dawson, Simulation in social science, New York, 1962, pp. 1-15. 16 L. Olivas, I. W. Newstrom, “Learning through the use of simulation games”, in Training and Development Journal, 35 (9), (1981), pp. 63-66. 17 S. L. Markov, “Psychological factors of managerial competence of the manager”, in S. D. Maksimenko, L. M. Karamushki (eds.), volume 1, Organizational psychology. 18 M. Beckman, “Evaluating the case method”, in The Educational Forum, 30 (4), (1992), pp. 231-237. 19 K. Greenblat, R. Duke (eds.), Gaming-simulation, New York, 1975. 20 R. Maydment, R. H. Bronstein, Simulation games. 21 O. V. Kozlova, The correctional game method and its role in professional development of staff, Moscow, Znaniye, 2017.


278

Elgger),22 ensuring the realization of different motives for various categories of participants (T. O. Kudryavtseva,23 I. Orbech).24

There are warnings together with the positive assessments of the use of pretend game. K. Cohen and I. Fenman25 point out a number of constraints that must be taken into account using them. V. S. Wincstrom26 notes the danger of false conclusions that participants can make from the game, the lack of knowledge transfer to the real activity process, because the realism of the game situation is doubted. There are also described failures in such game, for example, turning them into conferences or seminars. O. V. Kozlova,27 K. Cohen, I. Fenman28 find the reasons for these failures in that the participants of the game are poorly acquainted with the problem which is the base of imitation, they are unable to correlate the desired goals with their capabilities, and according to K. Cohen29 there are a lot of factors which are involved in the game. On the other hand, it lacks the confidence of the decision that is made in reality.

The main theoretical basis for conducting of pretend game for learning purposes is behaviorism. The laws of training formulated by N. Latigina,30 K. Greenblat and R. Duke31 correspond to the practice of conducting business and pretend game. However, one of behavioral principles of education remained unspecified: it is pretended that in the game, like on practice, takes place the acquisition of knowledge and skills

22 Ch. Elgger, “Use of the inter-nation simulation in undergraduate teaching”, in H. Guetzkow (ed.), Simulation in international relations: Developments for research and teaching, New York, 2003, pp. 150-189. 23 T. O. Kudryavtseva, “Business game as a means of preparing future managers for solving problem situations in professional activity”, in Actual problems of public administration, pedagogy and psychology: collection of scientific papers, 2 (9), (2014), pp. 304-308. 24 E. Orbech, “Simulation games and motivation for learning: A theoretical framework”, in Simulation and Games, 10 (1), (1979), pp. 3-40. 25 K. Cohen, E. Fenman, The role of management games in education research, New York, 1975. 26 W. S. Wincstrom, “The serious business of business game”, in Management Record, 22 (2), (1989), pp. 1-9. 27 O. V. Kozlova, The correctional game method and its role in professional development of staff, Moscow, Znaniye, 2017. 28 K. Cohen, E. Fenman, The role of management games in education research. 29 K. Cohen, “Political gaming in the classroom”, in The Journal of Politics, 24 (2), (1992), pp. 367-381. 30 N. Latigina, “Business game as simulation active teaching method”, in Intl. Conf. Proc. on Innovation development of higher education: Abstracts of reports, March 10-11, 2016, pp. 172-175. 31 K. Greenblat, R. Duke (eds.), Gaming-simulation.


279

through attempts and mistakes. You can be mistaken only during the game, because the price of this error is not the same as in real life.

Methods

The purpose of our article is to determine the ways of forming the mental set of participants in educational activities for managing higher educational institutions.

Authors formed the psychological mental set of the participants of educational activity for management of higher educational institutions by method of raising the level of psychological mental set of the participants of the educational process for management of higher educational institutions. We identified it as a method of correction game. The correction game, in its turn, was conducted in the natural conditions of the educational process participants’ activities in the form of psychological and managerial training, which, in its external appearance, is a measure taken by a psychologist with a person who is not ready for such activity.

The main sense of this measure is to change certain personal characteristics - the conceptual and value orientations of each subject of management activity according to innovations in higher education institution and to find out the influence of this changing on their age, intellectual and characterological peculiarities. At the same time, the effectiveness of this kind of management is conditioned not only by changing goals, tasks and methods of activity, but also by the formation of a positive manager’s I-concept.

Results

The conditions of the formation of person’s mental set in

educational activity for management of higher educational institutions were developed and experimentally tested by us during the formation experiment. It was tested during 2014 -2017. The main purpose of this test is to form the psychological mental set of the participants in the educational process for management of the higher educational system, namely: restructuring certain personal characteristics - the conceptual and value orientations of each person for management activity according to innovations in higher education institute and the clarification of the impact of this restructuring on their age, intellectual and characterological peculiarities. At the same time, the effectiveness of this kind of management is conditioned not only by changing goals, tasks and


280

methods of activity, but also by the formation of a positive I-concept of a manager.

In accordance with the goal of the forming experiment, the main tasks are defined: to develop and experimentally verify the system of psychological factors and conditions for the formation of the psychological mental set of person in educational activity for managing the higher educational institutions.

In order to realize the forming experiment there was created two groups with the same number of participants (314 persons of each group) - experimental and control one (among them there are 66 heads of, 82 university teachers, 78 parents of students and 88 students). These groups included an approximate number of men and women with the same age status (from 16 to 65 years old), who worked and studied at universities of the same level; had approximately the same experience of pedagogical activity (10 - 25 years) and management experience (5 - 15 years); belonged to the number of high school students; both groups improved the level of psychological mental set for the management of universities, but the experimental group had a systemic nature of such training, and the control group had a fragmentary one.

It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that during the game there appears the effect of social gain, or the effect of the audience. Impact is carried out not by any observer, but only by competent one, meaningful for the performer and able to give an assessment. The more competent and meaningful is the observer, the more meaningful this effect is as well. Thus, the presence of an external observer increases the motivation of the subject. So, it can either improve performance, or lead to “remotivation” and cause a breakdown of activities. All variants of the behavior in the forming experiment can be explained by actualization of the same motive - the desire for positive self-representation, it means the desire to look better as much as possible.

Based on the above-mentioned, the correction game was conducted in the natural conditions of the participants in the educational process as psychological and managerial training, which has an external appearance of a measure that could be carried out by any educational process participant with a high level of psychological mental set for managerial activity related to innovations at the universities, and by the psychologist with the person who is not ready for such kind of activity. This event is conducted within the educational institution on the sidelines of the educational process, which is called as “correction game”. The purpose of this psychological training is to achieve the success of the participants in the educational process in the field of


281

management activity and interaction with other people (administration, teachers, parents of students and students), in which they were previously unsuccessful. The psychological basis of such correction work is the process of hypercompensation, which takes place under the specially designed requirements of maximum favorability and in the process of pretend activities.

The purpose of the training is to get the experience and improve the skills and abilities of the management action of all participants in the educational process. Its tasks are: to summarize the received knowledge and experience of managing higher educational institutions; to connect theory with the practice of university management; to develop the skills of analyzing pedagogical and managerial situations, to react promptly to them by making managerial decisions, to predict possible results; to form and develop managerial experience in all participants of the educational process.

During the process of conducting psychological and management correctional training, the listeners and the leader evaluate a certain situation with a particular problem: the goals are set for its realization in practice; the plan is projected to be real and perfect. Targeting is the process of correlating two plans: the plan of real reality and the plan of the ideal model. Real reality means the reality in which the person participates, and the ideal model means a certain perfect result of the activity. The basis for changing the style of relationships (for example, an administrator with a student in the conditions of democratization) is getting a reflexive position over real-life plans and an ideal model in their relationships. As a result, the output of this process in this training may be a developed targeted integrated program. In these conditions, the participant of the training, which builds the model, acts as the creator of his own and collective future activities, detects errors and contradictions in it, designs its realization in real time.

Therefore, the following features of the method of psychological and managerial training are:

1) The most important element of psychological and managerial training regarding the open psychological training is that the participant of educational process gets the success of reality and the high personal and social significance. The positive dynamics of correction is reflected by the improvement of its setting, it means the improvement of positive attitudes in previously unsuccessful spheres, based on its positive experience, strong sides, it seems that he “accidentally” has skills of previously unrelated activities and involves in previously unfeasible and psychologically inaccessible interactions and relationships.


282

Psycho-management training can be called a game of the specific role distribution in this type of activity. In such a way, there are always (one or several) main characters in this game - the administrator, teacher, students or their parents who must succeed, expand their adaptive activity and behavioral repertoire. There is always a “director” who invented the content of the correction game, organized and conducted it, as much as possible contributes to the achievement of success by the main hero. There are also assistants of the director (manager), who divide into those who are familiarized with the course of correction work, and those who are not. Correction psychological-management game takes place “inside” of the usual educational activity and can take place during training, meetings, discussions, extra-curricular activities and other professional-significant events and situations. During this process the known role distribution in correction actions often does not coincide with the role distribution in the real activity of the administrator, teacher, student and his\her parents.

2) The method of psychological and managerial training reproduces a certain situation and human activity in it in its essential components. It also reproduces the facts taken from the reality, which allow us to explore the person and his/her activities in conditions that are as close to life as possible. Its realization is a specific activity, conditional practice in comparison with changed real reality. The construction of such training is primarily the construction of specific human activities, as a rule, a collective activity. The complete reproduction of a particular type of certain practical management activity in its essential components makes it possible to make the latter a subject of psychological analysis and study.

3) The method of psychological and managerial training involves the personality of the participants. The presence of personal engagement of participants in the evolving situation, the expression and depth of experience during its conduct is a strong empirical fact. It is an emotional saturation and emotional tension which indicate an increase of the motivation of this kind of activity, rise of interest to the studied subject. This method is important for its participants due to the proximity of simulated situations to real ones, and it allows you to get acquainted with management activities, study the simulated reality, test yourself, opportunities in practice, demonstrate your achievements in a prestigious field and so on.

4) Reproductive activity is carried out in the conditions of relative uncertainty in relation to the decision which will be taken. This uncertainty is given differently: in the case of “hard” imitation, there is a


283

choice of the alternative solutions in the “free” imitations that are closest to the real-life conditions it means that the participants form themselves problems, decisions and actions. In some cases, participants clearly set the goal and the way for wining in this game, in others cases, there are situations that give gamers more freedom, they can set goals themselves and use it for achievement. But at the same time it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that this type of correction game often reproduces conflict situations, and then the choice of a decision can be more dramatic.

5) Comparing this type of psychological and managerial training as a pretend game with other correction methods and the study of personality, it should be noted that it also has a number of advantages compared with laboratory methods. This is determined by the fact that it gives the opportunity to observe the actual personality manifestations, his/her life, and don’t restrict of the results with a retrospective nature. Game situations are perceived by the participants not as a special experimental situation, but as a continuation of their normal life, real life situations. Along with the proximity of imitated situations to the real life of the participants, they are model ones, so the process of manifestation of the individuals could be only relatively controlled. The structure of the pretend game, the rule availability, the ability to control the conditions, create typical situations, introduce certain features of game imitations clearly distinguish it from such methods of psychological research, as observing behavior in the natural conditions, and so on.

6) Correction game is used as a model of possible future managerial situations, events. It involves psychologically different groups of those under research, explores the role of personality factors in the formation of specific management decisions. It has predicted a possible result of events that are modeled in reality.

7) The logic of this method leads to approach, when study and correction of the participant in the educational process is performed through its targeted change, the influence on it during the pretend game. In this case, this method can be considered as psychotherapy and diagnosing at the same time. It allows purposefully to create programs for changing one or another behavior aspect and solve a unique problem of each individual because of a sufficiently hard structure and a rule system.

8) The method of psychological and managerial training primarily serves as a method of studying the integrity of the management of higher education institutions. The subject of analysis is a complex-organized and multilevel human activity that is modeled. Therefore, it is proposed


284

to use pretend game for modeling and studying decision-making processes in management activities. It has suggested to carry out a normative description of the organization’s activity and decision-making process at a certain level. Then the real actions of the studied subject relatively to the normative organization are errors or deviations from the required norm.

9) Psychological and management training is as an active method of training. In modern conditions of practical management activity which is changing rapidly, a person is required to be able to quickly and accurately choose a solution and implement it in practice. At the same time, the price of a possible error has sharply increased, and as a result, the responsibility of the person for the chosen decision has increased as well. The task was to find new teaching methods that would give the opportunity to teach practical management even before the actual situation has come and the real activity has begun, teach such experience that cannot be translated into words and which is acquired only in the process of action, participation, making decision. Correction, pretend game corresponds to this task most of all, because of managerial activity imitation.

Summarizing the successful practical experience of the author, which is given in the provisions provided for preparing and conducting a psychological and managerial correction training for increasing of the level of psychological mental set for management activity of the participants in the educational process, we’ve got the following scheme of preparation and implementation of correction activities of its setting: diagnosis (preparatory stage), modeling of correctional psychological and managerial training, preparation of correction work, implementation of correction work, securing of positive settings.

During the diagnostics, the direction of activity of the participant in the educational process, its setting, emotional content, interests, sociometric status and other is determined. It is conducted a purposeful search of the person’s positive features and his/her psychological problems. There are determined the types of activities during which those positive and negative settings manifest.

During the modeling of correctional training, there is modeled such an activity, which could relate to the previously unsuccessful activity (positive settings). However, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the participant in the training and the social situation of its development, activity, competence.

The preparatory stage of the psychological and management training is completed by the preparation of the correction training. A


285

psychologist with an administrator, teacher, student or his/her parents, unnoticeably prepare the participant of the educational process for a certain type of activity and favor the creation of conditions aimed at achieving the person’s success in this type of activity.

The implementation of correction work takes place when a psychologist involves a personality in a psychological and managerial correctional training, directs the course of this developed action.

In the case of a successful completion of the correctional training, a psychologist helps a participant to realize his/her success, then prepares the next correctional training, as a result it goes to direct training.

In the case of failure, timely intervention of a psychologist should make this failure the least noticeable. Interpersonal support is organized. Than everything repeats from the first stage – a diagnostics with the aim to find the way into psychology of the participant of educational process, more precisely, it should identify his/her problem and strong suit. Analysis of unsuccessful cases of training showed that in the untrained participants in the educational process for management activities, the motivation of preventing failures prevails over the motivation of achievement.

The results of the forming experiment, first of all, express significant changings in the peculiarities of all participants setting in the educational process according to their emotional evaluation and content (as a result of content analysis). The received results in this part of the experiment were evaluated on the basis of criteria which are related directly to the formation of the psychological mental set of the participants in the educational process to manage higher education institutions.

A comparative analysis of the results of the first (before the forming experiment) and the second (after the completion of the forming experiment) sections which were performed in experimental and control groups, showed that there is a dynamics of certain components of mental set in the experimental group, and there is no such dynamics in the control group.

Basing on the obtained data, we can conclude that according to the experimental group there are statistically significant differences (p < 0,01) between the results of the first and second sections. So the number of persons of (1) level has increased from 11.1% to 34.5%, and of sufficient (2) level – from 14.65% to 43.15%. Conversely, the number of persons of an average (3) level of readiness dropped from 39.2% to 13.1%, and of the low (4) level - from 35.05% to 9.3%.


286

Discussion The results of the experimental study indicate that it happened in

result of decrease in the groups of the number of persons of “average” and “low” levels of psychological mental set of the participants of educational process for management of higher educational institutions.

Basing on the analysis of the problem and the solution of the tasks that we have set, we can make the following conclusions:

Our research proved that the effective formation of the psychological mental set of participants in educational activities for management of higher educational institutions is possible as a result of the restructuring of certain personal characteristics: semantic assumptions, value orientations of each subject of management activity; finding out the influence of this restructuring on their age, intellectual, characterological features; differentiation of the content and organizational forms of psychological training for different categories of participants in the educational process.

Psychological and management training for the management of universities, promotes the development an experience and improve skills and abilities for performing administrative actions of all participants of educational activities and discoursing the problems of the scientific base for universities management, increasing an interest in the theory, generalization of knowledge and management experience, connecting theory and practice, developing skills in analyzing teaching and managerial situations, react quickly for management decisions and predict possible results. The psychological basis of such correction work is the process of hypercompensation, which takes place in specially created conditions. The main features of this method are: assigning the high personal and social significance to the success achieved by the participant in the reality educational process; reproduction of managerial situations taken from the real life, which allows to explore the person and his/her activities in conditions that are as close as possible to life; and it performs as an object of innovative influence and is a mental, activity equivalent of the management process; it promotes awareness of the correlation between gaming and real activity; it is used as a model of possible future managerial situations and events where psychologically different groups of persons take part. The study and correction of the participant in the management process is carried out through its targeted changing, influence him/her during the pretend game and it acts as a method of study of integral activity and is an active method of training.


287

A correction measure proposed by us regarding the increasing of the level of psychological mental set of the participants of educational activities to the management of universities has proved its expediency and effectiveness at the level of educational and managerial processes, which is confirmed by mathematical calculations.

We consider promising the studies concerning the means of formation of an effective management team, the development of psychologically proved technologies for solving of actual managerial problems in higher educational institutions.


288


289

COMPETENCES OF THE TEACHING STAFF IN THE COMPUTERIZATION OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Igor Yu. Anikin, Svetlana V. Lapteva,

Anatoliy V. Kozlov, Olga S. Tamer ,, Tyumen Industrial University” Branch of the Tyumen Industrial

University in Noyabrsk, Noyabrsk, Russian Federation

Abstract: The article shows that competences of the teaching staff should be tested involving the necessity of establishing certain points about a bigger role of the individual work of the students in the process of acquiring knowledge. The authors show that a teacher should act not only as a motivator but also as a moderator guiding the students towards right directions of acquiring knowledge. The authors offer a model which evaluates the efficiency of teaching activities in the structural concept of learning process computerization.

Keywords: competences, teaching staff, computerization, learning process, development.

Competence-based paradigm of higher education has currently

gained popularity and consists in formulating the contents of education from the end result, i.e. from the characteristics of professional activity, to the goal of the result of professional education and, further on, to the choice of teaching organization forms and methods.1

Broad application of competence-based approach requires the search of methods, approaches and technologies of competence measurement.2 The task gets more complicated by the fact that competences are integral internal formations which can be assessed only partially since by no means all of their components manifest themselves to be seen, but often remain latent psychological feelings or affirmations.3

1 G. B. Smith, J.R. Welch, “Rapid Response Systems: Education for Ward Staff Caring for At-Risk and Deteriorating Patients”, in M.A. DeVita, K. Hillman, R. Bellomo (eds.), Textbook of Rapid Response Systems: Concept and Implementation, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 351-365. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-39391-9_34. 2 M. Grünhagen Johannes, “Kepler University Linz: Inspiring Teaching and a Support Network for Academic Entrepreneurs”, in C.K. Volkmann, D. B. Audretsch (eds.), Entrepreneurship Education at Universities: Learning from Twenty European Cases, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 537-569. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55547-8_19. 3 M. Bücker, E. Borowski, R. Vossen, S. Jeschke, “How to Prepare Academic Staff for Their New Role as University Teachers? Welcome to the Seminar “Academic Teaching”, in S. Jeschke, I. Isenhardt, F. Hees, K. Henning (eds.), Automation, Communication and Cybernetics in Science and Engineering 2013/2014, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2014, pp. 231-254. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-08816-7_19.


290

The search for ways to measure professional teaching competences of college teachers predetermines looking into the issue of defining framework of the definition of professional competence with singling out its structural components since measuring complex psycho-physiological functions is only possible by the totality of its separate components.

Literature review

Currently there is not a single definition of the notion of

professional teaching competence. However, a definition suggested in the dictionary under the editorship of Beckmann4 is worth noting: professional competence is a total of knowledge and skills necessary for efficient professional activity, a skill to analyze, foresee the consequences of professional activity, use the information.

The education encyclopedia under the editorship of del Moral Pérez, 2012 gives a definition of professional competence as an integrative characteristics of business and personal qualities of a specialist reflecting the level of knowledge, skill, and experience sufficient for achieving a goal of a certain type of professional activity, as well as a moral stance of the specialist. While McGee5 defines professional competence as knowledge and skills a person needs in a certain area of activity. Zhu6 in terms considers the notion under examination a system of special knowledge and skills associated with the work that’s being accomplished.

A broader definition can be found in the work of Bion: Professional competence is an ability to efficiently use acquired knowledge and skills; an ability to solve a certain problem, carry out an active search of new experience and identify its individual value, abilities and skills for independent planning, organization, control of one’s own

4 E. A. Beckmann, A. Cathcart. “Institutional Strategies for Developing Postgraduate Research Students’ Teaching and Communication Capabilities”, in R. Erwee, M. Harmes, M. Harmes, P.A. Danaher (eds.), Postgraduate Education in Higher Education, Singapore, Springer Singapore, 2017, pp. 1-19. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0468-1_1-1. 5 P. McGee, D. Windes, M. Torres, “Experienced online instructors: beliefs and preferred supports regarding online teaching”, in J Comput High Educ, 29(2) (2017), pp. 331-352. doi:10.1007/s12528-017-9140-6. 6 C. Zhu, D. Wang, “Key competencies and characteristics for innovative teaching among secondary school teachers: a mixed-methods research”, in Asia Pacific Educ Rev., 15(2) (2014), pp. 299-311. doi:10.1007/s12564-014-9329-6.


291

activity; creativity, ability for self-development, self-analysis, self-regulation, self-organization, self-control.7

As we can see, it’s the personal component of professional activity the definition stresses.

The encyclopedia of professional education provides support to this idea: Professional competence includes not only an idea about qualification (professional skills as an experience of activity, ability and knowledge) but also the acquired socio-communicative and personal abilities ensuring independence of our professional activity.8

There is no doubt that by professional competence of a teacher we mean teacher’s profound understanding of the learning process, modern issues in teaching, psychology and the subject of teaching, as well as to be able to apply this knowledge in your everyday work.

Materials and methods

In terms the contents of the teacher’s professional competence,

pedagogy distinguishes procedural and result indexes.9 Professional competence of a teacher is defined as an ability and readiness to carry out personal professional.10

Thus, professional teaching competence is a total of activity-and-role-based and personal characteristics of a teacher which ensures efficient completion of the tasks and duties of the teacher’s activity in a higher education institution, is a measure and the main criterion of his/her match to the professional activity.11

7 J. Bion, G.D. Perkins, “The Acute Care Undergraduate TEaching (ACUTE) initiative: consensus development of core competencies in acute care for undergraduates in the United Kingdom”, in Intensive Care Med, 32(5) (2006), pp. 786-786. 8 R. S. Causby, M.N. McDonnell, L. Reed, C.E. Fryer, S.L. Hillier, “A qualitative evaluation of scalpel skill teaching of podiatry students”, in J Foot Ankle Res, 10(1) (2017), p. 21. doi:10.1186/s13047-017-0202-9. 9 B. Preston, K.J. Kennedy, “The national competency framework for beginning teaching: A radical approach to initial teacher education?”, in Aust Educ Res., 22(2) (1995), pp. 27-62. doi:10.1007/BF03219592. 10 R. D. Simpson, K.S. Smith, “Validating teaching competencies for graduate teaching assistants: A national study using the Delphi method”, in Innov High Educ., 18(2) (1993), pp. 133-146. doi:10.1007/BF01191891. 11 A. E. du Plessis, “Turning the Teaching Workforce and Workplace around with Open Discussions”, in Out-of-Field Teaching Practices: What Educational Leaders Need to Know, Rotterdam, Sense Publishers, 2017, pp. 63-105.


292

The aim of the article consists in the theoretical analysis of the term and the structure of teacher’s professional competence and development of approaches to its measurement.


In our opinion, teacher’s professional competence is ensured by

the maturity and integrity of its structural components. The analysis of scientific sources on the issue of the structure of

professional competence of college teacher’s shows, once again, that there are various approaches to understanding the term under investigation.12 Thus, Causby13 defines professional competence of a school’s manager as a complex multi-aspect personal formation consisting of these elements:

-motivational-a total of motives appropriate to management goals and tasks; -cognitive-a total of knowledge necessary for management; -operational-a total of personal qualities important for management; -reflexive-a total of abilities to predict, assess one’s own activity, and choose management strategy. In the research of the issue of the future teacher’s professional

competence formation Rhode14 singles out these structural components: motivational (defined by the system of motivational powers of the subject of the activity, ambitions, encouragements), determined (which includes the dominant of their mentality an worldview, a system of personal meanings, the contents of which is oriented at the change in the value of professional activity) and content-surpassing (which characterizes the subject of the activity as a creator, researcher and constructor).

12 S. Kobayashi, J. Dolin, A. Søborg, J. Turner, “Building Academic Staff Teaching Competencies: How Pedagogic Continuous Professional Development for Academic Staff Can Be Organised and Developed in Research-Intensive Universities”, in B. Stensaker, G.T. Bilbow, L. Breslow, R. van der Vaart (eds.), Strengthening Teaching and Learning in Research Universities: Strategies and Initiatives for Institutional Change, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 103-128. 13 R. S. Causby, M.N. McDonnell, L. Reed, C.E. Fryer, S.L. Hillier, “A qualitative evaluation of scalpel skill teaching of podiatry students”, in J Foot Ankle Res, 10(1) (2017), p. 21. doi:10.1186/s13047-017-0202-9. 14 J. Rhode, S. Richter, T. Miller, “Designing Personalized Online Teaching Professional Development through Self-Assessment”, in TechTrends, 61(5) (2017), pp. 444-451. doi:10.1007/s11528-017-0211-3.


293

Thus, we can draw a conclusion that the content components of the teaching analysis of the teacher’s professional competence correspond to its structure and are assessed according to these components: teaching technique; teaching mastery; teacher’s teaching culture; teacher’s research and development activity.

Teaching technique. A greatly important role in the process of formation and further development of the college teacher’s professional competence is the teacher’s mastery of the teaching technique, because thanks to it the teacher is capable of achieve success in professional activity.

Teaching technique is defined as an integrative property of an individual who is characterized as wholesome which appears in video-differentiation from other properties and internal unity of its components (emotion-willful, contextual, behavioral) and is implemented through the ability to make pedagogically appropriate impact on the participants of the education process by emotional expressive means.

To sum up numerous scientific papers, the components of teaching technique are:

-speech technique: grammatical correctness, expressiveness, imaginativeness, humor, speech skills (voice tone and timbre, emotion, persuasiveness, richness of inflections and shades, articulation, pace);

-appearance technique: an ability to correctly sit, stand, project confidence, calmness, friendliness (posture, clothes, mimics, emotional expressivity);

-pedagogical communication technique: an ability to listen; ask questions; analyze the answer; be attentive, observant; understand others; establish contact; see and understand the reaction of the audience; share your attitude towards what is being said; get others interested and excited with the explanation, narration, message; familiarize with the situation;

-psycho-technique: an ability to create appropriate mood, lessen excessive tension, anxiety, overcome one’s own indecisiveness and mobilize oneself; an ability to transform, play, manage one’s mood.

Teaching mastery. By the definition of one of the classics of teaching mastery Kraineva,15 the components of professional mastery of a teacher are pedagogical focus (value orientations to oneself, to means of pedagogical impact, to the team, to the goals of pedagogical activity),

15 S. V. Kraineva, O.R. Shefer, “On the formation of very high competencies in bachelor’s degree students using information and communication technologies”, in Sci Tech Inf Process, 44(2) (2017), pp. 94-98. doi:10.3103/S0147688217020046.


294

professional knowledge (knowledge of the discipline taught, its methodology, pedagogy and psychology); teaching activity skills: communicative (respect towards people, amiability, sociability); perceptive (professional predictability, empathy, pedagogical intuition); dynamic (ability for forceful impact and logical persuasion, for reflection); emotional (an ability for self-control and building pedagogical impact on positive feelings, optimistic prediction); teaching technique (a form of organization of the teacher’s behavior). Teaching mastery is a set of properties of the teacher’s personality necessary for a high level of professional activity. The criteria for mastery of a teacher are reasonability (by focus), productivity (by results), dialogueness (by the nature of relations with students), optimality (in the choice of tools), creativity (by the content of activity).

We also agree with the definition of Reefman,16 who defines this term as a sophisticated art of educating and teaching which constantly improves itself and is available to any teacher working by vocation and loving children. According to the researcher’s opinion, the elements of teaching mastery are:

1) Humanitarian focus as a systemic creative component; expressed in value-based orientation of the teacher in the form of humanitarian strategy when accomplishing goals of pedagogical activity.

2) Professional knowledge which serves as fundament for teaching mastery which gives it depth, solidness, sense of purpose.

3) Teaching skills which ensure good speed and successfulness in improving the teacher’s mastery.

4) Teaching technique relying on knowledge and skills and incorporating all tools of pedagogical impact and interaction for efficient execution of teaching activity.

Professional culture. Professional culture is identified, above all, by a professional group authenticity of which it ensures. Traditionally, professional culture represents a multitude of standards, rules, and models of people’s behavior, social theoretical knowledge and practical skills associated with a certain type of labor.

Profession in the modern context is regarded as not so much of a separate narrow type of activity but more of a broad group of specialized types of activity united by common tasks executed in the social system. Therefore, professional culture ensures a unique way of constructing

16 K. Reefman, H.E.M. Daelmans, U.M.H. Klumpers, G. Croiset, “Symposia in undergraduate medical education: tailoring training in competencies to students’ needs”, in Perspect Med Educ., 6(6) (2017), pp. 429-432.


295

reality of professional activity by representatives of a certain profession. Meanwhile, professional culture is an organic part of the common social culture.

Thus, teacher’s professional culture is reflected in these characteristics: motivation of teachers in terms of knowledge and development of innovational teaching approaches; commitment to results; team work; eagerness to achieve high level of professionalism; opportunities to talk to colleagues at research-and-practice seminars, exhibitions, conferences (outside work); freedom of speech; freedom of professional teaching creativity.

Thus, teacher’s professional culture is a component of the larger culture which represents a system of values, knowledge, standards, abilities, and skills in executing educational research activity which are formed or developed over the course of teacher-training education and practice, and provide, under certain conditions, fulfillment of educational research potential in the professional activity.

Scientific research work. When training future professionals at a higher education institution, along with bringing professional knowledge, a great importance belongs to scientific research skills as a mechanism of further self-improvement of a specialist and support of their competitiveness. The key figure in providing these skills is the teacher since it is him/her whose function is to encourage the student to get involved into research activity, provide them with techniques of scientific search, innovational activity, theoretical analysis and practical solution of problems in non-standard ways. And it is absolutely clear that implementation of this task would not be possible if teacher’s activity did not involve a scientific research component.

The problem of assessing the teacher’s work in the sphere of scientific research is not new: it is the same age as the science itself. There has always been a need to identify the level of quality, efficiency, and productivity of a scientist’s work. To do this, different systems and scientific metrics methods were used which gave an opportunity to assess the work based on quantitative indexes. These are, above all, publications, patents, and authorship certificates. Furthermore, when modern colleges gain the scientific status, it brings out the need to ensure efficiency of carrying out scientific research work which is mostly represented by public recognition of the research results, as well as by increasing applicable significance of scientific achievement of teachers and students.

The development of methodological approaches to assessment of the quality of scientific research and the productivity of pedagogical


296

scientific workers remains one of the main problems of science studies since despite the numerous works in the sphere of scientometrics, there is no universal methodology which would solve the problem of combining quantitative and qualitative analysis methods.

Rüütmann,17 when looking at the term “scientific methodology work”, points out that international practice separates terms “scientific work” and “research work”. Scientific work implies processes with the help of which knowledge on certain subjects is renewed or scientific publications are prepared, different area of scientific and practical activity are developed and improved. Research activity means original research in the sphere of natural or social sciences, culture or education implying thorough, organized search based on critical approach using different techniques and methods which depend on the personality and conditions of problems posed. If scientific work is a direct work with announcing a scientific result which is followed by reporting, reviewing and supervision of students’ scientific work, while scientific research work is gaining a scientific result.

When analyzing indexes of scientific research activity, Maheu18 focuses on such indexes as the index of demand for theoretical scientific achievements; level of commercialization of their methodology developments; frequency of real implementation of numerous theoretical methodological recommendations on improvement of companies’ functioning and development management efficiency into the practical activity of companies; engaging college specialists as experts in the discussion and making important economic decisions in the country.

Due to structural components of professional teaching competence is how qualimetric expertise for measurement of existing condition and quality changes of teachers’ professional teaching competence is carried out.

Expertise (еxpertus-experiences) is the expert’s (specialist’s) investigation of certain questions looking into which requires special knowledge in the sphere under investigation. It is issued as an act, decision, in some case-as a certificate of quality or compliance. It is

17 T. Rüütmann, M. Lõhmus, R. Sell, I. Stõun, M. Pihel, “Self-evaluation of Pedagogical Competencies of Academic Staff in the Context of Career Management”, in M.E. Auer, D. Guralnick, I. Simonics (eds.) Teaching and Learning in a Digital World, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2018, pp. 436-446. 18 M. M. Maheu, K.P. Drude, K.M. Hertlein, R. Lipschutz, K. Wall, D.M. Hilty, “Correction to: An Interprofessional Framework for Telebehavioral Health Competencies”, in J Technol Behav Sci, 3(2) (2018), pp. 108-140.


297

worthwhile to mention the opinion of Zakharova,19 that expertise of human activity products in socio-political, medical, legal, educational and other spheres is a consistent, necessary component of any system.

The goal of the expertise is to assess the compliance of the data with the existing standards, technology criteria and requirements. The term “pedagogical expertise” as a combination of procedures which are necessary to get a collective expert opinion about a pedagogical objects was first introduced by Stensaker,20 2017 who views pedagogical expertise as opinions that are based on profound and quality study of all characteristic properties of the object via the usage of different methods if designed criteria of pedagogical expertise and competent experts are available.

Further broad theoretical research allowed distinguishing these components of pedagogical expertise: expert evaluation of the phenomenon or object from viewpoint of novelty, currency, alternativeness; identifying compliance with the existing standards of the condition of the object under investigation; activity organization expertise in terms of management over investigated objects (educational institution as a whole, as well as its separate components); expert evaluation of the technological process; activity results expertise; activity conditions expertise; expertise of the internal and external parts of the investigated object (compliance with the economic, psychological, valeological and other requirements).

Comprehensive study of scientific literature showed that there is a current lack of research which would provide a systemic representation on the issues of development of professional competence of the teacher’s in higher education institutions with economy focus, present methods, forms and principles of educating, upbringing and self-development for the formation and further development of the teachers professional competence for the appropriate specialists.

19 E. Zakharova, A. Bogdanova, M. Netesova, “The Issues of Teaching English and German for Specific Purposes to the Academic Staff of a Technical University”, in M.E. Auer, D. Guralnick, I. Simonics (eds.), Teaching and Learning in a Digital World, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2018, pp. 776-782. 20 B. Stensaker, G. T. Bilbow, L. Breslow, R. van der Vaart, “Strategic Challenges in the Development of Teaching and Learning in Research-Intensive Universities”, in B. Stensaker, G. T. Bilbow, L. Breslow, R. van der Vaart (eds.), Strengthening Teaching and Learning in Research Universities: Strategies and Initiatives for Institutional Change, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 1-18. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56499-9_1.


298


299

DYNAMICS OF KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION USING A SYNERGISTIC APPROACH IN TRAINING

Igor Yu. Anikin, Svetlana V. Lapteva,

Anatoliy V. Kozlov, Olga S. Tamer ,,Tyumen Industrial University”, Branch of the Tyumen Industrial

University in Noyabrsk, Noyabrsk, Russian Federation

Abstract: This study shows that the knowledge acquisition can be determined in case of need to integrate not only the students’ knowledge assessment, but also the methods of teaching. The knowledge acquisition during integrated approach can determine not only the professional development of the entire complex of knowledge, but also the structure of opportunities for formalizing the general development of the education process. The lessons in various disciplines for students of the Faculty of Management and Economics were analyzed. Indicators of development and stratification of acquisition of knowledge by students were received during realization of the synergetic approach in training.

Keywords: Synergetic approach, training, knowledge dynamics, program acquisition, Faculty of Economics and Management.

Reorganization of educational process in the system of the higher

school, proceeding from requirements and the principles of the Bologna declaration, is focused on formation of new type of the active creative person.1 It actualizes the search of various methods, techniques, means and innovative technologies of training.2 Besides, the transition to a credit-module education system, which assumes the use of different forms of lessons and types of student training, puts forward new requirements for developing methodological support for students in various types of work of higher education institutions and its control.3

The researches have defined that education in the field of economics and management will be full only when students master the

1 S. Schnell, S. Prediger, “Multiple representations as tools for discovering pattern and variability-Insights into the dynamics of learning processes”, in T. Wassong, D. Frischemeier, P.R. Fischer, R. Hochmuth, P. Bender (eds.), Mit Werkzeugen Mathematik Und Stochastik Lernen-Using Tools for Learning Mathematics and Statistics, Wiesbaden, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2014, pp. 179-192. 2 T. Blakely, K. Miller, J. Ojemann, R. Rao, “Exploring the Cortical Dynamics of Learning by Leveraging BCI Paradigms”, in C. Guger, B.Z. Allison, G. Edlinger (eds.), Brain-Computer Interface Research: A State-of-the-Art Summary, Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2013, pp. 53-60. 3 C. Backhage, C. Ojeda, R. Sifa, “Circadian Cycles and Work Under Pressure: A Stochastic Process Model for E-learning Population Dynamics”, in P. Haber, T. Lampoltshammer, M. Mayr (eds.), Data Science-Analytics and Applications, Wiesbaden, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2017, pp. 13-18.


300

system of knowledge. This system is characterized by a variety of theoretical material that reveals all types of social activities. But this problem is not studied well and requires further scientific researches.

Monitoring and evaluation of students’ knowledge is the obligatory component in the learning process.4 They take place at all stages of the education process, but special importance they gain after studying of any section of the program and completing the level of training.5 The essence of the verification of the learning results consists in the identification of the level of knowledge acquisition by students, which must correspond to the educational standard of this program and this subject.6 The key task is the orientation to the final result: competences of graduates in future professional activity.7 The relevance and importance of the correct organization of knowledge control during the training of specialists follows from it.

Literature review A significant number of researches paid attention in their studies

to the problems of control in the pedagogical process. Questions of the modular-rating control system were studied in some researches.8 Test control in the system of assessing knowledge was made on the academic discipline “Theory of games, taking into account the latest technology”.9

4 D. Soni, M. Hanmandlu, H.C. Saini, “A Machine Learning Approach for User Authentication Using Touchstroke Dynamics”, in A.K. Somani, S. Srivastava, A. Mundra, S. Rawat (eds.), Proceedings of First International Conference on Smart System, Innovations and Computing, Singapore, Springer Singapore, 2018, pp. 391-410. 5 A.T. Ching, T. Erdem, M.P. Keane, “Empirical Models of Learning Dynamics: A Survey of Recent Developments”, in B. Wierenga, R. van der Lans (eds.), Handbook of Marketing Decision Models, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 223-257; E. M. Akhmetshin, S. I. Makulov, I. A. Talysheva, S. Y. Fedorova, S. Gubarkov, “Overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment”, in Man in India, 97(15) (2017), 281-288. 6 X. Xiao, P. Pham, J. Wang, “Dynamics of Affective States During MOOC Learning”, in E. André, R. Baker, X. Hu, M.M.T. Rodrigo, B. du Boulay (eds.), Artificial Intelligence in Education, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 586-589. 7 R. Capello, C. Lenzi, “The dynamics of regional learning paradigms and trajectories”, in J Evol Econ., (2018), doi:10.1007/s00191-018-0565-5. 8 A. Venkatraman, R. Capobianco, L. Pinto, M. Hebert, D. Nardi, J.A. Bagnell, “Improved Learning of Dynamics Models for Control”, in D. Kulić, Y. Nakamura, O. Khatib, G. Venture (eds.), 2016 International Symposium on Experimental Robotics, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 703-713. 9 N. Steils, S. Hanine, “Creative Contests: Knowledge Generation and Underlying Learning Dynamics for Idea Generation (An Abstract)”, in P. Rossi (ed.), Marketing at


301

Assessment of rhythmic readiness for students’ tests (on the example of the discipline “Strategic Planning”) was studied also by Maani.10

According to Bentebbaa,11 the qualitative appraisal activity can improve the quality of the teaching and educational process, which generates the need for a student or teacher to receive information about whether or not the quality of the student’s knowledge and skills on the subject meets the requirements of the program. The purpose of this activity is to monitor the progress of students, and the subject of evaluation activity is the system of knowledge and skills of the student.12 Consequently, the urgency of the problem and its practical importance caused the need to conduct a research according to the plan of the department’s scientific research work.


The purpose of the research is to investigate the level of

theoretical knowledge of freshmen in the subject “Theory of games”. Due to the purpose of the study, the following tasks were set: 1. On the basis of expert assessments, it is necessary to determine

the level of theoretical knowledge of students of the subject “Theory of games”.

2. It is necessary to develop rating scales from the theoretical knowledge of this discipline for the freshmen of the Faculty of Management and Economics.

The following methods were used in the work for solving mentioned tasks: analysis and generalization of literary sources on the research topic, studying the content of the curriculum of the course “Theory of Games”, testing of level of theoretical knowledge of students of this discipline, standard methods of mathematical statistics during processing results of a research.

the Confluence between Entertainment and Analytics, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, p. 221. 10 K. Maani, “System Dynamics and Organizational Learning”, in R.A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2018, pp. 1-14. 11 S. Bentebbaa, “Moroccan Family Businesses: Specific Attributes, Logics of Action and Organizational Learning Dynamics”, in S. Basly (ed.), Family Businesses in the Arab World: Governance, Strategy, and Financing, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 63-81. 12 M.R. Gearty, D. Coghlan, “The First-, Second- and Third-Person Dynamics of Learning History”, in Syst Pract Action Res., (2017), doi:10.1007/s11213-017-9436-5.


302

Results and Discussion Analysis of the scientific literature shows that an important role in

ensuring the high quality of education and the formation of competitive specialists under the Bologna process conditions belongs to the system for monitoring and evaluation of students’ academic achievements in the conditions of a credit-module education system.13 The introduction of a credit-module education system is the important factor for stimulating the effective work of either teacher or student.14 Transparency, objectivity, individuality are the main principles of assessing knowledge and skills in this system of educational process organization.15

In the system of education in higher educational institutions professional motivation is considered to be a set of factors and processes which, when they are reflected in consciousness, induce and direct the person to the study of future professional activity16 After making analysis of the information on the formation of professional motivation for educational activities, we determined conditions, which could affect the formation of positive motives for learning activity.17 Such conditions are:

1) professional level of the teacher (desire and ability to teach); 2) the attitude towards the student as a competent person; 3) assistance in self-determination of the student, development of

positive emotions of the student; 4) organization of studying as a process of cognition; 5) use of methods that stimulate learning and cognitive activity; 6) awareness of the nearest and final goals of studying; 7) professional orientation of educational activity. Professional motivation as a character of a person is a system of

goals and needs that motivate students to actively master knowledge,

13 H. Kato, “The Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition in Siberia: Three Regional Sketches for Replacement”, in T. Akazawa, Y. Nishiaki, K. Aoki (eds.), Dynamics of Learning in Neanderthals and Modern Humans Volume 1: Cultural Perspectives, Tokyo, Springer Japan, 2013, pp. 93-103. 14 J.A. Hertz, “Statistical dynamics of learning”, in L. Garrido (ed.), Statistical Mechanics of Neural Networks, Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1990, pp. 137-153. 15 N. Roberts, G. Blakeslee, W. Barowy, “The dynamics of learning in a computer simulation environment”, in J Sci Teacher Educ., 7(1) (1996), 41-58. 16 J.J. Buchanan, “Learning a single limb multijoint coordination pattern: the impact of a mechanical constraint on the coordination dynamics of learning and transfer”, in Exp Brain Res., 156(1) (2004), 39-54. 17 A. Presbitero, B. Roxas, D. Chadee, “Effects of intra- and inter-team dynamics on organisational learning: role of knowledge-sharing capability”, in Knowl Manag Res Pract., 15(1) (2017), 146-154.


303

master skills and experiences, and a conscious attitude toward the profession.

Nowadays researchers do not have any doubts that the progress of students mainly depends on the development of professional motivation, but not only from natural abilities. There is a complex of system of interrelationships between these two factors. But today the science has not yet developed a unified approach to solving the problem of motivating students’ behavior, the terminology has not been established, the basic concepts have not been formulated clearly yet.18

If we talk about student learning activities, under professional motivation we understand a combination of factors and processes that induce and guide the individual to the study of future professional activity.19 Professional motivation is an internal factor in the development of professionalism and personality. At the same time, under the motives of professional activity we understand the awareness of the actual needs of the individual (higher education, self-knowledge, self-development, social status, professional development).

In the university at the Faculty of Economics and Management in the training of specialists of “Bachelor” educational and qualification level such discipline as “The theory of games” is studied.

According to the curriculum, which was developed by the author, the structure of this discipline requires monitoring of the educational achievements of students in the field of theory of games and practical training. Theoretical and practical knowledge and skills are valued in three meaningful modules, which the student should receive during the semester and make 100 credits: of which the current control is 70 credits, the final control is 30 credits (the form of control is the examination).

83 freshmen, who study such courses of the program specialization as “Organizational Culture” (OC), “Organizational Culture and Management” (OCM), “National Economy” took part in the experiment. The course “Theory of games” is the final course of modular control. According to the provision on the credit-modular system of the organization of the educational process, students who receive at least 50 credits on some discipline on a 100-point scale (A, B, C, D, E on the ESTS scale) are assessed without passing the exam.

18 Q. Fu, P. Gu, X. Li, J. Wu, “Iterative learning control approach for consensus of multi-agent systems with regular linear dynamics”, in Sci China Inf Sci., 60(7) (2017), 79202. 19 R.M. French, Y. Glady, J.-P. Thibaut, “An evaluation of scanpath-comparison and machine-learning classification algorithms used to study the dynamics of analogy making”, in Behav Res Methods., 49(4) (2017), 1291-1302.


304

However, students, if they wish, can take the exam in order to increase their marks (rating). The experts were the leading lecturers of the department, who had experience of pedagogical work at least15-35 years.

Examination tests were developed in accordance with the studying and working programs and included a complex structure of control of knowledge, skills and abilities of students.

All examination papers consisted of three questions and were distributed to:

- general questions from the theory of games - that is, questions on the history of the development of theory of games, the game and its features, the place of game theory in the system of management consulting, educational, optimizing, organizational importance of the theory of games, peculiarities of the theory of games with users of different social groups, the pedagogical classification of theory of games. The theory of games in the class time, off-hour and extra-curricular time, the compilation of the provision and programs of interaction such as “Intellectual tasks” and others;

- questions of methodology and organization of the theory of games and preparation for the lesson, the selection of the lesson, preparation of a place for the lesson, preparation of technical means of studying, time marking, the explanation of the lesson, the distribution on focus groups, the definition of assistants, consultants, the management of the process of the lesson, the measure of the study load in the class, the summarizing the results of the lesson, the end of the lesson, and so on;

- the content component - the student’s answer includes knowledge of the theory of games according to the scheme: the name of the component, tasks that are solved in the component, the duration of the lesson and its intensity, the contents of the lesson, the rules, the learning algorithm, organizational and methodological instructions for the lesson.

The research of the assessment of theoretical knowledge of students was carried out separately on three questions in the examination paper. The method of mathematical statistics was used to determine the indicators of the assessment of the theoretical knowledge of students. It was defined: arithmetical average (X); root-mean (σ), standard error of the arithmetic average (m), coefficient of variation (V) (Table 1).

Table 1: Indicators of theoretical knowledge of students of the discipline “Theory of games”


305

Components of theoretical knowledge on the theory of

games

Educational program specialization

Indicators

Х σ ± m

V

Theory of games Organizational culture (n=49) 3,32 0,67 0,09 20,2

Organizational culture and management (n=16)

3,5 0,57 0,14 16,3

National economy (n=20) 3,3 0,8 0,18 24,2

Theoretical knowledge on the methodology and organization

of the theory of games

Organizational culture (n=49) 3,2 0,67 0,09 20,9


2,4 0,57 0,14 23,8


A meaningful component of the theory of games

Organizational culture (n=49) 3,53 0,45 0,06 12,7


3,94 0,57 0,14 14,5


The law of normal distribution of test results was used in order to

solve this problem. The sigmoid-like (σ-shaped) 5-point scales were developed by using the rule of three sigma on the Gaussian curve. In the 5-point scale, the value of the result for theoretical knowledge X ± 0.5 σ was taken as the average rate; Х± 1,0 σ – was considered below average or above average rate; Х±1,5 σ – is considered as low or high rates.

In the Table 2 we can see the standards for assessing the theoretical knowledge of students, calculated on a 5-point sigmoid scale.

Table 2: The standards for assessing the theoretical knowledge of

students in the Faculty of Management and Economics

Levels of theoretical

knowledge of students

Educational program specialization

Organizational culture (n=49)


National economy (n=20)

Theory of games

High 5,0 - 4,33 4,93 - 4,37 5,0 - 4,51

Above average 4,32 - 3,67 4,36 - 3,79 4,5 - 3,71

Average 3,66 - 2,98 3,78 - 3,22 3,7 - 2,9

Below average 2,97 - 2,32 3,21 - 2,64 2,89 – 2.1

Low 2,31 - 1,64 2,63 - 2,07 2,09 – 1,3

Theoretical knowledge on the methodology and organization of game theory

High 4,88 - 4,21 4,83 - 4,27 5,0 - 4,36

Above average 4,2 - 3,56 4,26 - 3,69 4,35 - 3,56

Average 3,54 - 2,86 3,68 - 3,12 3,55 - 2,75

Below average 2,85 - 2,20 3,11 - 2,54 2,74 – 1,95

Low 2,19 - 1,52 2,53 - 1,97 1,94 – 1,15

A meaningful component of game theory

High 4,66- 4,22 5,0 - 4,81 5,0 - 4,50

Above average 4,21 - 3,77 4,80 - 4,23 4,49 - 3,98

Average 3,76 - 3,30 4,22 - 3,66 3,97 - 3,43

Below average 3,29 - 2,85 3,65 - 3,08 3,42 – 2.91

Low 2,84 - 2,40 3,07 - 2,51 2,90 – 2,37


306

Note: Further in the text, the following abbreviation as “Organizational Culture” (OC), “Organizational Culture and Management - OCM”; “National economy” – NE - will be used.

The received norms for evaluating the theoretical knowledge of

the theory of games made it possible to test their effectiveness among students attending the Faculty of Economics and Management in the 2017-18 school years. Thus, by analyzing the results of knowledge on the issues that are included in the “Theory of games” it was revealed that most students showed an average level: in the course “Organizational Culture” the index is 67.3%, in the course “Organizational culture and management” – it is 62.5%, and students who study the program specialization course “National Economy” have the index 55%. A quarter of students 25% of the program specialization course “Organizational Culture and Management” showed higher than the average level, those, who study “National Economy” had 20%, and students of the “Organizational Culture” course had 14 %. Indicators were - 15%; 12.5%; 12.2%, respectively, “National Economy”, “Organizational Culture”, “Organizational Culture and Management” showed a high level of knowledge in the theory of games. Insignificant figures of 6.1% and 5% were received in accordance with the program specialization “Organizational culture and management” and “National economy”, which corresponds to the level - below the average.

Assessment of students’ knowledge on the second issue - “The methodology and organization of the theory of games” revealed also the highest indicators with an average rate, respectively – it was 75,5 % on the program specialization “Organizational Culture”, it was 68,7% on the program specialization “Organizational culture and management” and it was 65% on el above average, so for students of “Organizational culture and management” it was - 18.8%, for students of “Organizational Culture” it was - 10.2%, and of “National Economy” - 10%. The third place takes the high level of knowledge, respectively – it was 12.5% in “Organizational Culture and Management”, it was 10% in “National Economy”, and 8.2% showed students of the specialization “Organizational Culture”.

Knowledge received on the third issue revealed that students of the program specialization “Organizational Culture” have such indicators: with an average level there were 63.3%, the above average showed 20.4% of students and 16.3% of students correspond to a high level. The students of the program specialization “Organizational culture and management” have such indicators: 37.5% showed an average level,


307

31.25% had above average, and the same percentage was detected with a high level. The program specialization “National Economy” showed that 50% of students have an average level of the content component, 30% - above the average, 20% - a high level.

At the same time, it was found, and we consider it positive, that there were no indicators with low level in each program specialization as “Organizational Culture”, “Organizational culture and management”, “National Economy”. Also, positive indicators were received for the content component. So, there are no indicators below the average level.

For the first time, the normative assessments of theoretical knowledge of students of the Faculty of Management and Economics in the discipline “Theory of games” were developed. Summarizing all the mentioned above, we can conclude that, in general, the level of theoretical knowledge and practical skills of students is satisfactory.

The proposed standards for assessing the theoretical knowledge of students of the Faculty of Management and Economics are aimed at revealing the potential of a student of the higher educational institution and improving the quality of professional training of specialists.

Of course, the conducted research does not find exhaustive solution of all the issues of this problem. The orientation of further research consists in need to develop special methodological recommendations that will contribute to the growth and enhancement of theoretical knowledge and practical skills of students in the subject “Theory of games”.


308


309

FORMATION OF HUMANITARIAN QUALITIES AMONG STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

Sanim Kozhayeva, Maira Rakhimzhanova, Kulyan Ibrayeva,

Gulzhan Muratova, Ainur Dzhumagalieva L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan S. Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University, Astana, Kazakhstan

Abstract: Problems of education of humanitarian qualities were considered in

theoretical and scientific methodical plan in researches of scientists-philosophers, psychologists, teachers. Principle of society `s humanism is the foundation of all modern conceptions of training and education. Preservation of cultural, ethical, humanitarian relations among people, development of relations man-man, man-nature, man-technology and also improvement of pedagogical conscience, cogitative, faculties, upbringing within the context of human spiritual values, training to conscious of conduct during the process of education are main outgoing directions from the moral impasse in society. Necessity of preventive measures of various cataclysms in contemporary world, necessity of improving educational problems in quite another progressive base shows the actuality of the given problem. That ìs why the development strategy of the independent Republic of Kazakhstan puts education and humanitarian upbringing of younger generation of the first place. The reason of it is in insufficient conscientious attitude to the environment, responsibility, i.e., in the lack of humanitarian qualities. From this point of view, we consider that there is an obvious contradiction between educational process of students and insufficient detection of possible separate studied disciplines and subjects. Pedagogue-psychological essence and the content of formation of humanistic qualities of university students were determined. Formation of humanistic qualities on the basis of the education theory was examined as a multi-level hierarchical system and the constructed model with its structural components was differentially analyzed. The definition to the concept "humanity" was also given.

Keywords: humanization, system, humanistic qualities, model, classification of world outlook, hierarchical system.

The main aim of pedagogics is innovation of pedagogical systems,

a decision of major problems of education and training, at that there are many scientific tasks before pedagogics, especially in one of its branches of the theory of education.

Problems of education of humanitarian qualities were considered in theoretical and scientific methodical plan in researches of scientists-philosophers, psychologists, teachers. Principle of society `s humanism is the foundation of all modern conceptions of training and education.1

1 H. N. Sadykova, Ye. V. Ignatova, Ju. Z. Bogdanova, A. Sh. Khamidullina, M. G. Kastornova, S. I. Korenkova, “Value Orientations of Russian Youth During Transformation Period”, in Man in India, 97 (22), 2017, part 3, pp. 141-154.


310

Preservation of cultural, ethical, humanitarian relations among people, development of relations man-man, man-nature, man-technology and also improvement of pedagogical conscience, cogitative, faculties, upbringing within the context of human spiritual values, training to conscious of conduct during the process of education are main outgoing directions from the moral impasse in society.2

Necessity of preventive measures of various cataclysms in contemporary world, necessity of improving educational problems in quite another progressive base shows the actuality of the given problem. That ìs why the development strategy of the independent Republic of Kazakhstan puts education and humanitarian upbringing of younger generation of the first place. The reason of it is in insufficient conscientious attitude to the environment, responsibility, i.e., in the lack of humanitarian qualities. From this point of view, we consider that there is an obvious contradiction between educational process of students and insufficient detection of possible separate studied disciplines and subjects.

In accordance with the overall processes of «humanism », theoretical and practical tendencies of consideration and development of humanitarian qualities were meant. The main practical value acquires formation.

In the state educational policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan of last years and in conceptions of forming new social-ethical conducts among citizens of Kazakhstan, education direction and upbringing of younger generation within the context of human values were taken as a basis. It is emphasized that content of upbringing and principles of realization must rely on humanity.

The main aim of upbringing humanitarian principles is the formation of student`s world outlook, consciousness and humanity. But in different research works the solution of problem tasks of forming humanitarian qualities, based on theory of education, and its main concepts-theoretical and methodical bases were insufficient. In the course of education, it necessary to use new paradigm, the newest approaches and necessary specific optimal researches.

In addition of no small importance of index`s actuality is the idea in state programmer of education development of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2005-2010 about education on the basis of national

2 T. D. Kosintseva, N. G. Khairullina, I. N. Gluhih, E. N. Pryakhina, A. Yu. Nikiforov, Ju. Z. Bogdanova, “The life of young Russia: Value orientations and life paths”, in Espacios, 38 (56), 2017, p. 25.


311

culture, freedom-loving, respecting himself and people, humanitarian citizen.

Aim of research: Definition and task solution of theoretical bases of forming student`s humanitarian qualities and its practical implementation.

Scientific novelty and theoretical significance of research: -pedagogical and psychological essence and content of forming

humanitarian qualities among students in higher educational establishments were defined

-problem tasks of forming humanitarian qualities in contemporary concepts of theory of education were revealed.

-formation of humanitarian qualities on the bases of theory of education was considered as many-leveled hierarchic system and the model was created, their structural components were analyzed and definition to the concept «humanism» was given as well.

-Special course on forming humanitarian qualities among students «Tarbienin tamyry-izgilikte».

Sphere of application: Separate scientific and pedagogical components of hierarchic structure and conceptual model of forming humanitarian qualities may be used in educational process in higher and secondary vocational educational establishments and also in the system of improving of the teacher staff `s qualification.

Though the research doesn`t aspire to the whole inclusion of all problems of forming humanitarian characteristics it made it possible to solve a member of essential tasks of this problem. Perspective of subsequent research work may be connected with application of new progressive approaches and applications of complex methods of real forming of the given qualities.

Methodological framework

Methodical and theoretical bases of research are: principles of

philosophy about morality, humanism, system, direction on a person, teaching about values, theory of education, knowledge paradigm, theory of activity, communication, human`s rights, inner world development, relation to society and environment, concepts of ethnical and political level of culture.

Methods of research: analysis of theory and methodology of philosophical, psychological and pedagogical problems covered in scientific-methodical literature according to the subject of research, studying from normative documents on theory of education,


312

development and extending scientific and pedagogical bases of forming student`s humanitarian characteristics (documents, analyses, inspection of content of education ); systematic modeling; diagnostic methods (questionnaire, interview, testing, discussions and so on ), supervision, pedagogical experiment, conclusion of experimental works, results (classification, comparison, mathematical processing).


To educational process of Eurasian National University named

after L. N. Gumilev, Aktubinsk pedagogical institute, Aktubinsk regional institute of teaching staff``s improvement qualifications, Aktubinsk University named ofter S. Baishev:

-Scientifically well-founded, many-leveled hierarchic system «formation of humanitarian qualities on the bases of theory of education was inculcated»;

-Conceptual model of forming humanitarian qualities and scientific definition of the concept “humanism” is given in two conceptual directions;

- Special course “Tarbienin tamyry-izgilikte” was worked out and it is conceptually directed at forming humanitarian qualities among students

-Educational supplier “Tarbie teoriasy” (“Theory of education”) was worked out according to credit technology based on contemporary concepts of theory of education.

The worked out many-leveled hierarchic system and conceptual model of forming humanitarian qualities that were in the base of held experimental works let them increase efficiency of criteria and indices as motivated, necessary, cognitive and aimed as well as in active spheres.

To determine the theoretical basis of good communication skills and habits we have considered the unity and features of knowledge concepts “humanness”, “humanity”, “relationship,” “morality” and “action”. We have taken into account the scientific papers and published literatures dedicated to the educational concepts in order to analyze and determine the final results.

The great Kazakh writer Abai Kunanbaev assumed “The symbol of high moral quality is to feel compassion to people and aspiration for beauty”.3

3 A. Kunanbayev, Ideology and philosophy, Almaty, Gylym, 1995


313

A. Kunanbaev wrote in his word nineteen “A child is not born a reasonable being. It is only by listening and watching, examining everything by touching and tasting, that it learns what is good and what is bad”.4 We have come up to the conclusion that wisdoms of adults are important to bring up the good qualities of young people.

His thirty seventh word: "He who works for his own benefit alone is like an animal that grazes to fill its own stomach; but he who works to fulfill his human duty, the Most High will distinguish by His love”5 seems related with words of Kazakh philosopher Y. Altynsarin “God blesses and supports”.

Kudaiberdiev Shakarim being in the track of Abai attempted to determine the poetic, philosophical and pedagogical phenomenon through the considering the beliefs and ideas of national consciousness entrenched in Kazakh history. Shakarim analyzed the great educators and scientists directions. Work of Shakarim “Belief” consisting a cycle of poems was written in terms of eastern philosophic works. He summarized his thoughts as "... human qualities of the bravery, the courage, wisdom and strength, agility are called mercifulness and decency".6

M. Zhumabaev presented the conception definition as “Humanity is the interest to be helpful people in any place and any time. To deny the evilness is the pursuit of humanity. To be a human he should love not only himself and his family, but also all mankind in general”.7

In accordance with the philosophical definition humanitarian actions and relationships are the special concept and type appearing in the process of life, as well as the dependence of people on humanity for mutual relationship in everyday life. The individual properties as goodwill, charity, respect and disagreement with the cruelty and rudeness is the humanity.8

The concept of humanism in Kazakh pedagogical and encyclopedic dictionary is given as “Humanism is the concept of properties as the mannerliness, politeness, ingenuity and simplicity. Well mannered person is that one who has been well brought up and be able to use his good qualities in life”.9 We have seen that the concept of

4 Ibidem, p. 112. 5 Y. Altynsarin, Сollection of the best works, Almaty, Rauan, 1994. 6 S. Kudaiberdiev, Three truths, Almaty, “Kazakhstan”; “Gakliya”, 1991. 7 M. Zhumabaev, Pedagogy, Almaty, Ana tili, 1992. 8 М. Rakhimzhanova, “Education of positive qualities of a national character”, in Scientific journal "Vestnik" of the Eurasian National University, 5 (120), (2017), pp. 218-221. 9 B. R. Aitmambetova, K. Bozzhanov, A. Ilyasov (comps.), The Kazakh Dictionary of


314

“humanism” is given covering different levels of science in general. The definition of ethics and courtesy is given in terms of the educational components of moral ethics qualities as sententiousness, sanity, humanness and regardfulness.

M. Shahanov presumed “Mothers are the pillar of humanness, propagating good qualities bringing up their children to perform a duty to their country”. He also conceived “Does humanness take its rise from the charity?”.10 The poet reached the conclusion stating the charity as the key component of humanity referring to the interconnection of the morality and nature.

Sh.A. Amonashvili11 has created the human behavior basic principle of the pedagogical process. A.A. Beysenbaeva identified the didactic ways of humanization of knowledge12 in scientific and educational work

К. Ibrayeva13 stated that we should create and organize the education of generation with the modern content, quality and technology. She captures the essence of education in terms of environmental and socio-cultural phenomenon and integrated approach of formation the humanity of higher education students. She presented the educational attainment and level as the professional development dynamics of teachers.

Educator and scientist A. V. Petrovsky assumed “The basis of humanness is to be able to put himself in someone’s place and act in a way that is convenient for him”.14

And D.N. Uznadze stated "The basis of good relationship and humanness are the transition of objectivity to subjectivity through the knowledge, confidence and act”.15

Humanness is the categorical ability found in all people. As well as the “humanness” the concepts of “ethics”, "etiquette", “politeness” and “mannerliness” have been taken the rise from the works of Greek

Pedagogical Encyclopedia, Almaty, RBC, 1995. 10 Sh. Aitmatov, M. Shakhanov, Horse riding, Almaty, Rauan, 1997. 11 Sh. A. Amonashvili, Personal-humane basis of the pedagogical process, Minsk, University, 1990. 12 A. A. Beisenbaeva, Theory and practice of humanizing school education: monograph, Almaty, Gylym, 1998. 13 K. Ibrayeva, R. Оmarova, B. E Abenova, “The influence of ethnopedagogical education on the personal professionalism formation”, in Science and world international scientific Journal, 6 (10), (2014), pp. 26-32. 14 V. A. Petrovsky, Personality phenomenon of subjectivity, Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix, 1993. 15 D. N. Uznadze, Experimental basis of psychology of installation, Tbilisi, Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the GSSR, 1961.


315

philosophers and established as the “Moral theory” and “Moral sense”. Scientists investigated the ethics, politeness and professional ethics I.S. Kon,16 E. Farkash,17 state that the concepts of humanity, humanness and ethics are related and become clearer by their interconnection and identity; as well as explaining the development concept and specificity of them in terms of the traditions, beliefs, culture and mentality. According to the conducted research results of scientists we come to the conclusion that humanness has been studied differently at the different times. The nature and moral values are manifested in different nationalities experience. Educational formation the humanity of the students of every student is the main social and state problem.

The purpose of scientific publications is concerned about upbringing, education and humanization concepts of future specialists. Firstly, we should methodize formation the humanity of the students and apply “The educational theory” content to the higher education pedagogical subjects. The main idea of the concept: If they start to treasure the humanness in their heart, we will be able to fill gaps evolved in modern times. If humanity, morality and mannerliness are basic to the humanness, all good qualities of a person can be comprised. We think that all these qualities develop in harmony with the vital interests18 (Fig. 1, 2). Based upon the principle of M.A. Imanbekov: “Make humanness the needle, morality the button; destroy the evil foundation, my son”,19 according to this it is obvious that formation the humanity of the students will be effective. In higher educational institutions educational process of preparing future teachers is carried out on the basis of the education and special educational work content. Thus, professor should know the law of education process, growth and qualification characteristics.20 The student’s professional competence, psychological readiness, professionally skills and qualification, formation the humanity of the students, consciousness under the influence of the educational process change variously in different ages. Hereby, according to the

16 I. S. Kon, Sociology of personality, Moscow, Politizdat, 1967. 17 E. Farkash, Moral and revolutionary about the ethical legacies of K. Marx and F. Engels, Moscow, Politizdat, 1979. 18 S. K. Kozhayeva, Theoretical and methodological foundations of good in the educational space: monograph, Astana, L. N. Gumilev publishing, 2013. 19 G. Muratova, “The role of information technology in society”, in Electronic scientific journal, 1(4), (2016), pp. 340-343. 20 A. Yermentayeva, F. Zhumabekova, A M. Aitysheva, B. Sh. Baizhumanova, A. Р. Mandykayeva, “Personal Factors of Coping Strategies for Undergraduate Students”, in The Social Sciences, 10 (6), (2015), pp. 1516-1522.


316

reviewed literatures about the humanness all scientific works have been covered systemic theory, analysis and approaches partially. We should educate the future leaders’ national consciousness, cultural realities and humanness of our independent country. It is crucial to consider the effective ways of educational work through the research-based approaches.

According to the Pedagogical Education Statement of Higher Education Institution of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Astana, 2005) “A new generation of teachers should master their subject, be able to identify and acknowledge the students’ talents and organize their actions”. To meet the targets we have planned the following steps:

- Formation of an individual professional orientation;

- Organize the system “Person-to-person" correctly; transition of students from objectivity to subjectivity actions;

- Professional development in terms of humanity;

- Formation the pedagogical creative orientation on the basis of humanity (self-recognition, evaluation, improvement and development, etc.);

- Complement the education content on the basis of national and mankind values as well as the humanness.

Therefore, we have analyzed the goal and principles, content, mechanism, criteria of effectiveness and ratings of domestic and foreign educational concepts. Summarize such views helps to explain readers the conceptual views of the preparers more systematically, completely and shortly, as well as to see the educational concept of humanity as the whole complex. Only the person absorbed all good qualities will be able to follow the historical and cultural traditions. Comparing the concepts of Russia and Kazakhstan we come to the conclusion that main value and ideas of all mankind and nationalities concur in one point. It is crucial to say that this issue has been the main agenda of all times and nationalities. According to the "Educational theory of humanity formation system" concept the society humanization problem is considered at the societal level of formation the humanity of the students in terms of new scientific content and maximizing the vital needs of it.


317

Figure 1: The interconnection of humanity values

Figure 2: The development levels of a humanization process

System is the process of coming to the aim through studying

individual parts of a problem. It is explained by the fact that we can investigate complex and versatile aspects of a complicated problem in one direction. Such analysis shows the problem of bringing up good qualities in a future nation and whole society. Complicated and multifold problems of upbringing humanity in a person are emerged from the complexity of elements comprised in the process and the interaction among them. Thus, multidimensionality and ambiguity of forming of good qualities in a student reveals using systemic analysis and modeling in studying objectives of the problem as an advantageous solution. Respect to the traditions and customs of our nation which have been kept through centuries, praising and spreading them is considered to be a symbol of humanism. Upbringing of a person is a vital factor in the consciousness of our nation. Social and economic formations in the society can change features of upbringing, however they could alter the national its feature. Different nations have diverse ways and methods of

Goodness

Humanness

Humanity Morality

Mannerlin

ess


318

nurturing humanity in its person. We should esteem and take care of traditions and customs, invaluable legacy which was kept by our ancestry. The system of forming humanity on the basis of “The Theory of Upbringing” is consisted of two crucial systemic components (Figure 3). They are the levels of formation “society-person-humanity-nature” and “society-basic culture-humanity” relations. They can be declined by six levels of hierarchic development. The first topical systematic component, we would like to highlight is “society-person-humanity-nature”.

As an integral part of human nature, it influences the transducer dialectics of society and nature as a varying force. The society takes a leading role in an interaction between society and nature, and the nature changes in a course of a public practice. In this case the key component of the system called “public-human-humanity” is classified into "humanitarian and public relations” and “humanity and natural relations” elements.

Let us focus on these key system components. The first "humanitarian and public relations” element (1.1) comprises six structural elements. Overall it aims at bases,features and solving various issues arising from the problem of "humanitarian and public relations”. The second “humanity and natural relations” element compiles six structural elements. In general, the element of “humanity and natural relations” concerns the analysis and the search of humanizing processes which regard natural issues.


319

Let us prospect the second key component of the system called "humanity-basic culture-society". This key structural element consists of eight components. They are: "personal humanity" (2.1) and "family humanity" (2.2), "social humanity" (2.3), "public humanity" (2.4), "political humanity" (2.5), "the doctrine of environmental humanity" ( 2.6), "religious and ideological humanity" (2.7), "humanity of folk pedagogy" (2.8).21

Summing up, the key component called "humanity-basic culture-society" is based on clarifying the course of the personal, political, social, public, ecological, ideological, national pedagogy. Accordingly, thirty-five elements were comprehensively analyzed in this system.

Therefore, taking into account six evolutional principles of "a forming system of beneficent qualities on the basis of upbringing theory", we have built the contents system through differentiation and integration. the system’s structural composition consists of the two key components of the system, ten elements, forty-seven lower-level elements. Based on the structural composition of "a forming system of beneficent qualities on the basis of upbringing theory ", it has an urgent goal to make students fully and effectively comprehend humanity qualities.

Considering thoroughly "a forming system of beneficent qualities on the basis of upbringing theory" (FSBQOBUT) pointed out above, we came to conclusion that it is in a complex dynamic system.

Together with the complexity of the system, which includes multidimensional and multi-value, multi-factor, multi-social, political, social, environmental, economic, religious, ideological, national pedagogy, quality of life and personal development processes humanity has a strong impact its formation. The dynamic basis of the system development are derived from the continuous development of economic, environmental, social, humanity processes.

Accordingly, FSBQOBUT system causes the formation of the students’ humanity qualities. In a process of teaching an upbringing theory we can achieve positive results on the basis of the laws of "humanity-basic culture-society. We have speculated upon two different conceptual senses of the word “humanity “. They are: the formation of humanity from the professional point of view; the formation of

21 S. K. Kozhayeva, Theoretical and methodological foundations of good in the educational space: monograph, Astana, L. N. Gumilev Publishing, 2013.


320

humanity from the social point of view. Therefore, we have found a new complete definition of “humanity” accordance to these two senses.22

“Humanity” from the universal point of view is a development of the qualities of the society and existence complexity and the quality of inspiring.

“Humanity” from the professional point of view is a students’ quality of assessing and developing themselves in a professional area.23

During the research we have made up the structural illustration of students’ humanity conclusion24 (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Structural illustration of students’ humanity conclusion

The ways of forming humanity qualities, types of establishing,

methods, contents’ structural components and stages were given consistently and coherently. We have aimed at humanity’s formation based on theoretical and empirical knowledge, development of one’s personality. The aims were reached with the help of certain pedagogical principles. New ways of enabling students to learn and practice humanity qualities on their own, be responsible, intend to study, learn science, technique, basic culture was obtained. All the necessary measurements, marks to assess the level of humanity are given in the conclusion. They have been made in higher educational institutes. The second stage of formative experiment focuses on establishing the following content outcomes: Cause, necessity (interesting, thoughts, points of view), cognitional and target (comprehending the knowledge of universal qualities), activity (to extrapolate theoretical knowledge into empirical).

22 Ibidem. 23 Ibidem. 24 Ibidem.


321

Measurement indexes are found as the results of theoretical analysis. On its base we have carried out questionnaires, answer-reply diagnosis, solution of pedagogical tasks, tests, out-of-class events, and high lightened three levels of forming humanity on the basis of the structures and conclusions given.

The high level: students have enough theoretical knowledge to apply it to practice. They can develop humanity in themselves on their own. They have a profound comprehension of universal qualities.

The medium level: Students have a notion of universal qualities, though cannot distinguish them, do not apply theory to practice.

The lower level: students do not have sufficient knowledge about humanity qualities, individual point of view or behavior is still not formed.

To sum up, it is necessary to form humanity qualities in the higher educational institutes, qualities must be taught according to pedagogical paradigm. Only in this case student will be able to proof his statements, to learn, to listen and formulate his own thoughts.

To obey these rules humanity upbringing must be an inseparable part of any lesson. That is why teacher makes up new certain tasks to observe students. Completing the task, one can form his attitude toward humanity. We suggest that only a student who is open to new discoveries can deeply understand and extrapolate humanity qualities to practice.

According to the questionnaires and tests, students neglect a strong necessity of humanity. More than 50% of all the students answered the questions in a negative or ambiguous manner (Table 1, Figure 5).

Table 1: Cognitional and target index of humanity quality

0%

50%

lowerlevel

mediumlevel

highlevel

observation group

experimental group

Figure 5: The dynamics of detective experiment stage

Observation group Experimental group

The name of the lesson

Level

Criterion

Number of participants

Index The name of the lesson

Criterion

Number of participants

Index

N % N %

Upbrin-ging theory

high Cognitional and target

120 40

33

Upbringing theory

Cognitional and target

140 45 32.5

medium

120 50

42

140 55 39

lower 120 30

25

140 40 28.5


322

The dynamics of detective experiment stage illustrates that the medium level of index is the most developed one. The target to define and form humanity qualities is not developed enough. Therefore, it is necessary to do an extra work devoted to cultivate the qualities. The methodic called “unfinished sentence” and the other pedagogical situations were conducted to detect the level of activity index among students (Table 2, Figure 6).

Table 2: Activity index of humanity quality

Observation group Experimental group

The name of the lesson

Level

Criterion

Number of partici-pants

Index The name of the lesson

Criterion

Number of partici-pants

Index

N % N %

Upbringing theory

High activity 120 45 37.5 Upbringing theory

activity 140 55 39

medium

120 55 46 140 65 47

lower 120 20 16 140 20 14

The analysis carried out could not properly show student’s

empirical abilities since students did not thoroughly comprehend humanity qualities theory. That is why the outcome has a medium level as a dominant one. According to the detective experiment, students’ level of humanity is low. (Figure 6).

Figure 6: The dynamics of detective experiment stage

There is a great number of methods to develop humanity qualities

in students. The way we suggest is to teach students humanity through conducting “upbringing theory”. We prefer modern concepts of upbringing, because they suit and strongly influence growing-up minds, feelings and scopes. We have scrutinized various sides of upbringing


323

concept in our paper. Putting to the fore its main idea, we have made the contents of a formative experiment.

A special course matching the requirements of credit system was put to the fore in the formative experiment. The course was done as an auxiliary methodical tool. In the end of each lecture report topics, different tasks, literature was proposed by both a teacher and a student.

Therefore, we tried to make the students thoroughly comprehend humanity qualities by, firstly, extending their knowledge during the experiment, and, secondly, teaching criticize, bring up and assess themselves.

In order to form cognitive-target index of students’ good qualities, during the formative experiment we paid attention to works in the direction of upbringing humanity through humanity values. As a result of such works, students of experimental group gained knowledge about humanity categories, theoretical knowledge was formed. Moreover, they acquired the skill of applying theoretical knowledge in practice, improved self-developing and self-upbringing processes (Table 3, Figure 7).

Table 3: Index of development students’ good qualities level on the basis of “Upbringing Theory” (cognitive-target)

As it is shown in the table 3, cognitive-target index of developing

students’ good qualities level increased. For instance, the upper level of cognitive-target index has grown from 32.5% to 37.7%, middle level 39%-43.6%, the lower level has decreased from 28.5% to 20.7%. These indexes are slightly different in observation group: upper level is between 33%-35%, middle level – 42%-42.5%, so decrease index is 25%-22.5%. These indexes depict the effectiveness of our experiment in the direction of developing students’ good qualities on the basis of “the Theory of Upbringing”25 (Figure 7).

25 I. S. Kon, Sociology of personality, Moscow, Politizdat, 1967.

Experimental group Observation group

Before After Before After

Levels

Num.

N(ind.)

% Num.

N(ind.)

% Num.

N(ind.)

% Num.

N(ind.)

%

Upper

140

45 32.5

140

50 37.7

120

40 33

120

42 35

Middle

140

55 39 140

61 43.6

120

50 42

120

51 42.5

Lower

140

40 28.5

140

29 20.7

120

30 25

120

27 22.5


324

During the experiment dedicated to identifying the level of students’ good qualities formation we identified the lack of practical application of theoretical knowledge and skills of students.Opinions written by suggested method of “Unfinished sentence” did not show the use of good qualities in pedagogical processes. Thus, we utilized methods that help to develop humanity in students: competitions, questionnaire, solving pedagogical issues, imitational games, tests.

Figure 7: Dynamics of formative experiment level

The result revealed the increase in formation of humanity in an

experimental students’ group: upper level 39%-43%, middle level 47%-52%, and lower level 14%-5%. Comparative analysis shows that indicator of increasing and decreasing is low: upper level 37.5%-40%, middle level 46%-49%, lower level 16.5%-11% (Table 4, Figure 8). So, the main condition of developing learning process for teachers is organizing special methods in order to form humanity.

Table 4. Students’ humanity development level index

Experimental group Observation group

Before After Before After

Levels Num.

N(ind.)

% Num.

N(ind.)

% Num.

N(ind.)

% Num.

N(ind.)

%

Upper 140 55 39 140 60 43 120 45 37.5 120 48 40

Middle 140 65 47 140 73 52 120 55 46 120 59 49

Lower 140 20 14 140 7 5 120 20 16.5 120 13 11

Figure 8: Dynamics of formative experiment level


325

To sum up, the system suggested by us gave positive results in humanity upbringing on the basis of the Upbringing Theory. Therefore, the experiment revealed that upbringing good qualities in higher education institutions gave good results when the principles were used in a right way.

The results gained during the research gave us an opportunity to make following conclusion:

1. Good qualities upbringing on the basis of the Theory of upbringing among higher education students is one of the crucial pedagogical problems.

2. According to changes in the society (political, social, economic, scientific), the issue of upbringing humanity is considered on the state level.

3. It is beneficial to follow modern upbringing theory in the process of developing humanity.

4. In order to form students’ good qualities in higher education it is vital to conduct scientific research, to develop knowledge. It can be gained through the increase of interest and the development of individual necessity, actions, cognition and purposefulness.

5. It is a topical issue to consider the unity of qualities such as humanity, courtesy, morality. Definition of the concept “humanity” was given on the basis of two concepts.

6. The system of formation god qualities was worked out on the basis of “the Theory of upbringing”. The system was considered as a complex, multi-level hierarchic and dynamic system. The system comprises two large actual systematic components. Their interaction was differentiated through 6 social formations and the development of their interconnection was shown. Connection between humanity and basic culture was determined. Dynamics of good qualities depicted the conflicts between the society and nature.

7. The model of formation of good qualities through principles was presented.

8. In order to develop human qualities in students, methodical instrument of special course program was worked out. Appeared a methodological opportunity of making efficient conclusion in humanity formation in a classroom and out-of-class lessons.

Recommendations On the basis of the mentioned above conclusion, we suggested the

following recommendations:


326

-Formation of students’ good qualities in higher education institutions should be realized in a systematic way (content of a discipline, instruments, special course, self-works, out-of-class lessons).

-Indexes of good qualities formation should be clarified (reasoning and aiming, necessity and cognition, actions) and implemented in the educational process.

-The content of the “Upbringing theory” should be completed modern principles.

-Teacher should be guided by the conceptual model, which was worked out based on the composite components of good qualities formation (aim, objectives, principles content, methods, forms and results).


327

TRANSMEDIA SKILLS AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE 21ST CENTURY PROFESSIONAL: STRUCTURE AND

DEVELOPMENT

Elena Agrikova, Marina Voronina, Elena Kashina, Victoria Levchenko

Samara University, Samara, Russian Federation

Abstract: Defining necessary skills of the 21st century professional is an up-to-date issue of discussion in vocational pedagogy. In the research, transmedia skills are proposed as an integral part of a professional that determine abilities to present oneself in media sources and to organize an effective networking. The aim of the research is to define the skills based on transmedia theory and to prove the effectiveness of implementing transmedia skills into the course of the English language. Various methods are used-questionnaires, tests, rubrics and pedagogical observations. The results of the research show that transmedia skills can have positive impact on the efficacy of professional skills and level of English of undergraduate students.

Keywords: transmedia theory, vocational pedagogy, transmedia skills, development of professional skills, online self-presentation, professional culture.

In light of growing concerns over rapid developing of our society,

the body of research on higher education and preparation of future specialists (Bachelor and Master programs) must respond to the requirements of the development. Much attention has been focused on the importance of well-educated, comprehensive specialists to the success of future job places and individual careers. They have to work in different situations, solve all professional problems. This research focuses on trying to understand more about professional culture, its components and new improvements that are obliged to be present in educational programs.

Facing the reality, we observe that university graduates lack the skills necessary for working in chosen industry. The situation is lamentable-young people cannot find work, employers cannot find proper workers. According to MGI, medium-sized employers (50 to 500 employees) had 13 unfilled initial positions, large employers - had 27 unfilled initial positions.1 Almost 40% of employers surveyed the main reason cited the lack of vacancies they need was the skills of the

1 G. Milov, "Who is to blame for the fact that college graduates cannot find jobs, and companies - to hire the right people", in Vedomosti Paper, December 19, (2012), pp. 5-6.


328

graduates.2 This, problem of incompetence in education should be solved by incorporating teaching those skills that will be helpful at every stage of career and progress development.

The idea of lifelong learning3 has become one of the basic concepts in education sphere. Speaking about Russia, the government has a functional federal program, which sets completely new educational standards and requirements for specialists. It includes well-developed competencies in a lot of fields, especially in professional development. That is why the development of specialists’ professional culture is an extremely important field of education. To make lifelong learning paradigm sustainable in Russia educators need to develop those skills that can be applied at every work place. Moreover, these skills should be of universal nature-they are to help future specialists adapt to fast-pace reality and constantly changing world.

One of such skills is self-presentation-a very important part of nowadays successful image of a professional. A lot of studies4 demonstrated that it is an inevitable part of our modern world. How can we teach students to use the facilities of web space for their professional sake? How can we help students convert their hobby-like activities on the Internet to their would-be professional space for career development? Transmedia skills can be observed as a derivative phenomenon, as a reflection of a world-wide trend-transmedia. A lot of scientists5 present it as a complex structure with one main principle-represented information is not repeated in each source, but braced up piece by piece through multiple platforms. We observe transmedia skills as a part of professional culture of a future specialist as they can be important in every professional field. Transmedia skills can be studied

2 N. Chistyakova, M. Semenova, V. Spitsin, Ph. Paquet, "Problems of educational processes development and labor market needs analysis in Russia", in Social and Behavioral Sciences, no. 19, (2015), pp. 309-316. 3 A. Hasan, D. Asprin, J. Chapman, M. Hatton, Y. Sawano "A monitoring framework and trends in participation", in Springer International Handbooks of Education, no. 2, (2001), pp. 19-26. 4 B. Marcus, F. Machilek, A. Schütz, "Personality in cyberspace: personal web sites as media for personality expressions and impressions", in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, no. 6, (2006), pp. 1014-1031; Y. Amichai-Hamburger, G. Vinitzky "Social network use and personality", in Computers in Human Behavior, no. 6, (2010), pp. 1289-1295; K. Moore, J. C. McElroy, "The influence of personality on Facebook usage, wall postings, and regret", in Computers in Human Behavior, no. 1, (2012), pp. 267-274. 5 H. Jenkins, Convergence culture. Where old and new media collide, New York, New York University Press, 2008; K. Moloney, "Building Transmedia Journalism", in Transmedia Journalism, no. 6, (2014), pp. 59-66.


329

through several subjects, but in our case, we implement it into the course of the English language. A discussion of the findings and their implications follows.

Professional culture: basic concepts and components

In order to determine the nature of the concept "professional

culture" we have considered its definition in the scientific and methodological literature. There are different approaches in defining "professional culture", we agree with the supporters of the activity approach to the study of the concept of "professional culture".6 In this research, we define professional culture as a system of values and personal qualities, goals, system tools, methods and technologies of professional activities, as well as the organizational component.

The analysis of research papers allows us to identify the concept of "professional culture" of a specialist as the sum of the following components: values and motivation; knowledge; communication; information and methodology and reflective component.

Values and motivation are the most vital components in the make-up of a future professional. A lot of scientists7 came to the conclusion that motivation arouses, energizes, directs, and sustains behaviour and performance; the process of stimulating people to action and to achieve a desired task. One way of stimulating people is to employ effective motivation, which makes workers more satisfied with and committed to their jobs.8

Values and motivation component includes values part which reflects specialist’s readiness to carry out professional activities in accordance with the system of values and the surrounding situation and motivation part which includes set of conditions determining the content, direction and nature of an activity.

6 I. M. Model, "Professional culture: (general sociological aspect)" Author Diss, Cand. sociol. Sciences, Sverdlovsk, (1983), 18 p.; A. N. Lymar, Vocational culture pedagogical higher schools: sociological analysis, Thesis abstract, A. M. Gorky Ural State University, Ekaterinburg, 2008. 7 F. Luthans, Organisational Behaviour, Boston, Irwin McGraw Press, 1998; J. B. Miner, B. Ebrahimi, J. M. Wachtel, "How deficiency in management contributes to the United States' competiveness problem and what can be done about it?", in Human Resource Managemen, no. 12, (1995), pp. 363-369. 8 T. Adeyinka, C. O. Ayeni, S. O. Popoola, Work motivation, job satisfaction, and organisational commitment of library personnel in academic and research libraries in Oyo State, Nigeria, retrieved from: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac.


330

Knowledge component reflects the degree of formation of the theoretical, technological and methodological knowledge, and the necessary awareness of the importance and value of knowledge, not only for himself but also for his professional activity, as well as for professional development.

Communication component includes well-developed communicative skills ensure that the specialist will be able to interact with society, also its ability to present oneself within domestic and international professional communities.

Information and methodology component includes well-developed informational and methodical skills ensure that the specialist will be able to design professional processes, to recognize, formulate and creatively solve professional problems, to use modern technologies and methods in professional activity.

Reflective component includes developed ability to self-analyze and self-correction.

We would like to point out the communication component which contains: the basis of verbal culture, ability to communicate, organizational skills, readiness for team work, self-presentation.

One of the weakest point is self-presentation, as it is not presented in the curricula at all. This skill belongs to soft skills that are desirable qualities for certain forms of employment that do not depend on acquired knowledge: they include common sense, the ability to deal with people, and a positive flexible attitude. We decided to research this problem - how could this skill be developed in future specialists? And we come up with the idea that transmedia skills can play this role and become an integral part of the 21st-century professional.

Background on transmedia

Term “transmedia” originally came from journalism as a mean of

media communication where it denotes a specific form of narration that unfolds through different forms of languages (verbal, iconic, etc.) and means of media (videos, photos and pictures, etc). The main feature of it is that the story is not repeated in all forms of narration, but contributes to the construction of it.

Henry Jenkins, the author of this term, produced the core concepts of transmedia storytelling that are:

● World-building stands for participatory culture-the changing of roles of consumers who interact with the producers. Now consumers


331

prefer to seek out new information and absorb it in their own way, which is possible today due to the interlinked nature of the Internet.

● Senility means that the creator of the story should always search for new media platforms and new development of the information given.

● Subjectivity focuses on consumers experiencing different perspective blends.

● Performance inspires readers to produce and perform their own storytelling that can invigorate scenario innovation of the story.

● With the use of spreadability and drillability the creator can report stories faster to the larger public.

● Continuity and multiplicity help to unfold the story in separate lines and across the diversed media.

● Immersion and extractability provide the reader’s dipping into the story (Jenkins, 2008).

In other words, in a more classic strategy, one usually has a product and builds around ita narrative, which is replicated in multiple channels (film, official site, a mobile App, social profiles or even offline channels), all used accordingly to their natures but always presenting the same story. In transmedia, instead, one creates a “Bible” around a topic, and develops subjective and distinctive visions of that topic depending of the channels that are decided to be used. The conventional example is Lego. Audience get used to it as a toy for children. But in reality, it is a huge world that is made of films, social nets, games, theme parks, and mobile apps. Lego Story is created through all these platforms and it is a pleasure for the fans to find and collect all the pieces of the whole Lego world. To sum up, traditional media means that there are different parts of media, but they are not connected with each other. Transmedia is aimed at the main principle-whole is more satisfying than the sum of the parts: euphoria of collecting pieces.

Usage of transmedia

As we see, transmedia can serve in two ways: 1. As a self-presenting tool transmedia can help to present a

would-be professional in one’s professional media sphere. For instance, the professionals in Russia are very closed. Most of Russian people do not present their achievements on the Web, most of them have no web-site or a place where they can display goals. This leads to complete obscurity of Russian professionals. Simply, no one knows that Russia has a lot of talented people. Transmedia can help to solve this problem.


332

2. As a teaching tool, transmedia involves the usage of one or more channels to develop a coherent story involving a specific content or topic, allowing students both to research and comprehend it, and to conceptualize it in such a way that they can adapt it to the different formats. Additionally, this method allows students to get deeply involved in the process of creating content, teaching them how to write, film, edit video, animate, code, or whatever task is needed to complete each project.

First of all, transmedia can serve as a handy tool in self-presentation. Self-presentation is a type of behavior that attempts to convey some information about oneself or some image of oneself to other people. Self-presentation is the process by which individuals are concerned with the impression they make on others in social situations.9 Nowadays, the social situation is established through an online professional setting. There the audience consists of any individuals who are able to access one’s profile. These are possible employers, head-hunters, colleagues.

Online professional networks offer the opportunity to facilitate social relations in business contexts. Online networking is becoming part of our daily life-whether for private or for business reasons. In sum, professional networks offer a modern way of collecting business cards. They support users in finding jobs, people, and other opportunities. Furthermore, users can become part of groups and demonstrate their professional knowledge in online discussions. Employers can list jobs, and screen potential candidates. It also can be used for scientific reasons to perform one’s scientific achievements and to find like-minded people for future researches.

Transmedia competency

We figured out transmedia competency as an integral part of a

professional that determine abilities to present oneself in media sources and to organize an effective networking. Transmedia as self-presentation means that a person creates a web space where he / she can present everything that is connected with his/her personality. Transmedia competency contains the following knowledge and skills:

1. know the principles of transmedia;

9 J. Reid, F. Gilardi, "Transmedia teaching framework: from group projects to curriculum development" Innovative language teaching and learning, (2016), www.reference.research-publishing.net.


333

2. know the importance of using them; 3. ability to find necessary information in different sources; 4. ability to find the main idea; 5. ability to generalize; 6. ability to produce comprehensive product; 7. ability to modify information into the product; 8. ability to reflect the product; 9. ability to critically estimate one’s work. Also, we figured out the principles that are based on reflection of

transmedia principles and on theory of networking, which are inevitable for self-presentation.

Table 1: Self-presenting principles (based on concepts of

transmedia by H. Jenkins)10

World - building Interactivity

Seriality Using different resources to promote

Subjectivity Readiness to collaborate

Performance Creating scenario

Spreadability and Drillability Openness to the public

Continuity and Multiplicity Using of the Web

As world-building stands for participatory culture, we correspond

it with interactivity that means that professional needs to cooperate with other participants of the professional community for the sake of new contacts and readiness to collaborate. Searching for new platforms that means seriality in transmedia theory, can be an impulse for a professional to use different sources to promote. In transmedia, subjectivity that focuses on experience of consumers’ different perspective blends in self-presenting can be useful as a principle of collaboration-a professional should learn how to cooperate with other people from the sphere. Performance is widely known as an act of presenting something that in transmedia theory means that each individualcan invigorate scenario

10 H. Jenkins, Convergence culture. Where old and new media collide, New York, New York University Press, 2008.


334

innovation. In self-presenting principles that can be used as a tool to create a digital world (web-site, social nets, etc.) that can illustrate all strong points of a professional. Spreadability and Drillability mean that without openness to the public one cannot display his/her achievements or be open to the new contact for future collaboration. Last transmedia principles-continuity and multiplicity stand for wide usage of the Web tools.

As we have covered transmedia skills, we would like to speak about how we can develop the skills in our future specialists. Speaking about transmedia as a teaching tool, some educators propose that transmedia storytelling can be used by school and university students. For example, Laura Flemming says that transmedia learning is the application of storytelling techniques combined with the use of multiple platforms to create an immersive learning landscape which enables multivarious entry and exit points for learning and teaching. Transmedia pedagogy uses technology in an integrated way that allows learners and content to flow seamlessly across media platforms. Education across multiple media allows for great continuity in learning. Every piece of the puzzle works to engage the learner. Transmedia techniques, when responsibly and effectively applied in an educational context, immerse students in their own learning and, as a happy corollary, advance media literacy education for all.

In a world where we are growing accustomed to being in constant contact with multiple screens, where digital content is becoming more and more preeminent, and where younger generations are absolute digital natives used to the interaction with technology, recurring to new media can be of great use not just to engage students, but also to provide them with such soft skills (skills that are not taught on purpose, but they are necessary nowadays) as the tools to research topics and subjects on their own across different platforms, to develop the skills to find and select the proper information, and to acquire self-education habits, that will prove vital throughout the rest of their lives.

Another great advantage of this teaching method, is that it allows students to learn at their own individual pace, focusing on the content that results more appealing, and processing it with the tools that work better according to their interests, abilities, and even type of intelligence, effectively transforming the classroom into a personalized learning environment, without sacrificing all the advantages of traditional schooling. And this is true at every level, as this method works both on young primary school students, who can be engaged through simple games and content creation, and for high school, university, and even


335

corporate training students, who can take advantage of more advanced and complex tools and channels for storytelling.

Speaking about the exercises and activities that are aimed at developing the following skills, the main type of exercises should be those, which are of integrative nature. For example, exercises aimed at integrating text into video, audio and vice versa, making materials for different information-bearer channels (web-site, blogs, social nets), making short stories or even essays that can be developed further to complete the story. Another effective method to teach how-to use transmedia storytelling is to create a project or an essay with the help of the Internet and different media platforms such as Google, YouTube, Infogram, Instagram and other social nets.

Transmedia project “Samara for International Guests” The whole educative process of the following skills can be implied

into a project. In the micro context of Samara University, the students of different majors (History and Journalism) are currently working on a transmedia project called “Samara for International Guests”. Samara is a large city where a lot of international projects and forums are held. The upcoming World Cup-2018, active affluence of foreign students and specialists from abroad mean that Samara becomes attractive for foreigners. These conditions impose occurrence of a well-developed, informational-communicative space with the educative and entertaining aims. The transmedia project «Samara for International Guests» can contribute to the development of such space. The main objective is to tell the story of Samara Region in an interactive form so that the target audience will not only learn a lot of new, but also will participate in the conversation. The students develop their foreign language competence preparing the materials in English. Moreover, they learn how to develop the story through multiple platforms using their logic and abstract thinking. Writing literacy (both academic and colloquial) is also a very important part in making out this project.

Web-resources of implementing transmedia skills into the course of the English language

To measure and prove the effectiveness of implementing

transmedia skills into the course of the English language, we have conducted an experiment. We implement the program in the academic


336

course of general English which consists of tasks that of integrated nature. Moreover, we used Web-resources that are as follows:

1) Pow Toon-11an online presentation software tool that allows to create free animated videos. 2) Glogster-12an online application where one can create Glogs - multimedia posters with text, images, video or audio files. 3) Timetoast-13an online application where you one create timelines to share the past, or even the future. This application will help if a student wants to describe a historical period. One can add description of each event, photo and links. 4) Stampsy-14is a tool for creating visual stories. 5) Smore-15is a tool for creating beautiful and effective online flyers and newsletters. 6) Voki16 (voki.com)-online tool for creating talking avatar. Speaking about self-presenting tools, here we can highlight the

following resources that are aimed at creating your own web-space. All of them can be used within classes:

-Tilda helps you to create a portfolio, blog, landing pages of different designs. All it-stuff is already done by professional designers, all you should do-is to play with them like in Lego. (tilda.cc)

-Readymag-web-site that is used for creating interactive stories, magazines, articles, portfolio. the benefit is that it is of transmedia nature-you can add there different links to other sources (readymag.com).

Methodology

Sample. The sample consisted of 84 undergraduate students of Samara

University. The students were enrolled into the survey. All of the students completed the survey. Students were split into two groups – control group (where students were not given additional tasks, aimed to form transmedia skills) and experimental group (where those tasks were actively used.) Transmedia skills evaluation was made before and after the experiment. In the course of the experiment, in the experimental

11 Retrieved from www.powtoon.com 12 Retrieved from www.edu.glogster.com 13 Retrieved from www.timetoast.com 14 Retrieved from www.stampsy.com 15 Retrieved from www.smore.com 16 Retrieved from www.voki.com


337

group, the work with integrated activities in foreign language was focused on forming transmedia skills as integral part of the XXI century professional. The control group was taking a standard unchanged course.

Procedure. A variety of methods were used for researching levels of

transmedia skills- observation, questioning, testing, professional evaluation.

In the process of evaluation of transmedia skills, their levels were defined in cognitive-conative, analitycal, creative-technological and reflective components. Levels of evaluation have been developed and defined for each component (high, low and medium). For each level, a certain skillset is essential.

Parameters of measurements. Methodology of transmedia skills evaluation were given next17 of

U. K. Babansky, V. P. Bespalko, T. A. Iliyina, V. A. Yadova. To measure transmedia skills we used different parameters: -cognitive-conative component of transmedia skills was measured

by asking students to complete a questionnaire; -analytical component of transmedia skills of students was

measured by filling tests on deep understanding of a text, where a student is also asked to express opinion, find requested details, fill in gaps in sentences and choose from different variants to generalize the idea of the text;

-creative-technological component of transmedia skills was measured with the help of specially developed rubrics (Appendix 1), consisting of following components: the content of a product, where communication skills are being measured, its originality, ability to form a subject based on learned material, design and linguistic structure;

-reflective component of transmedia skills was measured through pedagogical observation of students’ work.

Results

Table 2: Pre-experimental evaluation of transmedia skills levels of students

17 D. L Konstantinovskiy, "Expansion of higher education and consequences for social inequality (the case of Russia)", in High Education, no. 7, (2017), pp. 201-2014.


338

Levels Reflective component

Creative-technological component

Analitycal component

Cognitive-conative

component

control group

exper. group

control group

exper. group

control group

exper. group

control group

exper. group

High 16.7 21.5 7.1 4.7 4.7 4.7 7.1 0.0

Medium 31.0 45.2 45.2 54.8 31.0 31.0 38.1 57.1

Low 52.3 33.3 47.7 40.5 64.3 64.3 54.8 42.9

Table 2 shows: -The majority of students have medium or low level of reflective

component of transmedia skills-83.3 % in the control group, 78.5 % in the experimental group;

-The majority of students have medium or low level of creative-technological component of transmedia skills-92.9 % in the control group, 95.3 % in the experimental group;

-The majority of students have medium or low level of analitycal component of transmedia skills-95.3 % both in the control and the experimental group;

-The majority of students have medium or low level of cognitive component of transmedia skills-92.9 % in the control group, 100 % in the experimental group;

To sum it up there was no significant difference in the levels of transmedia skills components in both groups.

Medium and low levels of transmedia skills show insufficient ability to process and work with information as well as release quality journalistic content by students who are taking journalism as major. Thus, students are not aware of what transmedia is and are not ready to analytical work with information.

Table 3: Post-experimental evaluation of transmedia skills levels of students

Levels Reflective

component Сreative-

technological component

Analitycal component

Cognitive-conative

component

control group

exper. group

control group

exper. group

control group

exper. group

control group

exper. group

High 19.0 47.6 7.1 33.3 7.1 35.7 9.5 31.0


339

Medium

35.8 50.0 52.4 57.2 50.0 59.5 35.7 57.1

Low 45.2 2.4 40.5 9.5 42.9 4.8 54.8 11.9

Table 3 shows that transmedia skills in the control group remain

unchanged and the majority of students with medium and low levels of all transmedia skill components still prevail.

On the other hand, levels of transmedia skills in the experimental group have changed significantly:

-47,6 % of students have high level of reflective component of transmedia skills;

-33,3 % of students have high level of creative-technological component of transmedia skills;

-35,7 % of students have high level of analitycal component of transmedia skills;

-31 % of students have high level of cognitive-conative component of transmedia skills.

The change in transmedia skill levels confirms success of the experiment and the way it was carried.

Figure 1: Transmedia skills distribution pre-and post-experiment

Figure 1 shows that number of students with high level of

transmedia skills after the experiment has grown from 2 to 20, and number of students with low level of transmedia skills after the experiment has decreased from 13 to 0.

Positive dynamics verify the successful work done in forming transmedia skills of students, taking a Journalistic Major.


340

Findings support the idea that transmedia skills can have positive impact on the efficacy of professional skills and level of English of undergraduate students. The research results suggest that specific educational pedagogies, i.e., exercises of integrative nature involving multiple oral and written activities along with various Web-resources support the need to develop transmedia skills.

After taking the course with exercises aimed at developing transmedia skills, participants overall intended to be more: persuasive, media literate, flexible, competitive and collaborative in their future activities. The participants expressed a likelihood to more purposely use facilities that are provided by the Internet and use them to promote and to create an image of a professional.

This study can provide support for educators in designing curriculum for future professionals of any kind. These skills can be widely used for a lot of different professional fields.

Appendix 1: Rubrics for assessing creative component

Criteria 3 points 2 points 1 points T

otal

Compositional completeness

Composition is complete (introduction, main body, conclusion)

Composition is almost complete (introduction, main body, conclusion), one of the parts is not clear

Composition is incomplete (missing one of the parts)

Structure Problembackground, topicality, storytelling is engaging

Background is not clear, topicality, storytelling is relevant to the topic

Problem is not obvious, no topicality, storytelling prevents from understanding

Logic Paragraph division is logical, arguments and evidence are present to each idea

Few mistakes in paragraph division, one logical mistake, arguments and evidence are present to each idea

Mistakes in paragraph division, logical mistakes, arguments and evidence are not present to each idea

Argumentation

Clear conclusions, ideas are

Clear conclusions, ideas are relevant to the theories, future

Conclusions are not clear, ideas are not


341

relevant to the theories, future perspectives of the work are evident

perspectives of the work are not evident

relevant to the theories

Content Usage of different media sources (2-3), references are present

Usage of different media sources (2), references are present

Usage of one media source, references are not present

Creativity Creative attitude to the problem, analysis of the material is present, having own ideas and theories

Creative attitude to the problem, analysis of the material is present, no (not enough) own ideas and theories

Average attitude to the problem, analysis of the material is not relevant

Design Design helps the storytelling, style is relevant

Design is relevant Design prevents from perception of the material

Language 1-2 mistakes 2-3 mistakes 3-4 mistakes

Total:


342


343

INFLUENCE OF THE SEX AND AGE ON PEOPLE’S ATTITUDE TOWARD HAZARDS

Vladimir G. Maralov, Alena Yu. Gura, Radik Dzh. Tatlyev, Galina

A. Epanchintseva, Irina N. Bukhtiyarova, Dmitrii M. Karavaev Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russian Federation

Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russian Federation

Surgut Institute of Oil and Gas Branch of TIU in Surgut, Surgut, Russian Federation

Orenburg State University, Orenburg, Russian Federation Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow,

Russian Federation Perm National Research Polytechnic University, Perm,

Russian Federation

Abstract: The article is devoted to the problem of the influence of sex and age on the attitude of people towards dangers. Its relevance is due to the importance of identifying individual-typical features of people’s response in threat situations. The goal of the empirical study was to identify the psychological characteristics of people’s attitudes toward dangers, depending on age and sex. As methods of research, author’s questionnaires were presented: a questionnaire of sensitivity to threats and a questionnaire on the identification of types of response in situations of danger. As a result, it was found that with age sensitivity to threats decreases for men and increases for women, the percentage of people capable of either responding adequately or exaggerating the significance of hazards increases, and the percentage of people prone to ignoring threats decreases.

Keywords: Attitude towards danger, sensitivity to threats, youth, adults, men, women.

By now, science is exploring a variety of specific security problems.

It is the problem of the influence of various factors on a person identified as dangerous; the problem of man as a source of danger for other people and for himself; the problem of the environment as a source of danger for people; the problem of protection, which people use to ensure their security; the actual problem of ensuring the safety of people in various spheres of life and activity. None of these problems can be successfully solved without taking into account the fact of the person’s attitude to hazards, how he identifies a certain potential threat as a danger, how adequately he is able to react to it.

In psychological science, there are various ways of solving it. Thus, within the framework of humanistic psychoanalysis, the contradiction


344

between the need for security and other human aspirations1 or between the need for security and the human desire for freedom2 is presented as the leading contradiction. Researcher K. Horney3 has shown that emotions are the specific mechanism that signals a person about a threat. In her opinion, fear is a reaction proportional to the present danger, and anxiety is a reaction to a possible danger. M. A. Kotik4 made an attempt to reveal the relationship between the consideration of an event as threatening, its significance for the individual and the probability of occurrence. It was established that there are two tendencies of reaction when encountering danger that are common to people: the desire to avoid dangers and move towards dangers.5 The reaction of avoidance is conditioned by innate protective, individually acquired and value-driven mechanisms. The reaction of movement toward danger can also be determined by innate orienting reactions, "thirst for thrills" and value-driven desire for danger. In the other direction, the emphasis is being made on describing the strategies of self-security, using which a person reacts to the danger. Thus, M. T. Krasnyanskaya6 identifies and describes six such strategies: avoidance strategy, conservative strategy, copying strategy, absorbing strategy, communicative resonance strategy and development strategy. In the third direction, an attempt is made to describe the typical ways people respond to a threat. The initial impulse to this direction within the framework of clinical psychology was posed by A. R. Luriya.7 He introduced the concept of "internal picture of the disease" to the scientific usage. In subsequent studies, various types of people’s attitudes toward diseases were singled out and described.8 So, based on the analysis of the available literature, one can conclude that the person’s attitude to danger consists of two components: sensitivity to threats and the choice of certain ways of responding to it. Thus, under the attitude to danger we will understand the ability of the individual to

1 K. Horney, Our internal conflicts. Constructive theory of neuroses, Moscow, Academic Project, 2007. 2 E. Fromm, The Escape from freedom, Moscow, Progress, 1990. 3 K. Horney, The neuritic person of our time. Introspection, Moscow, Progress, 1993. 4 M. A. Kotik, “A new method for the experimental evaluation of the attitude of people to the events that worry them”, in Questions of Psychology, 1, (1994), pp. 97-104. 5 V. A. Petrovsky, Personality in psychology, Rostov-on-Don, Fenix, 1996. 6 Т. М. Krasnyanskaya, “Strategies for organizing psychological self-sufficiency of the subject's safety in an extreme situation”, in News of South Federal University. Engineering science, 5 (49), (2005), pp. 207-213. 7 A. R. Luriya, Internal picture of the disease and iatrogenic diseases, Moscow, Medicine, 1977. 8 V. V. Nikolaeva, The effect of chronic illness on the psyche, Moscow, Moscow State University, 1987.


345

detect danger signals in a timely manner (sensitivity to threats) and to choose adequate or inadequate ways of responding to it (behavioral component). The combination of the level of severity of sensitivity to the dangers and the choice of the preferential way of responding to them determines the type of attitude of a person to dangers. In total, theoretically, eight types of attitudes to dangers can be distinguished:

- Adequate-sensitive type; - Adequate with reduced sensitivity type; - Worrying-sensitive type; - Worrying with reduced sensitivity type; - Ignoring-sensitive type; - Ignoring with reduced sensitivity type; - Uncertain-sensitive type; - Undefined with reduced sensitivity type.

Materials and methods In order to identify the types of people’s attitudes toward hazards,

we developed special questionnaires: a questionnaire of sensitivity to threats and a questionnaire on identifying types of response in situations of danger. Variants for high school students, students and adults were prepared.9

Sensitivity to threats Questionnaire. It consists of 12 questions-tasks that simulate real typical situations. Each task of the questionnaire includes the formulation of some statement and four variants of answer. The respondent should choose only one of them, which is the most consistent with his opinion. The tasks are focused on identifying the abilities to detect possible threats, as well as the abilities to control the situation. Some of them are aimed at diagnosing the level of sensitivity to health and life threats, others – to threats to psychological well-being. For example: "My strength is the ability to keep any situation under control." Variants of answer: a) "Yes, this is so"; b) "I can present this ability only in some cases"; c) "I believe that being constantly on the lookout is inconsistent with me and there’s no need for it"; d) "Haven’t

9 V. G. Maralov, E. Yu. Malysheva, O. V. Nifontova, E. L. Perchenko, I. A. Tabunov, “Development of a test-questionnaire of sensitivity to threats in adolescence”, in Perspectives of Science, 8, (2012), pp. 32-37; V. G. Maralov, E. Yu. Malysheva, O. V. Smirnova, E. L. Perchenko, I. A. Tabunov, “Development of a questionnaire test to identify ways of responding in situations of danger in adolescence”, in Almanac of modern science and education, 12-1 (67), (2012), pp. 92-96.


346

thought about it." In this case, for the choice of option "a" two points are given. Option "b" is estimated at one point. For variants of answers "с" and "d" 0 points is given. The received points for all questions are summarized. As a result, we get the final score, which characterizes the level of individual sensitivity to the dangers.

Questionnaire on the identification of types of response in situations of danger. It consists of 17 question-statements modeling human behavior in real standard situations, which can be a threat. For each question, four variants of answers are proposed, corresponding to the four types of personality behavior: an adequate, exaggerating danger, ignoring them, uncertain. For example, the situation is set: "Getting down to some unfamiliar and potentially dangerous business, I: a) I dare to undertake it without any special precautions; b) I will think through the whole work process and get acquainted with the safety precautions beforehand; c) I will renounce it, referring to the fact that I do not know how to do it; d) Haven’t thought about it. In this example, an adequate response is represented by option "b", exaggerating danger-option "c", ignoring danger-"a", uncertain-"d".

A total of 438 people took part in the study, of them men-206, women-232. High school students aged 15 to 16 (average age-15.4) were 210 people, of them boys-95, girls-115. Adults aged 30 to 50 (average age-38 years) were 228 people, of them 111-men, and 117-women. Sample was randomly selected. The survey was conducted either in group form (where possible), or in individual form. Each respondent was given texts of questionnaires and individual forms for filling. For each type of response a total score was calculated, after which the "raw" points, as in the previous case, were converted to then scaled points. For a high level, scaled points from 7 to 10 were taken. Data processing was carried out using the φ* criterion-Fisher’s angular transformation.


We were interested in the question of how certain indicators of the

attitude of people toward dangers are related to sex and age: sensitivity to threats, the choice of adequate or inadequate ways of responding in threats situations (exaggeration or ignoring the danger) (Table 1).

Table 1: Peculiarities of individual indicators of people’s attitudes

toward dangers, depending on age and sex Indicators of attitude toward

the dangers Contingent of respondents

High school students (15-16 years)

Adults (30-50 years)

Sensitivity to dangers In total 72/34* 77/34


347

Men 38/41 30/27

Women 34/30 47/41

Choice of adequate ways of response

In total 50/24 101/44

Men 20/21 66/58

Women 30/26 35/30

Exaggeration of dangers In total 28/13 54/23

Men 11/11 10/9

Women 17/15 44/38

Ignoring of the danger In total 64/31 26/12

Men 40/42 14/13

Women 24/21 12/10

Lack of expressed ways of response to the dangers

In total 68/32 47/21

Men 24/26 21/19

Women 44/38 26/22

Total of respondents: 210 228

Men: 95 111

Women: 115 117

* Note: the first digit indicates the number of respondents, the second-the percentage.

As can be clearly seen from Table 1, sensitivity to threats as a

whole does not undergo significant changes from age and sex, and is approximately 34% of the respondents in each sample. However, when we begin to analyze the level of its expression depending on sex, we get two different tendencies. For men, it significantly decreases from 41% for schoolchildren to 27% for adults (φ* = 2.12, p = 0.034), while for women it increases from 30% among high school students to 41% among adult women (φ* = 1.76, p = 0.079). Thus, our hypothesis was confirmed only partially. Sensitivity to dangers increases only for women and decreases for men. Regarding the choice of adequate methods of response in situations of danger, the hypothesis is in the main confirmed. For adults, it increases about twice, compared with schoolchildren (from 24% to 44%). However, this trend is most evident for men. If for young men the choice of adequate response methods is common for 21% of respondents, for adult men this percentage increases to 58% (φ*= 5.84, p = 0.001). For girls and adult women, the differences are not so significant (26% and 30%).

As can be seen from the Table 1, with age, there is also a tendency to exaggerate the dangers, which also does not fully agree with the original assumption, but this mainly applies to women. If at the senior school age only 15% of girls tend to exaggerate threats, then for adult women it is already 38% (φ* = 4.05, p = 0.001). Among men, this percentage is unchanged and averages 10%. A significant tendency to decrease the number of respondents prone to ignoring dangers (from 31% to 12%) was identified. And it is typical for both men and women. If at the senior school age, 42% of young men are inclined to ignore


348

dangers, then for men it is only 13% (φ*= 5.04, p = 0.001). Women are initially less inclined to ignore. For girls its 21%, for adult women - 10% (φ* = 2.34, p = 0.019). Here, in all categories of respondents, there is a tendency of decrease of uncertain ways of response (from 32% to 21%), depending on the age. It is the most evident among women. If 38% of girls do not know how to respond in particular situations, then among adult women 22% of such remains (φ* = 2.68, p = 0.007).

Having briefly analyzed the features of individual indices of the attitude of people to dangers, depending on sex and age, let us turn to a characterization of the types of attitude to hazards (Table 2).

Table 2: Types of people’s attitudes to dangers

Types of attitudes to dangers Contingent

of respondents

High school

students (15-16 years)

Adults (30-50 years)

Adequate – sensitive In total 28/13* 41/18

Men 13/14 26/23

Women 15/13 15/13

Adequate with reduced sensitivity

In total 22/11 60/26

Men 7/7 40/35

Women 15/13 20/17

Worrying - sensitive In total 7/3 17/7

Men 4/4 0/0

Women 3/3 17/15

Worrying with reduced sensitivity

In total 21/10 37/16

Men 7/7 10/9

Women 14/12 27/23

Ignoring – sensitive type In total 12/6 6/3

Men 11/12 0/0

Women 1/1 6/5

Ignoring with reduced sensitivity Data in total 52/25 20/9

Men 29/30 14/13

Women 23/20 6/5

Uncertain – sensitive Data in total 25/12 13/6

Men 10/11 4/4

Women 15/13 9/8

Uncertain with reduced sensitivity

Data in total 43/20 34/15

Men 14/15 17/15

Women 29/25 17/14

Total of respondents:

210 228

Men: 95 111

Women: 115 117

* Note: the first digit indicates the number of respondents, the second-the percentage.

As we can see, an adequate - sensitive type, which we consider

optimal from the position of ensuring security, in spite of expectations,


349

increases insignificantly, from 13% among high school students to 18% among adults. Moreover, this dynamics is manifested only in the male sample, from 14% to 23% (φ*= 1.75, p = 0.081). A somewhat larger dynamic is found in the adequate type with a reduced sensitivity (from 11% to 26%). It is noteworthy that such dynamics are again found more in the male sample. For young men it is 7%, for adult men - 35% (φ* = 5.38, p = 0.001).

Worrying - sensitive type is insignificantly represented both in the sample of high school students and in the sample of adults (3% and 7%). At the same time, it discovers significant changes among women. If girls only in 3% of cases show a worrying-sensitive reaction, then adult women - in 15% (φ*= 3.40, p = 0.001). Analogous conclusions can also be made about the worrying with a reduced sensitivity type. It increases from 10% among schoolchildren to 16% among adults. Moreover, among both young men and adult men it is represented insignificantly (7% and 9%). As for women, they have a significant increase of this type from 12% among girls to 23% among women (φ*= 2.23, p = 0.026).

Ignoring - sensitive type is much less common than other types (6% and 3%). It is most vividly represented in the sample of young male students (12%), and does not occur among adult men at all (0%), in 5% of cases it appears among adult women. As for the ignoring with reduced sensitivity type, it is widely represented in adolescence and significantly reduced among adults, from 25% to 9% (φ*= 4.6, p = 0.001). First of all, it is necessary here to pay attention to a sample of young male high school students. A third (30%) of them belongs to this type. Among girls, this percentage is also quite high (20%). With age, this type among adult men is reduced to 13% (φ*= 3.16, p = 0.002), and among women - to 5% (φ*= 2.93, p = 0.003).

Thus, the hypotheses we initially proposed were confirmed only partially. The real picture turned out to be somewhat more complicated than we had expected, when we began to organize the research. Sensitivity to threats has revealed a reverse trend among men and women. If for men it decreases with age, then for women it increases. The ability to respond adequately also increases, but contrary to expectations, the desire for exaggeration of dangers also increases among women. The assumption concerning decrease with age of the percent of the people ignoring threats has completely been confirmed.

In general, we should note a decrease in the uncertainty of reactions to the threat, especially among women, towards the formation of certain types of response in situations of danger. Among adults, uncertainty becomes a peculiar style of responding to danger, and


350

manifests itself in the selective response: in some situations, the person reacts adequately, in others-exaggerates the significance of the danger, in the third situations-understates the level of danger. In the age aspect, there is a general tendency to increase the level of adequacy of the response, as well as to exaggerate them, and to reduce the desire to ignore the dangers that can be combined with the level of sensitivity in different ways. This trend has its own specifics among men and women.

Among young men the desire to ignore threats dominates (12%- ignoring-sensitive type, 30%-ignoring with a reduced sensitivity type). Gradually, with age, the attitude toward dangers undergoes a change in the direction of increasing adequacy. As was shown, 58% of men are able to adequately respond to threats. And an adequate type with a reduced sensitivity (35%) begins to occupy the dominant position. The general tendency to reduce sensitivity among men, we explain by the fact that men faster than women, adapt to the dangers that are not of an emergency nature. At the same time, 13% of adult males maintain the desire to ignore the threats that are common for adolescence.

A somewhat different picture is found in the analysis of the female sample. 26% of girls form the ability to respond adequately (sensitive and not sensitive). 38% have an uncertain reaction. 20%, as well as young men, ignore dangers, and 12% are inclined to exaggerate them. With age, the situation is changing. The accent begins to shift toward exaggeration of dangers. If adequate-sensitive and adequate with reduced sensitivity types make up 13% and 17% respectively, then the worrying type is found in 38% of respondents (15% - worrying sensitive type, 23% - worrying with reduced sensitivity type). This can be explained by the peculiarities of the psychology of women, who, as known, are more sensitive and emotional, susceptible to changes in the situation. Therefore, it is not surprising that they are often inclined to exaggerate the dangers.

On the basis of all that has been said, it can be concluded that a person develops his own individual type of attitude towards dangers during his life on the basis of sensitivity to dangers and the choice of adequate or inadequate (exaggeration or understatement of the significance of hazards) of ways of responding in threat situations. Our study showed that there are different types of attitude of a person to dangers. We consider to be optimal, the type where sensitivity to hazards is combined with the choice of adequate, that is, socially developed and approved ways of responding in situations of real or potential threat. Non-optimal are types where exaggeration or the ignoring of dangers prevails.


351

It has been established that with age sensitivity to threats is decreased among men, and increased among women, the percentage of people capable of either responding adequately or exaggerating the significance of dangers increases, and the percentage of people prone to ignoring threats decreases. It was found that in adolescence, the types associated either with uncertain responses to the threat, or with ignoring the dangers are more common. The phenomenon of ignoring is more typical for young men. Among adults, the types associated with increase of the adequacy of response to dangers begin to dominate, and women tend to become more likely to exaggerate.


352


353

CONSTRUCTION OF DUAL SYSTEM OF PREPARATION OF ENGINEERING-PEDAGOGICAL PERSONNEL AT HIGHER

EDUCATION INSTITUTE

Elmira A. Aitenova, Alua A. Smanova, Aktoty T. Akzholova, Almash T. Turalbayeva, Zhanil K. Madalieva,

Ulzharkyn M. Abdigapbarova

Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty Branch of JSC ,,NCPD ,,Orleu” Institute for professional

development of Almaty region”, Almaty, Kazahstan International Kazakh-Turkish University Named By H. A. Yasavi,

Turkishtan

Abstract: Purpose of research project: Definition and theoretical justification of didactic conditions for the design of the dual system of education, which are focused on training specialists with high level of general culture and professional competence; bringing the human resources potential of specialists to the world level. Novelty of the research is as follows: Theoretical justification of possibilities of using the dual system of education and restructuring of the education system, which includes the systematic transformation of its content, resources, forms and methods for human development. Practical significance of the research project is that the main provisions of the research can be used in development of educational programs and in organization of educational processes in the university. The new system of education uses a problem-based interactive method of education as the main one. A new system is creative and aims to give not only knowledge, but also the ability to use them. That is why here practical work becomes the leading beginning of education.

Keywords: student, information and communication technologies, research, dual training, competence, engineering and pedagogical education.

The dual system of professional education received worldwide

recognition, it is the most widespread and recognized form of training of personnel, which combines theoretical training in educational institution and industrial training at production enterprise. Dual training is a kind of training in which the theoretical part of the training is conducted on the basis of educational organization and practical-in the workplace, i.e. combination of both theoretical and practical training in the educational process. Students master their chosen profession directly in the workplace simultaneously with the study, i.e. they study across in two places: the first two days a week at institute, the rest of the time - at enterprise.

https://www.multitran.ru/c/m.exe?t=4883980_1_2&s1=%E2%FB%F1%F8%E5%E5%20%F3%F7%E5%E1%ED%EE%E5%20%E7%E0%E2%E5%E4%E5%ED%E8%E5

https://www.multitran.ru/c/m.exe?t=4883980_1_2&s1=%E2%FB%F1%F8%E5%E5%20%F3%F7%E5%E1%ED%EE%E5%20%E7%E0%E2%E5%E4%E5%ED%E8%E5

https://www.multitran.ru/c/m.exe?t=1645842_1_2&s1=%F2%E5%EE%F0%E5%F2%E8%F7%E5%F1%EA%E0%FF%20%EE%E1%EE%F1%ED%EE%E2%E0%ED%ED%EE%F1%F2%FC


354

According to A. N. Bleyer,1 the activity of entire system of additional professional education should be directed to achieve the following main objectives:

-Saturation of the labor market by specialists with high level of general culture and professional competence; -Provision of social protection, social rehabilitation and employment of specialists, elimination of all forms of their functional non-literacy; -Bringing human resources to the world level; -Increase of cumulative intellectual and spiritual potential of society together with other levels of professional education, development of the creative abilities of person. The dual system of engineering and pedagogical education, built

on the basis of coordinated interaction between the two spheres - production and education, provides optimal conditions for mutual transformation of engineering and pedagogical activity.


Methods of the research. In the course of the study the

following research methods were used: theoretical (study of teaching methods in the system of modern professional training and transfer of the content itself and modeling of scientific research); empirical (analysis of the content of professional training); statistical (author's and student's questionnaires); interview, practical lessons for implementation of the dual training system, analysis and conclusions of the study.

Experimental research base. The students of faculty "Pedagogy - psychology" of Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abay.

Stages of the research. Preliminary stage. The literature about the research problem was studied, as well as the state of psychological and pedagogical support of processes of the dual system of education in higher educational institutions of the republic. The development of didactic facilities for conducting the experiment and their initial approbation at the university were carried out. Also, there was modeling the system of implementing the productive activity of students on the basis of designing dual system of training. The main stage. There was substantiation of theoretical concept of the research, correction of experimental work based on analysis of primary experiment results;

1 A. N. Bleyer, Psychology of activity in extreme conditions, Moscow, Academiya, 2010.


355

specification of research tasks and running of basic pedagogical experiment on studying of effectiveness of didactically substantiated system of student productive activity. The final stage. Processing of pedagogical experiment data was carried out on the basis of analysis of its results; the revealed results are compared with initial positions and a hypothesis of the study; general conclusions are drawn.

Results

Structure and content of the model. During development

theoretical grounds for constructing the dual system of engineering and pedagogical education at university we proceeded from fact that they must ensure adequacy of:

-educational goals for social and production needs; -organizational approaches for socio-philosophical and worldview

foundations of educational activity; -didactic bases for methodological specificity of engineering and

pedagogical education. There are many points of view on the most probable or optimal

structure of the continuous professional education system. Many variants of regional and branch systems have appeared, all the variety of which can be reduced to three types:

-organizational and functional structure of continuous professional education;

-systemic continuous professional content; -man is a self-developing system. There are scientists B. S. Gershunskiy, V. G. Osipov, V. G.

Onushkin2 and others, who stay on the position of organizational and functional structure of the continuous professional education.

It is possible to present several models of the continuous education on the basis of available theoretical developments. For example, V .G. Osipov3 offers the following structure of continuous education (figure 1).

Figure 1: The structure of the continuous education (according to V. G. Osipov)4

2 B. S. Gershunskiy, Philosophy of education for XXI century, Moscow, Sovershenstvo, 2012; V. G. Osipov, Sociology: The foundations of General theory, Moscow, Norma, 2008; V. G. Onushkin, The theoretical basis of lifelong education, Moscow, Pedagogika, 1987. 3 V. G. Osipov, Sociology: The foundations of General theory, 2008 4 Ibidem.


356

In author’s opinion, if we represent the structure of entire system of the continuous education in the form of concentric circles, then formal education should be placed in the center; the next circle immediately outside it will be informal education; finally, the most external, vast circle, divided in half, is informative education and self-education. The most important element in this model is formal education. It is basic, original. This is the education that person receives before starting professional activity.

B.S. Gershunskiy5 offers another model of continuous education: pre-school education; general secondary education (school, technical professional school, technical high school); higher educational institutes; professional education (postgraduate study); personnel development (continuous self-education, socio-political education, increasing of general cultural level, activities by interests); personnel retraining (uniform system of professional guidance and selection); uniform national economic complex.

Model of learning is becoming an independent goal of professional education. As stressed by A. Shelten,6 formal, non-professional and social abilities can only be revealed if theoretical and practical training involve the use of open and complex educational situations. In these situations it is necessary to develop abstract thinking on the basis of proposed algorithm of actions in professional activity. Training in this case should occur in small working groups.

Traditional lessons are based on oral presentation of educational material; the basis of traditional production training is the system of "three steps": demonstration - reproduction - training.

To master key qualifications it is necessary to enrich professional training with such situations, in which trainees can independently organize educational process during solving complex problems. The teacher in this case plays the role of a consultant in the educational process. Methods of guiding text and project are recognized as the most suitable to develop the key qualifications in the production training. Action-oriented training methods are expedient in professional training in the first place. There are role-playing games, oriented to application of experimental training by situational method, and method of projects. Among the methods that facilitate the transfer of key qualifications in professional school there are also implementation of inter subject communications, method of strategic learning, method of development

5 B. S. Gershunskiy, Philosophy of education for XXI century. 6 A. Shelten, Introduction to professional pedagogy, Ekaterinburg, URFU, 2005.


357

systematic thinking in learning, problem-developing and constructive methods.

Realization of inter subject communications assumes thematic combination of subjects within one integrated lesson. As a result, a complete picture of studied concepts and phenomena arises in consciousness of trainees. As practical research of German scientists shows, training, which focused on application of experimental training by situational method, is especially effective from the point of transfer of key qualifications at professional school. The situation of the experiment assumes close connection between gained knowledge and their practical application, also complex formulation of tasks borrowed from working practice.

Such training occupies intermediate position between theory of specialty and practice in the specialty, also developstechnical and practical skills.Connection between acquired knowledge of theory of specialty and their practical application in the specialty is established in complex situation. This method allows to form such key qualifications as ability of independent thinking, analytical thinking, ability to transfer of knowledge from one field to another. Students are offered situations that require ability to learn and work in group (social abilities), as a result of that, individual abilities of each student develop (accuracy, reliability, striving for quality in work, consciousness, etc.).

Developing labor-market dictates new requirements to professional education of modern specialists. Professionally significant qualities in new conditions are independence in judgments and actions, level of development of reflexive abilities, moral qualities, primarily responsibility, sense of duty, etc.

Thus, in this aspect of conceptual importance for construction of the dual system of engineering-pedagogical education in the University has a provision, that the continuous engineering-pedagogical education allows to combine humanitarian principles with needs of production sector and society.

Stages of Model Implementation. A practical lessons are shown in the following scheme (figure 2).

Figure 2: A practical lessonsare shown in the following scheme


358

In general, continuous education is considered by these authors as an integral system, which has a certain structure. Integrity is given to it by integrative properties, for example, continuity of all links in education.

The ascertaining stage. Any model of continuous education and its analysis are incomplete if they don't include comparison to traditional education system. If continuous education is really a new paradigm, as many experts insist on, then in this case it is necessary to find out, first of all, what characteristics and in what parameters it differs from previous one and what principles of transition there are from one to another; whether continuous education is simple destruction of the traditional education system or represents her dialectic denial and contains a lot of things that has undergone the most strict and true testing through the time.

In our opinion, the continuous education really represents an essential new paradigm in the development of education, which marks fairly radical departure from old, previous educational paradigm usually named as traditional. In other words, there is a reconsideration of the concept of education itself: its purposes, entity, functions, principles, organization.

So, according to V. P. Zinchenko,7 the continuous education is a new method of educational activities, the target orientation of which are integral development process of personality, translational enrichment of his creative potential, constant growth of his forces and abilities.

Table 1 below presents comparative characteristic of principles of functioning and development of education in traditional and continuous paradigm, which demonstrates that the continuous education system dialectically denies the principles of the former traditionally developed discrete education system. Table 1: Principles of functioning and development of education in

traditional and continuous paradigm

7 V. P. Zinchenko, The science of thinking: Developing training, Moscow, APK PPK, 2002.

Characteristics of principles of education

functioning and its development

Traditional system of education

Continuous system of education

https://www.multitran.ru/c/m.exe?t=6463879_1_2&s1=%EA%EE%ED%F1%F2%E0%F2%E8%F0%F3%FE%F9%E8%E9%20%FD%EA%F1%EF%E5%F0%E8%EC%E5%ED%F2


359

Unlike the traditional way of education which is limited by material

production, the new way, on the contrary, determines rates of its development, provides continuity of education in certain kinds of activity in close connection with practical activities itself. The continuous education system in addition to developing abilities of each person also promotes overcoming social differences between people. This system is aimed at preparation for universal activity. It raises personal abilities to adapt to quickly changing world. The new paradigm brings the principle of dynamism, flexibility of content, forms and methods of teaching to the first place. The continuous education provides continuity of all structural elements of the system, complementarity of various forms and types of teaching.

Discussion

Reorganization of an education system includes systematic

transformation of his contents, means, forms and methods for

Interrelation with material production

Set by production, isolated from it

Determines the growth rate, the nature of its development, integrates with it

Interrelation with social structure of society

Sets social distinctions Promotes overcoming social distinctions

Target orientation Prepares a person to perform certain functions in existing conditions

Prepares a person for universal activity in constantly changing social conditions

Content of education Assimilates a certain amount of knowledge for future use

Promotes assimilation of knowledge for the purpose of concrete practical application

Way of teaching Book-verbal Problem-practical

Organization of training Individual-collective Collective-individual

State of forms and methods of learning content

Stable Dynamic

Functioning of system Isolation of functioning of pre-school, school and post-school links; autonomy of general, professional and special education

Integration, continuity of all links and forms of education


360

development of the person. It is not the single act of change of one way of education by another, it is the continuous process of reasonable basic changes of system.

Number of scientists8 is asked about a role of the personality in an education system. As the main thing mark out activity of the personality in the teaching, cognitive activity, the system of the relations with other people, need to teach to study, to cultivate interest in knowledge at each person. According to these authors, the function of teacher also changes: he acts as the organizer of the developing environment, the converter of cognitive activity of students who become a kernel of educational process.

In other words, a person should be placed at the center of any educational system: not the student for an education system, an education system for the student. It means that a humanization, individualization, differentiation, democratization, integration have to be the fundamental principles of a system.

A number of scientists9 are attached the great importance to non-standard education, self-education, considering these directions of one of the most effective and perspective forms of adults education, since the interests of listeners are at the center of their attention.

Without excluding the constructive that inherent in the traditional system of professional education, which is focused on training of the expert, it should be noted that in the conditions of tough regulation of content, the professional education possibilities of formation of the self-sufficient personality capable to adoption of crucial independent decisions were minimized. At the same time emerging market of work dictates the new requirements to modern experts’ professional training. As professionally significant qualities in new conditions denote the independence in judgments and actions, the level of reflexive abilities development, moral qualities, first of all responsibility, call of duty, etc.

8 K. Y. Vazina, Continuous professional self-development, Moscow Novgorod, 2012; E. F. Zeer, Psychology of professional development, Moscow, Academiya, 2006; V. I. Liaudis, ,,A new paradigm of educational psychology and the practice of education”, in Psychology, 4, (1998), pp. 88-97; A. Y. Nayn, Training the personnel in market conditions, Chelyabinsk, Transport, 1991. 9 A. V. Darinsky, Educational institutions of old St. Petersburg, Saint-Petersburg, Glagol, 2002; T. N. Levashova, ,,Principles for the management of ontologies used in the integration environment knowledge”, in SPIIRAS Proceedings, 1, (2002), pp. 51-68; G. I. Marchuk, The horizons of scientific research, Moscow, Sovetskaya Rossiya, 1986; V. G. Onushkin, The theoretical basis of lifelong education, Moscow, Pedagogika, 1987; F. I. Peregudov, Introduction to system analysis, Moscow, High school, 1989.


361

According to fundamental direction chosen in the research, there is a tendency to develop a continuous educational system, in which the development of the humanitarian principles the interest of reforming the society also takes into account and update on the basis of new professionals market mechanisms production, who independently making responsible decisions and implementing them in practical activities, able to assert themselves in a changing society.

Thus, in this aspect of conceptual importance for the construction of the dual system of engineering-pedagogical education in the University has a thesis that the continuous engineering-pedagogical education allows you to optimally combine humanitarian principles with the needs of the production sector and society.

Identifying the fundamental, conceptual and meaningful ideas which meet requirements above was carried out in line with the trends of internal, phenomenological and methodological, as well as "external" socio-educational nature which have a decisive influence on the development of engineering-pedagogical education as a specific integrative branch of vocational education.

The first area of research searches was connected with the study, analysis and summary of the entire diverse spectrum of scientific - theoretical and praxeological aspects of formation of continuous education system in our country. In this regard, it should be noted that in domestic pedagogy, an intensive research of the problems of education of individual scientists is continuing. The situation is more successful with the study of the individual links functioning in the continuing education emerging system, and with the development of practical recommendations.

The second area of theoretical research associated with the identification of socio-philosophical bases, ideological foundations of educational activity, which must determine approaches to engineering-pedagogical education in higher education institution, lay in the context of understanding the tendencies of changing the engineering profession modern world "ideology".

The analysis of scientific sources on this issue10 showed that multi-scale transformation that characterizes the development of national

10 M. Vrazhnova, ,,Integrated training of specialists in conditions of University-production”, in Integration of education, 1, (2003), pp. 61-66; O. V. Dolzhenko, V. L. Shatunovskii, Modern methods and technology of teaching in technical University, Moscow, Vysshaya Shkola, 1991; V. P. Zinchenko, The science of thinking: Developing training; V. S. Mikhalkin, ,,The concept of the integrity of the natural science cycle of disciplines of a technical college”, in Integration of education, 1, (2003), pp. 1-3.


362

education at the turn of XX-XXI centuries, also touched an engineering education. And from this point of view the most noticeable change, of course, is the transformation of majority leading polytechnics and technical institutions into technical universities, which gave a powerful impetus to the process of transition from the sectoral system of training of engineers to the University, the distinctive feature of which is the fundamental nature of education.

The third area of research was focused on the identification of didactic bases of the dual system, adequate methodological specificity of engineering-pedagogical education. As shown above, the specificity of dual vocational education system is variability of teaching methods and conditions of training in systems-components while maintaining a uniform methodological basis.

In the process of engineering-pedagogical education: -the engineering profession is mastered not just at the level of acquaintance with its basics, but at the level of readiness for professional activity in this specialty; -psycho-pedagogical training permeates the engineering component of the training as a methodological frame, providing a new, humanistic and humanitarian-oriented quality. Accordingly, a third conceptually significant idea, which providing

the adequacy of the didactic basis for constructing a dual system of engineering and pedagogical education in the university with its methodological specificity, can be formulated as follows: the dual transformation of the system in the process of professional training of engineering and pedagogical staff: integration of engineering and pedagogical education as a manifestation of its systemic integrity.

New nature of engineering thinking that require a higher professional engineer culture, highly developed reflection on its own activities, use representations and methods of modern methodology and applied humanities at work.

In modern civilization, technical culture, of course, is the most popular, leading (it is literally changing the face of our planet), humanitarian culture – partly in opposition. Humanitarian oriented person refuses to accept scientific and engineering conditionality and causality, of course, not generally, not totally, but in relation to the life of man himself, society or nature. He is convinced that both man and nature– the essence of spiritual education, which cannot be treated with standards of technical culture. For him it is all live actors, it is important to understand, to hear, to speak (hence the role of language) but it cannot be manipulated, they cannot be turned into money.


363

To overcome the above confrontation of the two cultures, as we know, are called humanization and humanitarization of technical education. This idea today is one of the universally recognized principles of domestic vocational education. However, the proposed approaches for its implementation in educational practice are quite different. Nevertheless, it is possible to distinguish two main positions.

One position is that in technical universities need to teach philosophy, sociology, theory and history of culture, psychology and other disciplines of the Humanities cycle. Another position is not as clearly as the first one, is to affirm that the humanities education is not so much the study of humanitarian disciplines as a special approach to reality, a special way of thinking, a special worldview. Often by arguing of the second approach, referring to the American experience, where future scientists and engineers listen to the corresponding Humanities courses or study any Humanities subject, like "the characteristics of a medieval Japanese poetry" or "Russian literature of XIX century".

In this formulation of the question to speak about the humanization of technical education is possible only in the sense that since the separation of technical and humanitarian cultures is becoming intolerable, deepening the crisis of our civilization, we need to strive for the formation of an integral humanitarian and technical personality. In other words, the ideal becomes a holistic person, versed in both cultures.

You can specify other pedagogical problems that require his scientific and practical, didactic, methodical decisions. What and how to teach future technicians and engineers? Does it make sense to continue educational programs created in the past years, or they need to replace with new ones? What are the goals and ideal of the education of a modern technician and engineer? To what extent, for example, is he responsible for the consequences of his activities? In this regard, is it necessary for a future engineer to teach engineering ethics, as in a number of Western countries?

The question of responsibility in engineering today has a special significance. Individual critical articles appearing in print, have served decorative purposes, were intended to demonstrate the concern of the parties, or to release part of steam. There were many first and second "calls": death and disease of people from nuclear and chemical production and waste, pollution of environment, destruction of soil in the tundra, the drying of the Aral sea, the disappearance of many small rivers and marshes, major accidents at various closed and open industries and factories, etc. However, only Chernobyl was forced to really think about the problem of responsibility of all, starting from the state and


364

ending with engineer and designer. This raises a serious problem of how to reverse these negative and largely a dangerous trend.

At the same time, it seems that the mere inclusion of philosophy and the history of technology or engineering ethics in a number of disciplines of the curriculum of training of engineers will not solve this problem. The resolution of this contradiction is seen in the replacement of the old, technocratic attitudes, which largely continues to support engineering education, a new integrative humanistic-technological approach appropriate complex change of all didactic tools used in the educational process.

It should talk about the formation on the basis of a new "ideology" of the engineering profession the professional culture of engineers, future engineers (University students), and already working engineers. Society and the industrial sector are also interested in this. This should be aimed at the sphere of engineering and technical education. And the willingness of the latter to realize new worldview, social and philosophical attitudes is largely determined by the level of psychological and pedagogical training of teachers of the higher technical school, i.е. quality of engineering and pedagogical education.

Thus, a new humanistic technology "ideology" of the engineering profession becomes a "web" of interaction between industrial and educational spheres in the aspect of professional training of specialists of engineering profile, including and even primarily engineering and pedagogical education.

This allows us to formulate the second defining conceptual position, in accordance with which: uniform "ideology" of replacing the technocratic approach with a new humanistic-technological approach acts as a system-forming factor of interaction of educational and production spheres in the process of engineering and pedagogical education.

Dedicated fundamental and conceptually significant ideas provide the methodological unity of valuable objective (axiological), substantively organizational (ontological) and technological bases for constructing the dual system of engineering and pedagogical education, and therefore they were used as the basis for its theoretical, methodological, conceptual modeling.

The experience of using the dual education system showed the following advantages of the system in comparison with the traditional:

-The dual system of training specialists eliminates the main drawback of traditional forms and methods of teaching - the gap between theory and practice;


365

-Influence on personality of specialist is included in the mechanism of the dual education system, which contributes to creating new psychology of the future specialist; -The dual training system of employees creates high motivation for obtaining knowledge and skills in work, because the quality of their knowledge is directly related to performance of official duties in the workplace; -Interest of heads of relevant institutions in practical training of their employees; -Educational institution takes into account requirements for future specialists in the course of training during close contact with the customer. Dual education system can be widely used in professional training

in Kazakhstan in coming years.


366


367

THE STUDY OF BLENDED LEARNING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

Irina Ushatikova, Elena Konovalova, Victoriya Ling,

Victor Chernyshev, Anna Dmitrieva Elabuga Institute (branch) of Kazan (Volga Region) Federal

University, Elabuga, Russian Federation Naberezhnye Chelny State Pedagogical University, Naberezhnye

Chelny, Russian Federation Federal State Budget Educational Institution of Higher

Education ,,Industrial University of Tyumen”, Tyumen, Russian Federation

Federal State Budgetary Institution of Higher Education ,,Pacific State University”, Khabarovsk, Russian Federation

South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation Abstract: The relevance of the study is determined by the fact that the considerable

attention to the problem of the training quality has been paid, because in recent years the employers appreciate an acute dissatisfaction with the training of graduates on labor market. A graduate of a higher educational institution of any qualification is required to possess not only theoretical knowledge, but also practical skills in solving problems in the professional sphere. The use of traditional learning (lectures, workshops, seminars) often leads to the passivity of students and does not cause much interest in the manifestation of their capabilities. Therefore, one of the tasks of modern education is to increase the interest on the part of students to acquire knowledge, on the other hand, to activate their activity in acquiring this knowledge independently. One of the important factors for improving the system of training professional personnel in higher education is the active use of more effective teaching methods and technologies in the educational process, in particular, e-learning, distance learning technologies. The combination of models, forms and methods of learning becomes relevant, blended learning acquires a special role.

Keywords: Higher education institution, blended learning models, students, teachers, factors.

The blended learning system as an aggregate of elements united

by constant interaction to perform the functions of the educational process, has the following aspects are important: institutional (the presence of an e-development strategy, in particular, blended learning at the university); managerial-technological (organization and management of the educational process, which combines traditional forms and e-learning); pedagogical (development of methods, models and teaching


368

and methodological support of the educational process in the electronic

learning environment). Let`s consider them in greater detail.1

Elements of blended learning should be reflected in the documents regulating the entire educational process in universities and documents devoted to the educational process in the electronic

environment,2 in particular, in the provision of the e-learning course,

instructions on how to conduct certification of students in the form of

electronic testing.3 Also, the teacher's responsibility is to carry out the

learning process using e-learning should be specified in his contract

with the university.4

The technological implementation of e-learning is carried out by means of the LMS (Learning Management System), which integrates

the didactic and organizational functions of the learning process.5

Didactically, the LMS delivers information (electronic textbook, presentations, topics of test and coursework, etc.), communicates through a forum, chat, e-mail; organizes group and individual work of

students, knowledge control through testing.6 Organizational functions

1 J. Jung, M. Schütte, "An interactionist perspective on mathematics learning: conditions of learning opportunities in mixed-ability groups within linguistic negotiation processes", in ZDM, 50, no. 6, (2018), pp. 1089-1099; D. Rughetti, P. Di Sanzo, A. Pellegrini, B. Ciciani, F. Quaglia, "Tuning the level of concurrency in software transactional memory: an overview of recent analytical, machine learning and mixed approaches", in Transactional Memory. Foundations, Algorithms, Tools, and Applications, (2015), pp. 395-417; T. N. Bochkareva, E. M. Akhmetshin, A. L. Korotkova, N. L. Lyitkina, I. S. Nasipov, A. G. Khaliullina, "Research of students' cognitive activity", in Espacios, 38, no. 60, (2017), pp. 32-38; E. M. Akhmetshin, S. I. Makulov, I. A. Talysheva, S. Y. Fedorova, S. Gubarkov, "Overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment", in Man in India, 97, no. 15, (2017), pp. 281-288. 2 M. Andrieux, L. Proteau, "Mixed observation favors motor learning through better estimation of the model’s performance", Experimental Brain Research, 232, no. 10, (2014), pp. 3121-3132. 3 M. van Someren, J. Surma, P. Torasso, "A utility-based approach to learning in a mixed case-based and model-based reasoning architecture", in Proceedings of the II International scientific conference: "Case-Based Reasoning Research and Development", (1997), pp. 477-488. 4 J. C. Lester, B. A. Stone, G. D. Stelling, "Life like pedagogical agents for mixed-initiative problem solving in constructivist learning environments", in Computational Models of Mixed-Initiative Interaction, (1999), pp. 185-228. 5 L.-Ch. Chang, H.-K. Chiang, "Designing a mixed digital signage and multi-touch interaction for social learning", in Proceedings of the VIII International scientific conference: "Transactions on Edutainment", (2012), pp. 77-87. 6 R. Masoud, M. Montazeri, H. Farrokhi-Asl, H. Rafiei, "A multi-objective genetic algorithm for a mixed-model assembly U-Line balancing type-I problem considering


369

include monitoring performance, generating reports and collecting

statistical data.7

Information and communication technology (ICT) tools are often used that extend beyond LMS, Skype, mobile applications, and

social networks are often used in blended learning.8

Cloud computing also extends e-learning.9 In particular, Google

Apps and Microsoft Live@edu provide content placement tools,

learning and communication controls similar to autonomous LMS.10

The implementation of e-learning requires special departments that provide software and hardware support and organizational support for the educational process.

Literature review

An analysis of publications on the use of e-learning technologies

allows us to state that this type of education has certain disadvantages: lack of social contact with other participants in the learning process, the possibility of theoretical material misinterpreting by the student, the

need for a high level of students` self-study.11 The blended learning

compensates these disadvantages.12

human-related issues, training, and learning", in Journal of Industrial Engineering International, 12, no. 4, (2016), pp. 485-497. 7 R. Balasubramanyan, D. Bhavana, W. W. Cohen, "From topic models to semi-supervised learning: biasing mixed-membership models to exploit topic-indicative features in entity clustering", in Machine Learning and Knowledge Discovery in Databases, (2013), pp. 628-642. 8 M. Saidane, Ch. Lavergne, "Learning and inference in mixed-state conditionally hetero factor models using Viterbi approximation", in Computational Science, (2006), pp. 372-379. 9 A. Welsher, L. E. M. Grierson, "Enhancing technical skill learning through interleaved mixed-model observational practice", in Advances in Health Sciences Education, 22, no. 5, (2017), pp. 1201-1211. 10 Yu. Du, Yi. Dong, Q. Zengchang, T. Wan, "Exploring market behaviors with evolutionary mixed-games learning model", in Computational Collective Intelligence. Technologies and Applications, (2011), pp. 244-253. 11 R. Abramov, M. Sokolov, "Theoretical and methodological aspects of the formation of anti-corruption mechanisms in the system of higher education of the Russian Federation", in International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11, no. 15, (2016), pp. 7431-7440. 12 J. Lang, Ch. Bory, "Statewide implementation and sustainment of evidence-based treatment using learning collaboratives: a five-year mixed-methods study", in Implementation Science, 10, no. 1, (2015), pp. 70-78.


370

There are many approaches to the definition of the concept of

blended learning, most of which are descriptive.13 Here are some of

them: this is a combination of traditional formal learning tools - working in classrooms, theoretical material study-with informal ones, for example, discussions via e-mail and Internet conferences; it is a combination of different ways of delivering educational content and an educational content management system; it is a combination of opposing, at first glance, formal and non-formal learning, face-to-face communication and online communication, guided actions and independent choice of the path, the use of automated references and connections with colleagues to achieve their goals and the goals of the organization; this is the use, in one way or another, of electronic and

classroom learning.14

Blended learning is an approach that integrates traditional learning and computer-mediated learning in the teaching

environment.15

Blended learning is interpreted as a purposeful process of obtaining knowledge and skills in the context of integrating classroom and extracurricular educational activities of subjects of the educational process based on the use and mutual addition of traditional, electronic, distance and mobile learning technologies in the presence of the

student's self-control over time, place, routes and pace learning.16

The category "blended learning" is considered in a narrow and

broad sense.17 In a narrow sense, we understand the purposeful process

of obtaining knowledge and skills that is carried out by educational institutions of various types within formal education, part of which is implemented remotely using information and communication

13 S. E. Kirkley, J. R. Kirkley, "Creating next generation blended learning environments using mixed reality, video games and simulations", in TechTrends, 49, no. 3, (2005), pp. 42-53. 14 M. Ma, "Interactive mixed reality for muscle structure and function learning", in Medical Imaging and Augmented Reality, (2016), pp. 117-128. 15 A. J. Sedgewick, I. Shi, R. M. Donovan, P. V. Benos, "Learning mixed graphical models with separate Sparsity Parameters and stability-based model selection", in BMC Bioinformatics, 17, no. 5, (2016), pp. 170-175. 16 S.-J. Cho, A. P. Goodwin, "Modeling learning in doubly multilevel binary longitudinal data using generalized linear mixed models: an application to measuring and explaining word learning", in Psychometrika, 82, no. 3, (2017), pp. 846-870. 17 J. Hommes, P. van den Bossche, W. de Grave, G. Bos, L. Schuwirth, A. Scherpbier, "Understanding the effects of time on collaborative learning processes in problem-based learning: a mixed methods study", in Advances in Health Sciences Education, 19, no. 4, (2014), pp. 541-563.


371

technologies and technical training tools that are used to store and deliver educational material, implementation of control measures, the organization of interaction between the subjects of the educational process (consultation, discussion) and during which it has the self-learner (student) with respect to time, place and pace of learning

routes.18

In a broad sense, these are various options for combining forms and organizing methods of formal, non-formal, informal learning, as well as self-study, carried out to achieve a person's predetermined learning goals while maintaining a mechanism for controlling time,

place, routes and pace of learning.19

By blended learning we mean a focused, organized, interactive process of interaction between students and teacher, which didactically optimally combines the technologies of traditional and online learning, which is based on information and communication technologies and is focused on the individual needs of students, regardless of their location

in space and time.20


Analyzing the approaches to the definition of the concepts of

distance, electronic, blended learning, we note that in modern literature there is a discrepancy in understanding the relationship of these types of training, which leads to the need to study their models to highlight the relationship between developed models and models that are implemented, the analysis of their classifications` basis, as well as model

design activities.21

18 K. Zhang, Ch. Xiaoyan, H. Wang, "Research on the mixed-learning model and the innovative talent cultivation mechanism based on computational thinking", in Recent Developments in Intelligent Computing, Communication and Devices, (2019), pp. 59-65. 19 W. Xiangrui, N. S. Chaudhari, "Recurrent neural networks for learning mixed K-th-order Markov chains", in Neural Information Processing, (2004), pp. 477-482. 20 H. Rohbanfard, L. Proteau, "Learning through observation: a combination of expert and novice models favors learning", in Experimental Brain Research, 215, no. 3, (2011), pp. 183-197. 21 A. P. Koshkin, R. A. Abramov, E. Y. Rozhina, A. V. Novikov, "Role of social representations in student motivation for acquiring further education" Interchange, 49 (2018), no. 3, p. 313-341.


372

Without dwelling on the review of approaches to the definition of

selected concepts, we define the dominant features of each of them.22

Distance learning implies remoteness of the teacher and the student, when the transfer of educational materials occurs through any means of communication; e-learning is treated as a learning based on electronic means; blended learning assumes the presence of an invariant component, it is also a combination of the classroom and distance components, presented in different proportions, using various means of training and management of educational activities (the ratio of the selected components is determined either by the student himself or with the teacher in the process of joint communication (agreement) based on the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of each

student.)23

That is, the mixed and distant learning are combined by the e-learning, and elements of e-learning can be included in traditional learning.

Results and discussions

Foreign authors identify blended learning models depending on

the ratio of study time spent on traditional and network-based learning, and the degree to which e-learning reduces the time spent in the

classroom24 (Schneider, 2017).

The percentage of ICT as part of blended learning can range from 30 to 79 percent in the educational process. This range makes it possible to create mixed courses with a predominant classroom component (30% − 50% of ICT in the training course) and remotely one (50% − 79%). The next category, from 0 to 30 percent, includes both ICT-enabled training courses and training, in which they are completely not involved. Online learning involves the use of more than 80% of ICT.

The model of blended learning: Let`s summarize the model of blended learning, considered by

foreign researchers.

22 A. Bainczyk, "ALEX: mixed-mode learning of web applications at ease", in Leveraging Applications of Formal Methods, Verification and Validation: Discussion, Dissemination, Applications, (2016), pp. 655-671. 23 Ch. Orliac, Ch. Michel, S. George, "An authoring tool to assist the design of mixed reality learning games", in 21st Century Learning for 21st Century Skills, (2012), pp. 441-446. 24 B. Schneider, "Preparing students for future learning with mixed reality interfaces", in Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Realities in Education, (2017), pp. 219-236.


373

-The "Face-to-Face Driver" model, in which the main part of the curriculum is studied in the classroom with direct interaction with the teacher, and e-learning is used as a supplement to the main program (most often, work with electronic resources is organized at computers during study classes).

-In the "Rotation" model, study time is divided between individual e-learning and classroom training with a teacher who can also provide distance support during e-learning.

-In the "Flex" model, most of the curriculum is mastered in e-learning, and the teacher accompanies students remotely, to work out issues that are difficult to understand, organizes classroom consultations with small groups or individually.

-When implementing the "Online Lab" model, the curriculum is mastered in the conditions of e-learning, which is organized in classrooms equipped with computer equipment and accompanied by a teacher (in conjunction with training in the traditional form).

-Within the "Self-blend" model, students themselves choose courses that are supplementary to the basic education conducted by various educational institutions.

-The "Online Driver" model assumes mastering most of the curriculum with the help of electronic resources of the information and educational environment; classroom meetings with the teacher are periodic (procedures for classroom consultations, examinations are obligatory). The basis for highlighting the presented models of blended learning is the variant of the ratio of the traditional form of education with e-learning and the degree of independence of students in mastering educational material and the choice of sections of courses for independent study.

Let`s consider how the described models can be integrated into the traditional educational process of the university.

In addition to the transfer of theoretical information, the lecture develops an interest in learning activities in general and in a specific academic discipline in particular, forms guidelines for independent work on the course. Therefore, it is impossible to put all lectures into electronic format fully while introducing blended learning. As a blended learning model for organizing lectures, we can offer the rotational model "Flipped-Classroom" ("Inverted Learning"). For each module, you must provide two or three classroom lectures, which alternate with electronic ones. In addition, the Self-blend model is very promising. As we see, there is a large number of blended learning models: simple, complex, more and less popular, etc. There are blended learning models that are


374

destructive to the traditional class. They do not include traditional training in its full form; they offer new and more reliable benefits.

Figure 1: Models of blended learning

Most blended learning programs resemble one of four models:

rotation, flexible, La Carte, and enriched virtual (Fig. 1). The rotation model includes four sub-models: rotation by work areas, laboratory rotation, inverted class, and individual rotation. Each zone in the class fulfills its role in accordance with Bloom’s taxonomy (Figure 2).

Rotation model: Rotation model is a course or lesson in which students move

according to an established schedule or at the discretion of the teacher between teaching methods, at least one of which is distance learning. Other conditions may include such measures as work in small groups or in the classroom, group projects, individual lessons and written work.

Students study mainly on campus and at home. The rotation of work areas is a course or lesson in which students

move through fixed time intervals between different places of study, where at least one is distance learning. Other places may include work in small groups or in the classroom, group projects, individual lessons and assignments.

Rotation Lab is a course or lesson where distance learning is carried out in a computer lab.

Figure 2: Rotation zones and their roles


375

Inverted class is a course or a lesson when students remotely study theoretical material instead of the traditional homework, and then do practical work in the classroom.

Individual rotation is a course or lesson where each student has an individual work schedule.

The flexible "Flex" model is a course where distance learning is basic with some face-to-face meetings. Students work on an individual schedule using various teaching methods. The teacher accompanies each student remotely to work out topics that are difficult to understand, he organizes face-to-face consultations with a few groups or individually.

Meanwhile, it is noted that video lectures are not the best option for all students. In the inverted class, instead of video lectures, you can use any educational material of varying complexity, depending on the purpose of training. At the same time, it is necessary to take into accountprimarily the motivation of students, and then their level of preparedness and ability to take notes on various educational and scientific materials.

Model "Intensive" residency: -one semester is conducted traditionally (usually in summer), and

the rest ones are completely online; -traditional sessions are provided for one week or on weekends

for practical and laboratory work, and the rest ones are on-line; -sometimes classroom lessons are reduced from three “credit”

hours per week to one or two hours, giving students more time to study online.

Model "‘self-blending": The model is traditional for higher educational institutions of

America. Students independently choose additional courses to the basic education. Suppliers of educational content can be various higher schools and educational institutions.

Enriched virtual model: Students divide their time between visiting the campus and

learning remotely using online content delivery. This model differs from an inverted class in that students rarely visit campus.

"Teleschool" additionally uses models that implement a personalized approach (Autonomous group, Personal Choice group, New profile model, Individual curriculum, Interschool group).

The model "Autonomous group" is used in the case when students in a class vary greatly in their psychological characteristics, level of motivation, ICT competence formation, and regulatory universal


376

learning activities. In this case, the class is divided into groups, in one of which the main training is conducted online, and personal interaction with the teacher is used for counseling, group or individual. In another group, basic training is conducted in the traditional form, and e-learning is used to support and develop skills. The spatial organization of the class should have two zones - for the traditional lesson and the zone of online classes. While working in this model, the teacher must have the skill of distributing his attention between the two groups, be able to organize the cognitive activity of students through the system of individual or group tasks, acquaintance with the new educational material, performing the function of an assistant in the performance of tasks.

The models of the "Personal Choice" group are suitable for high school students who have a high motivation to learn, the level of ICT-competency, personal and double subject skills. Within this group, responsibility for the results lies with the student, because the process is built primarily using an electronic educational resource. The task of higher education in this case comes down to the provision of temporary (provided in the schedule hours for on-line courses) and spatial (room with a computer and Internet access) resources, as well as psychological and, if necessary, pedagogical support. Under certain conditions (arrangement in the schedule of subjects implying a visit to a higher school) a student can master on-line courses outside of higher education.

The models of this group differ only in the way the study groups are formed:

-within one higher school with a fixed set of courses for online study - "New Profile";

-within one higher school with a different set of courses for studying online - "Individual Curriculum";

-within the same age of different schools for studying a specific on-line course - "Interschool group".

For all models, it is important to help students transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory. This process includes:

-use real-world scenarios to capture students' attention and their interests;

-inclusion of the student in the student survey scripts (what they will do and how they can help the process);

-encouraging investigations and research in a safe environment with coaching support;


377

-promoting knowledge sharing, because the experience of colleagues can strengthen learning;

-stimulation of mental activity, to give impetus for reflection or to solve problems that do not have one correct answer.

-encouraging students to compete in achieving goals. Before you begin to use the inverted class in the learning process,

you must answer a number of questions to simplify the process of creating a class:

1) What will you invert? 2) Who will make your videos? 3) What software will you use? 4) How can your students access the software?

5) How will you check that your students viewed online content and what were the results? 6) How will you communicate with your students regarding how to access your upside-down content? 7) How will you teach your students to track and understand video content? 8) How will you communicate with your students? 9) How will you communicate with parents (if necessary)? 10) How will you use extra time?

Inverted learning is a pedagogical approach, in which direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the student’s individual space, as a result of which the group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment in which the teacher guides students' activities.

The students' goal is to get acquainted with the topic, learn new concepts and, if possible, get skills in applying the educational material, then return to the class with questions to clarify the quality of their understanding and reinforce their skills. In the absence of motivation, some of these tasks will not be solved.

It is worth considering that students are not accustomed to complex activities that require taking responsibility for their own learning. Therefore, when organizing an inverted study, it is necessary to explain new methods and apply them, conduct conversations with students and analyze the results obtained with them.

Critical success factors are: -To get students interested in ideas and concepts that fit their

experience. -To show students their new level of competence in using these

ideas.


378

-To show structures, constantly remind students of their competence, encourage them, demonstrate these aspects of competence.

Inverted learning methodologies: Inverted learning is based on four basic concepts and is an

approach that allows teachers to implement various methodologies in their classes:

1. Flexible space: -the teacher establishes timelines for interaction and reflection as

necessary; -the teacher constantly monitors and controls the students and

makes the necessary adjustments with -a mandatory explanation; -the teacher provides students with various ways to master the

content and demonstrate skill. 2. Educational culture: -the teacher allows students to participate in the conduct of

constructive activities without his participation; -the teacher analyzes this activity and makes it available to all

students through differentiation and feedback. 3. Content: -the teacher sets the priorities for the concepts; -the teacher creates and deals with relevant content for students; -the teacher differentiates the content and makes it accessible and

relevant to all students. 4. Professional teacher: -the teacher is available to all students in real time as needed; -the teacher evaluates the class by observing and recording data

for future learning; -the teacher cooperates with other teachers. What you can and should do: -to develop for students the author's materials in the form of

video presentations, on which they could study outside the classroom (students highly value the personal contribution of their teacher); make a choice in favor of one of the educational process management systems and stick to the chosen system;

-to set specific deadlines for the tasks and stick to them; -to provide access to digital materials for students who do not

have access to the Internet from home;


379

-to send e-mail letters to parents of students, and clarify the meaning of the new learning model; be ready to answer any questions you may have.

The success of the implementation of the methodology, in general, will depend on how parents of schoolchildren believe in its effectiveness.

What is not recommended to do: 1) Do not expect that students watch and read the materials you

compiled just because you said so. It is necessary to upload the relevant tasks together with the presentations and check them before class in the class or conduct surveys.

2) Do not expect that all students will be better able to cope with classroom tasks if they have access to study materials while still at home. There is an increasing need for differentiating tasks according to levels of complexity, since some students will be able to perceive the full amount of information, but others may not cope.

3) Do not expect from your colleagues unconditional agreement with the principles of the new methodology and support in the educational process.

4) Do not forget that the classroom format provided by the new model does not meet the standard requirements for the teacher. This should be taken into account when conducting open seminars.

5) Do not think that the presentation material developed by you will remain relevant for many years. The new technique is effective only in the case of constant updating of information, taking into account the requirements and wishes of students.

The term "micro-education" was first proposed in 2004 in the work of Gerhard Gassler. Micro-learning is a way in which concepts and ideas are presented in very small fragments, provided too short time intervals, if necessary or in conditions of ensuring maximum susceptibility. The term and concept attracted the attention of specialists training, design courses and customers for various reasons:

-the growth of mobile devices and widespread network connectivity;

-large flows of information and a decrease in concentration; -the need to deliver information in time for the work; -the emergence of platforms for collaboration in the organization; -the need for collaboration in the network. Patterns of user behavior on the network show that: -62% of smart phone users tend to take immediate action to

solve a problem or a new task;


380

-90% of users used a smart phone to achieve a long-term goal or a multistep process in small steps;

-91% of users said that they are looking for new ideas on mobile devices while performing routine tasks;

-YouTube users used more than 100 million hours to view instructions for performing operations.

Examples of micro-education: Currently, knowledge is becoming obsolete in 2.5 years, on the

other hand, only 15% of users constantly use modern knowledge in their activities. Therefore, it is necessary to form a constant need to learn from employees. Developers of micro-lessons should know the needs of the audience, provide lessons in a timely manner, and be able to work with information. Micro-learning can be considered as a separate learning strategy, it can be integrated into any learning, for example, be part of blended learning, MOOC or a strategy for the formation of fundamental knowledge. The examples are:

-work in twitter for a short trip or waiting; -view recent blog posts during breaks;

-watching a video (for example, about the method of buying a train ticket);

-comment classmates to work together; -e-mail with instruction on micro-learning;

-repetition of small sections of the course and preparation for the exam. Thus, micro-learning is a way to deliver content in small, very

specific doses and to teach students with control. If a micro lesson contains specific goals, this is formal learning; if

a micro lesson is determined by our needs at the moment, it is non-formal learning; and if learning occurs as a by-product of some other activity, it is random learning.

Micro-education can be built on the basis of a traditional curriculum. At the first stage, this course is deformed, micro doses for the construction of micro-learning are allocated. Then from the received blocks a new curriculum is formed, which can be personalized for the specific needs of the student. A regular linear tutorial turns non-linear and easily adapts to learning.

Characteristics of effective Micro-learning: Micro-education works is suitable as a component of non-formal

education, when a student chooses exactly what he needs to solve a problem. Micro-learning is effective when it has these characteristics:

-for learning it is necessary to learn individual facts, episodes; -it covers part of the process or action;


381

-simple or not very difficult training is necessary; -learning takes place while working together in a discussion

forum; -technologies provide access anytime, anywhere. Forms of micro-learning: -To read text, email, blog; -To listen to the podcast; -To watch infographics; -To get tested; -To play a micro game; -To watch the video; -To participate in tweet chat; -To participate in the simulation; -To receive assistance in the work; -To receive assistance in the benefit; -To view presentations in Power Point, etc.

Characteristics of learning environment for micro-education:

We can use various forms of micro-education to create a learning environment that will have these characteristics:

1) Consistency: all learning processes are recorded sequentially daily.

2) Accessibility: students have access to their documents, data or video from anywhere. This information is provided on the basis of their requests.

3) Immediacy: students can immediately get any information and quickly solve problems. Or, the student can write down the question and look for an answer later.

4) Interactivity: students can interact with experts, teachers or peers in the form of a synchronous or asynchronous mode.

5) Learning can be embedded in everyday life. 6) Adaptability: students can get the right information in the right

place in the right way. Innovative features that make micro-learning successful: -Seamless integration: learning is part of work and practice; -Peripheral consumption: full attention is not required, many

tasks consist of several ones, tasks partially overlap, include searching, filtering and information evaluating, as well as the creation and distribution of information by the author;

-Motivation: learning situations are not predictable; the student chooses a micro lesson on his own.


382

The main steps in creating micro-learning: 1) Map. Training card to identify students' needs for training and

for the implementation of training activities. 2) Understanding. Understanding the needs of students in the

micro-moment, when they need access to knowledge, assess and understand how to make the learning process more specific.

3) Context. Analysis of the context, time and place of the micro-moment for the delivery of customized e-learning experience.

4) Optimization. Optimize your e-learning experience. 5) Measurements. It is necessary to measure every minute when it

is possible, and use the best estimates when an accurate measure is not available.

When creating micro-learning you need to consider: 1) Microdose should have one educational purpose. 2) It is advisable to use video. 3) Training material must be of high quality. 4) Timing is everything. Video must be 5 minutes or less. 5) Prove that the training took place. Instead of multiple-choice

tests, ask students to demonstrate their knowledge. One of the main elements of micro-learning are video fragments

up to 5 minutes long. This is due to the fact that: YouTube videos are one of the most visited; video is the most effective means of transmitting information; videos are easy to create.

The creation of micro-lectures based on PowerPoint consists of the following steps:

1) Slide preparation. Slides should contain a minimum amount of text and not contain extra graphics. The combination of text and animation causes cognitive dissonance. Animation must be accompanied by voice message.

2) Voice support. The text should not be read from the screen, it must be prepared in advance.

3) Webcam. The demonstration by the teacher through the camera improves the quality of the lecture, but when explaining the diagrams, diagrams, and other difficult parts of the course, it should be turned off.

4) Pointers. The indicator in the general case may be a mouse pointer, sometimes in the recording preparation program there may be its own pointers. You can and do handwriting on the slides.

Edynco and MOOC as tools for creating a micro-lesson: One of the possible tools for creating a micro-lesson can be

Edynco (https://www.edynco.com/).


383

Micro-learning is widely used in the latest versions of MOOC, it is:

-Short videos and other learning resources are the most popular form in most MOOC and other resources, supporting materials, documents, podcasts and even short interactive e-learning events;

-Separated repetitions and practical activities; -Communication and collaboration platforms. MOOC can

include discussion boards, question and answer sessions, Twitter feeds and other social media tools for communication and collaboration.

-Micro-learning is an ideal gamification environment. The use of MOOC and micro-training in corporate training

requires a complete rethinking of on-the-job training and its support of modern technologies. Companies are moving away from traditional models, moving in training to building competence to support productivity. In a corporate environment, micro-learning must be dynamic, flexible, scalable, and available upon request, when and where it is needed. The benefits of micro-learning are:

-learning is a way to improve student's thinking; -the more a student knows, the more he remembers; -micro-courses are focused and practical knowledge; -micro courses are available online anytime, anywhere; -micro courses teach, but not report. NOOC: Nano massive open online course (nano MOOC or simply

NOOC) allows students to gain skills, competencies and a certificate (icon) in a small area of knowledge within 12 hours of study or less. One or more tutors can make each NOOC.

NOOC attracts students by allowing them to focus on a small but important study piece and gain the necessary skills. According to the sequence of such courses, an individual trajectory of studying a particular discipline can be formed; teachers, which facilitates the process of creating a course through a sequence of small NOOCs, which require 1 − 2 weeks to create. NOOC designing provides flexibility and the ability to form full-fledged credit rates.

Student academic efforts are assessed using a credit system based on the total number of student hours needed to achieve learning outcomes. 20 − 40 hours of student study time is estimated as a single loan. A typical course of 3 credits is 60 − 120 hours of student time, including attending lectures, seminars, reading textbooks, conducting research, laboratory work, completing assignments, projects and tests, and learning the assigned learning resources.


384

At NOOC, student time is 5 − 10 times shorter, does not exceed 12 hours and provides micro-experience. NOOC should be open, free for everyone and scalable with respect to possible mass character (registration of more than 1000 students). All NOOC materials must be licensed under a Creative Commons license. If this is part of an organization’s training course, then it must be certified by that organization. Such a course is hosted on the LMS and all interaction takes place over the Internet. If necessary, it can be an integral part of blended learning, for example, be used in an inverted class model.

NOOC designing can be carried out in a simplified manner using various pedagogical approaches (behaviorism, constructivism, connectivism) that are best suited to achieve the goal. As a result of combining several NOOCs, it is possible to obtain a much more effective credit training course. Combining several NOOCs at MOOC and using educational analytics will allow you to determine the reasons for students to stop studying.

Table 1: NOOCs components

Features Necessarily Freely

Promo-video (1-3 minutes) for each NOOC

+

Record of webinars (1-2 sessions) +

1-5 minutes of video lesson +

Presentation/ Notes +

Questionnaire and Forum +

Guard +

Internet resources +

Social media (Facebook, Google, Twitter)

+

Individual knowledge +

Group forming +

Colleagues` assessment +

Testing(understanding check) +

Gamification +

Final exam (On-line) +

Icons (badges) +

Sertificate +

Table 2: Planning of NOOC activity

Learning activities Study Tool Method of assessment

Time of

study


385

Entry-Video (Promo) - tutor introduces himself and the subject of study at NOOC

- Video - 5 min.

Icebreaker - Students introduce themselves and tell what they want to know.

- Padlet Forum

- 15 min.

Social media - To communicate, collaborate and initiate a community of practice, consider using various social media tools for strengthening of capabilities.

- Facebook Twitter

LinkedIn Instagram

- 15 min.

Textbooks, shortvideotutorials, infographics, webresources, notes, etc.

+ Video infografics,

articles

Mini-text 15 min.

Internet forum – discussing of issues and problems

+ Internet forum

Forming 30 min.

Internet Webinar (1 or 2) Tutor discusses and explains the theory. Students participate in the discussion via chat. In the 2nd session of the webinar, it is recommended to hold a discussion or invite an expert

+ Web-conference

- 60 min.

Internet tasks - Tasks allow you to assess whether students have achieved learning outcomes at the NOOC: 1) a report of 200 - 500 words; 2) reflection on the blog 3) video recording to demonstrate what has been learned (upload to YouTube, and then share the Internet link).

+ Presentations of

assignment

Colleagues’ assessment

30 min.

Final Test (certification) - + Text Internet 15


386

10-20 closed questions to assess the level of assimilation of the student theme NOOC.

text min.

Results - Tutor conducts video discussion (5-10 minutes) and briefly summarizes

+ Video - 10 min.

Together Minutes 180

As an example, you can consider the plan of the course

"Creating a micro-lesson", which should be conducted by a team of tutors in different languages:

1) watch the promo video about the course; 2) tell about yourself in the dating forum; 3) to face the theory of micro-learning (video); 4) select a micro-lesson topic, give a brief description;

5) to post information about the planned development of a lesson in social networks and with the help of colleagues to find analogues, meet them; 6) to face Bloom's taxonomy theory (video); 7) to determine the purpose of training and its level for Bloom's taxonomy; 8) to create test items using Bloom's taxonomy; 9) to execute and post on the network a report for evaluation by colleagues (use badges for evaluation activity and quality); 10) to participate in the webinar on the analysis of the lesson scenario (make an analysis); 11) to face the tools for creating a lesson (maybe video) and choose useful for creating a lesson, to provide for the use of a smartphone for training. (create a page with links to tools); 12) to describe and justify the instrument used for the micro-lesson in the forum; 13) to prepare text and graphic material of the lesson; 14) to create a micro lesson and post it in the course for evaluation. (use badges for evaluation activity and quality).

Blended learning will improve efficiency and practical and laboratory classes, it will allow teachers to apply new methods and forms of organization of training, and students working with electronic resources on-line course, both to study the theory and to develop practice, it will allow a more holistic view of being studied. The Station


387

Rotation blended learning model provides a greater flexibility in combining traditional methods with e-learning in organizing practical exercises, but with each student having access to a personal computer, tablet, mobile devices. Then the teacher will be able to dynamically switch students from frontal work to individual work with online course materials, Internet services and other electronic resources. The teacher will have time for individual counseling.

For the magistracy, in which the vast majority of students combine study with work, such blended learning models are effective, in which the main focus is on independent e-learning with organized remote interaction of the teacher with students, supplemented by classroom lessons and consultations, in particular, "Online Driver". But the effectiveness of this model depends on the quality of the educational content of the online e-course and on the teachers’ using of distance learning technologies.

The creating of an educational process based on blended learning is optimal for the effective transfer of knowledge, it will help improve the quality of student training, develop independent creative activities, and stimulate the acquisition of additional knowledge and their consolidation, which makes it possible to prepare competitive specialists.

The model of blended learning at the university is formed as a system that includes the following elements: the university's strategy for the development of e-learning, the organization of the educational process by means of ICT with the support of special services to support learning, the implementation of interaction between teachers and students using e-learning methods and content. Promising areas in the study of the organization of blended learning is the study and analysis of e-learning methods, the possibilities of social networks, cloud computing, mass open courses and the development of methods for their use in the educational process.


388


389

LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE OF MODERN DAGESTAN CITY

Marina A. Gasanova, Ruslan I. Seferbekov, Bashir B. Bulatov, Elmira M. G. Zulpukarova

Dagestan State Department, Center for the Study of Native Languages, Dagestan, Russian Federation

Federal State Budgetary Institution of Science, Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Dagestan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Dagestan, Russian

Federation Federal State Budget Educational Institution of Higher Education

Dagestan State University, Dagestan, , Russian Federation

Abstract: The aim of the research: the article deals with study of modern Dagestan city linguistic landscape. The relevance of the research: the relevance of the chosen topic is explained by the need for a synchronous description and analysis of toponymic, cultural-historical, linguistic, cultural, ethnolinguistic, and sociolinguistic traditions and representations of a complex and multi-level toponymic system on the example of one Dagestan city - the capital of the Republic - Makhachkala. It is a unique phenomenon of Russian and Dagestan linguistic cultures mix, which united into a single one. Research methods: the scientific research paper considers the basic principles of urbanonyms’ nomination, the most frequent word-building patterns of both official and unofficial names of urban objects and microtoponyms of present and past. The specifics of the post-Soviet Dagestan city linguistic landscape have been revealed as its shows socio-political, economic, cultural and ideological tendencies of different periods of Russian history. Toponyms are considered not only from the perspective of structural, semantic and functional aspects, but also from the point of cognition. Special attention is paid to ergonyms as a significant part of urbanization. The conditions its creation and successful functioning are indicated. Results: the analysis of the linguistic landscape of Makhachkala has revealed universal and specific mechanisms of toponyms composition, reflecting the peculiarities of regional mentality. This is a diverse, often inconsistent linguistic practice of Russian, English and Dagestan languages usage, which shows us the multi-language and socio-cultural chronotope of the city. The area of the pragmatics of languages functioning is determined by the socio-political and economic factors, which influence on the initially polylingual Makhachkala. Significance of the research: the further prospects of research are observation and changes analysis of modern Dagestan city in the linguistic landscape of the modern Dagestan city. It will allow us to understand more deeply the sociolinguistic processes in the polyethnic Russian society.

Keywords: city, Makhachkala, Dagestan, linguistic landscape, post-Soviet period, toponyms, ergonyms.

Topicality. According to sociolinguistic theory of J. Hymes,

language, as an integral part of culture, must be considered "through its


390

social matrix", while the social context becomes the key to understanding linguistic phenomena.1

Linguistic and cultural identity is a key factor for social, personal and ethnic self-identification in the age of globalization.

The Oxford Dictionary of Media and Communication describes cultural identity as "the definition (or self-determination) of individuals or social groups through cultural or subcultural categories (including ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, and gender), as well as stereotyping".2 So linguocultural identity should be considered as a sociolinguistic factor that unites people with the help of a common language, cultural attitudes, traditions, etc. It is an obligatory condition for carrying out objective analysis, global changes and its consequences, to consider comprehensively and profound questions of sociolinguistic character in the framework of such research.

Methods The urban fragment of the world’s linguistic picture, reflected in

the minds of the native speakers, is an open multilayer polyfunctional system of toponyms, so-called linguistic landscape of a geographic object.3

The topsystem is unique for every linguistic and cultural context, as it reflects the sociocultural and historical aspects of its formation. The toponym is a proper noun, and it’s a more social phenomenon, which includes mechanisms and patterns of formation of a self-linguistic and extra-linguistic character in its structure. Accordingly, the main ways of formation and establishment of the toposystems of any region are similar.

The Republic of Dagestan is the subject of the Russian Federation. This is a unique region, which is called modern Babylon: there are more than three dozen nationalities living on a relatively small geographic segment, there are 14 written and 18 spell-free languages. Dagestan is the

1 M. Gasanova, P. Magomedova, S. Gasanova, “Linguoculturological analysis of woman’s image in the proverbs and sayings of the dagestan languages”, in International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11(18) (2016), pp. 11869-11887. 2 M. A. Gasanova, P. A. Magomedova, U. U. Gasanova, G. V. Mayorova, “The Numerical Cultural Code in the Dagestani Proverbial Picture of the World”, in European Research Studies Journal, XX (4A) (2017), pp. 660-674. 3 R. I. Seferbekov, “The House-Spirit (Domovoj) in Dagestan”, in Iran and the Caucasus. Leiden-Boston, BRILL, 19 (2015), pp. 139-144. Idem, “Herbaceous Characters in the Popular Beliefs of the Peoples of Dagestan”, in Iran and the Caucasus. Leiden-Boston, BRILL, 18 (1) (2014), pp. 47-50.


391

most valuable source for conducting onomastic, socio-and ethnolinguistic studies.4

The capital of the Republic of Dagestan, the city of Makhachkala, is a unique phenomenon of Russian and Dagestan linguistic cultures mix, which united into one. Russian and Dagestan (Avar, Agul, Azerbaijani, Dargin, Kumyk, Laks, Lezgins, Nogai, Rutul, Tabasaran, Taksi, Chechen, Tsakhur) languages are the state languages, forming the basis of the linguistic urban landscape.5

The modern Dagestan city is characterized by its dynamic development, territorial growth and constant appearance of new names on the city map. The synchronous aspect of the urban system allows us to identify the contemporary sociolinguistic climate, composition and motivation of names, semantic and word-building structure of toponymic units. The synchronous study of urbanonyms of the city of Dagestan is determined by considering the last two decades. At the same time, it is necessary to involve diachronic analysis, since certain aspects as well as the complex system description of it, cannot be realized without a historical perspective.6

The modern Makhachkala originates from the year 1844, when the fortification of Petrovskoye (later Petrovsk/Port-Petrovsk) was built on the hill of Andrzej-Arka, in commemoration of Peter the Great visit in

4 Sh. Sh. Gasanov, “Renaming: Bacchanalia continues”, in Journal of Dagestan, 1 (22) (2006), pp. 14-15; K. A. Dzyuba, “Cognitive mechanisms of the formation of naming trade marks”, in Voprosy kognitivnoy lingvistiki, 13 (2014), pp. 38-44; R. I. Seferbekov, “Modernization processes in the material culture of the peoples of Dagestan in modern times: traditions and innovations”, in Proceedings of the Vth International Conference on Humanitarian and socio-political problems of modernization of the Caucasus, Magas, Ingush State University, 2017, pp. 306-320; R. I. Seferbekov, O. B. Khalidova, “The influence of the October Revolution of 1917 on the economy, way of life and culture of the peoples of Dagestan”, in Voprosy istorii, 3 (2018), pp. 137-142; G. S. Suyunova, “Interethnic communication from the point of view of the cognitive approach”, in Voprosy kognitivnoy lingvistiki, 2 (2014), pp. 41-49. 5 M. A. Gasanova, “Linguistic landscape of modern Makhachkala”, in Bulletin of Dagestan State University. Series 2: The humanities, 1 (2018), pp. 82-88; N. P. Peshkov, “Linguistic landscape of a polyethnic city: features of verbal influence”, in Voprosy psikholingvistiki, 3(33), (2017), pp. 108-268. 6 M. I. Bobrova, M. G. Nechaev, “The public and toponymy: the opinion of the population of the city of Perm about the ongoing processes”, in Cities and local communities, 1, (2015), pp. 20-28; L. A. Klimkova, “Russian toponymy and its object in the aspect of dynamics”, in Uchenye zapiski UO VSU im. P.M. Masherov, 25, (2018), pp. 107-115; I. V. Livinskaya, “Informal toponyms as a component of the language of the city”, in International postgraduate journal. Russian language abroad, 1-2, (2015), pp. 76-80; S. A. Pitina, “Features of the formation of toponyms and microtoponyms from the standpoint of cognitive linguistics”, in Voprosy kognitivnoy lingvistiki, 1, (2017), pp. 53-59.


392

1722 during the Persian campaign. Intensive development of this city took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. On May 14, 1921, in honor of the Dagestan revolutionary Mahacha Dakhadayev, the capital of Dagestan, in which almost a million people live today, has received its name: Mahach (proper name) + Kala («fortress"). Today Makhachkala is a multinational, multicultural and polyconfessional city.7

The study of the linguistic landscape of modern Makhachkala is of primary concern, since it can allow to determine, to define and to understand language contacts, the daily existence of languages and language policy, the scheme of language distribution for fulfilling various kinds of functional and communicative tasks in such a multicultural and linguistic space as Dagestan.8

However, the Dagestan languages, are official languages of the Republic of Dagestan and have the status of the state, but they do not perform the functions of the Russian-language duplicate in the names of state institutions, on signboards and road signs, such as the Tatar language in Kazan. First of all, this is due to the fact that Dagestan is not a republic of one nation as Tatarstan, and it is very problematic to realize practically such a task with 14 official languages.9


The toponymic system is one of the most stable lexical systems,

but at the same time it can be subjected to transformations as a result of socio-political changes, linguistic contacts, word-building and occasionalization, speech economy, etc. Not always changes in

7 B. B. Bulatov, A. I. Osmanov, R. I. Seferbekov, “Transformation of the economy, way of life and culture of the peoples of Dagestan in the Soviet and post-Soviet periods”, in Caucasus, 1, (2018), pp. 131-156; B. M. Gasparov, “Theoretical linguistics as a world view”, in Voprosy yazykoznaniya, 3, (2017), pp. 7-23. 8 B. B. Bulatov, R. I. Seferbekov, “Influence of globalization and urbanization on the life and culture of the peoples of Dagestan in recent times”, in Actual problems of modern oriental studies "The Bunyatovsky readings", 2017, p. 182; M. N. Latu, “Representation of linguocultural features in the internal form of terms”, in Voprosy kognitivnoy lingvistiki, 3, (2015), pp. 99-106; Т. М. Yudina, “Ergonomics of the city of Arkhangelsk in lingvocultural aspect”, in Philological sciences. Questions of theory and practice, 9, (2017), pp. 200-203. 9 F. A. Eloyeva, E. V. Perekhvalskaya, E. Sausverde, “Metaphor and heuristic function of language (is there a language without metaphors)”, in Voprosy yazykoznaniya, 1, (2014), pp. 78-99; A. A. Karnov, V. O. Verkhodanova, “Speech technologies for low-resource languages”, in Voprosy yazykoznaniya, 2, (2015), pp. 117-135; E. A. Kozlova, “Analysis of ergon-signs from the standpoint of the cognitive approach”, in Voprosy kognitivnoy lingvistiki, 3, (2017), pp. 39-50.


393

toponymic names may be official. Sometimes the name of the settlement / toponymic facility does not change, but there is a firmly established variant of the toponym in the verbal speech of townspeople. For example, Makhachkala microtoponisms are actively functioning in the form of such simplified, shortened and understandable names of the city’s inhabitants as Redukha and Sipark (Reducing and Separator settlements-sleeping areas of Makhachkala), Neftegorodok (neighborhood near the Park of Leninsky Komsomol), Piatyi (Fifth) settlement and Pervukha (First) (microdistricts of the city), Sobachiy Park (Dog Park) (park of the 50th anniversary of October), Uzbekgorodok (area of a small grocery market and houses adjacent to it, shops), Dzhigit (Monument to the soldier-liberator), Square (Central square), etc. Such kind of toponyms transformation is characterized by ethnocultural specificity of the studied vocabulary, which is determined by extra-linguistic factors.

The word-building structure of toponyms is usually multicomponent. The most numerous group consist of composite names of Makhachkala streets: Hamidova Prospekt, Akushinsky Avenue, Agacheulskaya Street, Rustamov Street, Charinov Street, etc. The three-part models of toponymic names are presented: 1st International Street, Peter the Great Street, Ahmedkhan Sultan Avenue, Aziz Aliyev Street and others.

The names of the Dagestan streets include names of the prominent Dagestan’ people (Bahaudin Astemirov, Ahmedkhan Abu Bakara, Omarl Batarya, Batyrmurzayev, Rasul Gamzatov, Irchi Kazak, Mahmud, Rabadan Nurov, Yusup Noradinov, Garun Saidov, Alimpashi Salavatov, Suleyman Stalsky, Gamzat Tsadasy, Muedin Charinov, Etim Emin), as well as other world-famous poets and writers(Gorky, Griboedov, Dobrolyubov, Krylov, Lermontov, Lomonosov, Mayakovsky, Nekrasov, Pushkin, Rustaveli, Tolstoy Lion, Tikhonov, Turgenev, Fadeyev, Fonvizin, Chekhov, Chernyshevsky (now Abubakarov), Gogol (now Shikhsaydov).

Toponyms can be investigated not only in the usual structural and functional-semantic aspects, but also from the viewpoint of cognitive processes. "Cognitive toponymy considers toponyms as one of the earliest forms of reality reflection in the consciousness of a man, as complex, relatively specific and independent, but at the same time


394

organically linked with general language relations and processes system, that actualizes the toponymic picture of the world".10

The particular attention should be paid to the process of renaming streets, while it is actively going on in the post-Soviet period. This tendency is a typical for all regions of the country. "Names of regions, towns, districts, districts in cities, streets and all the memorial ideological toponymy that contains ideologues of the era of socialism are subject to renaming".11 So we can see an ideological component of language policy in these changes. Renaming toponymic names is an artificial process, behind which there is a desire of society to change or to correct the already formed image of the geographical concept, to fill it with another12 system of values, to add significance to the toponymic object and to associate with the historical homeland.

Primary toponyms are formed, as a rule, through associations, when the spatial concept is verbalized under the influence of the regional thinking stereotype. The toponymic renomination is a complicated and artificial process, and, as we have already noted, it is typical for Russian toposystem due to political and ideological factors. In practice, we can observe a long parallel operation in the speech of the townspeople of new and old toponyms, for example: Komsomolskaya-Gamzatova, Kirov-Gamidova, Markova-Daniilova, Grapevine-Gadzhiev, Mira-Askerkhanova, Kalinina-Shamil, Sovetskaya-Korkmasova, 26 Baku commissars-Yaragh, etc.

According to a sociological survey, most Makhachka citizens are affected by the renaming of streets.

So, the Dagestan researcher Sh. Sh. Hasanov writes that: "Such a large-scale campaign of simultaneous replacement of names, along with their content, shows us no force majeure circumstances, but the tendency to erase, from the consciousness of people, the names of historical personalities and real events. At the same time, they often refer to similar actions made by authorities in Moscow. Funny argument. Firstly, not always and not all actions of Moscow authorities are worthy of imitation. Secondly, the Moscow authorities did not rename streets and avenues, but restored their historical names: Gorky Street - Tverskaya, Karl Marx-Okhotny Ryad, Leninsky Mountains-Vorobyev Mountains and many other examples. They did not begin to call

10 D. Chandler, R. Munday, Oxford Dictionary of Media and Communication, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 53. 11 Ibidem, p. 54. 12 Ibidem.


395

Leninsky Prospekt by the name of his political and ideological opponent-Kerensky".13

Ergonyms make up a significant stratum of urbanonyms. These are "artificially created names of urban commercial objects with attractive, according to opinion of owners, names of potential visitors".14 So we consider ergonyms as proper names of enterprises / organizations of different functional orientations.

They are: scientific, educational, production institutions; commercial enterprises: shops, firms, banks of the agency; cultural objects: clubs, cinemas, theaters, parks, entertaining establishments; sports facilities: stadiums, sports complexes.

A number of conditions are required for successful creation and operation of ergonyms:

1) to take into account of the specifics of the region; 2) observance of spelling and eulogy rules; 3) use of foreign language that does not interfere with the decoding of the name; 4) setting up the right associations for the organization’s activities; 5) linguistic creativity / creative approach for ergonyms. Creation of ergonyms can be made by playing off the internal form

of the word, by connotative increment of meaning, by the creation of occasionalisms.

Ergonyms of Makhachkala shows intercultural and interlanguage communications and interactions, which is due to the factor of polyethnicity of the city and constant contacts between the Russian and Dagestan populations. Abovementioned is confirmed by the frequent occurrence of Dagestan language units in the everyday Russian speech of urban residents.

It should be noted that spelling of a modern city significantly differs from spelling during the Soviet period. This is primarily due to non-linguistic factors such as: changes in the political situation and system in the country that have led to transformations in all spheres of public life. The characteristic democratization of the Russian language influenced the Russian spelling both positively and negatively. As a result of such process we can refer to the possibility of using foreign language graphics in the text of the Russian language, text creolization, variation

13 D. Hymes, Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1974, p. 14. 14 D. Chandler, R. Munday, Oxford Dictionary of Media and Communication, p. 58.


396

and free circulation of language norms, which led to the appearance of many errors.

The language space of the city of Makhachkala is reflected by graphic-spelling foreign language, the use of letters of pre-reform writing and icons / creolization (combinations of verbal and graphic means). It should be noted that in Dagestan cities, unlike cities in other regions of Russia, numerous signs and billboards rarely use the letters of the pre-

reform Russian writing: Ъ («tverdyi znak»), Ѣ («iat’»), i (« i desiaterichnoe») and other.

Its representation is limited to individual cases. For example: Petrovsk (Петровскъ) (hotel name), Gazprom (Газпромъ) (petrol station names), Mavraev (Мавраевъ) (printing services). And if in the first case, the use of Ъ is motivated, since this is the abbreviation of Port Petrovsk - the old name of Makhachkala, then in the second and third cases, in our opinion, Ъ performs rather a decorative function.

It is n interesting fact is that in Makhachkalaon the monument to Lev Tolstoy was made a mistake in the inscription, representing a copy of the cover sheet of the rare edition of the novel "Haji-Murat", which was released in the printing house of the partnership R. Golik and A. Wilborg in Petrograd, 1918: at the end of the word Petrograd is written Ъ instead of Ь. This indicates that "superfluous" letters performed the function of stylization, and its detriments of the normative side of their use.

Dagestan ergonyms are characterized by a tendency to expand the terminology of a foreign language. In the linguistic landscape of Makhachkala, the active use of foreign-language spelling is observed. The introduction into Russian text Latin alphabet refers to terms such as "barbarisms", "foreign-language impregnations" in scientific literature. According to E.O. Filinkova from the viewpoint of structural characteristic such foreignisms can be divided into three groups: 1) words one Latin letter; 2) addition with one component in Latin; 3) words completely decorated in Latin.

In the language space of the Dagestan city all types of foreign-language spelling are represented. The language body of the collected material was more than 200 units. The language mapping card contains the names of business, commercial, cultural and sports objects that are obtained by continuous sampling method of advertising texts and media. For example, IKAR (gas station), MIRA (women’s clothing store), дивиZион (communication salon), ceson05.ru (pool sales and production company) and others. Names of this type are quite common and do not cause difficulties in perception. But in many cases, there is no


397

semantic link between the name of the firm and its area of activity, which, in our opinion, testifies that use of English-language vocabulary only was made in order to increase social prestige of company. This is evidenced by such an eloquent mistake in the writing of the Makhachkala ergonyms as RIM instead of ROME.

The names of commercial organizations may be transcription or transliteration of English words in Cyrillic: «Инсайд», «Фьюджен», «Вип», «Эстет Бьюти», «Айкрафт», «Амвэй Офис», «Эстель». There are also some cases of transliteration of Russian words written in Latin: «Krasota», «Dagestan», «Vera», «Goreс». The particular interest are such specific original names as combinations of Russian, English and Dagestan words: Nur-Plast, Makhachkala-City, Anji Bank, and others.

Commercially-oriented texts, such as street advertising, contain some important information to be communicated to the consumer, and the image fully complements it and attracts interest for advertisement itself. Thus, the compatibility of these elements (verbal and non-verbal, pictorial) allows advertisers to create a clearer, more understandable, figurative idea about the advertised item or service.

From the point of view of the semantic and stylistic aspect, the texts of the advertising discourse can be typologized, symbolically denoting them as neutral: («Новая заря» («New Dawn»), «Домашний текстиль» («Home textiles»), «Кит» («Cetus»), «Времена года» («The Seasons»), regional («Шамиль» («Shamil»), «Агул» («Agul»), «Кизлярская зорька» («Kizlyarskaya zorka»), «Рисалат» («Risalat»), «Нарын-кала» («Naryn-Kala»), «Мадина» («Madina»), «Курбан» («Kurban»), «Шах-Даг» («Shah-Dag») and others, and combined («Roomцентр», «Zона», пицца «Roma», «Хамам ра», «Halal», «Eвроклимат» and others).

It should be noted that often the name of the advertising object is served by the toponym, represented predominantly by the geography of Dagestan: "Mesteruch", "Charoda", "Rapak", "Kadar", "Shikhanali", "Kubachi", "Kadar". But along with the regional toponyms, there are also such as "Moscow", "Marrakech", "London", "Europe", "Palmira", "Asia", etc.

Ergonyms as a kind of advertising discourse, represented by creolized texts, fully meets the requirements of this type of communication.

The peculiarity of creolized texts of the Dagestan advertising is unambiguous penchant for the local consumer, which affected the appeal to the national-communicative background, which is relevant only to the Dagestan audience. The formation of the Makhachkala ergonyms tends to be more exposed to the linguistic fashion and influence of both


398

English and Dagestan languages, which leads to confusion of structure and semantics of titles.

So, the analysis of city of Makhachkala toponyms demonstrated both the universal mechanisms of topography and the specific, representational features of the regional mentality. The linguistic landscape of Makhachkala, which is characterized by a diverse, often, inconsistent linguistic practice of the use of Russian, English and Dagestan languages, testifies about multilingual and socio-cultural areal of the city. The pragmatics sphere of Russian, Dagestan and foreign languages functioning is determined by socio-political and economic factors influencing the initially polylingual Makhachkala. This process is in progress now and requires further synchronous and diachronic description, determination of the influence degree of Russian, Dagestan and foreign languages on the ethnic identity of the Makhachkala’ people. The further changes observations in the linguistic landscape of the modern Dagestan city will allow us deeper to understand sociolinguistic processes of polyethnic Russian society.

Acknowledgments: The publication was prepared within the

framework supported by RFBR scientific project No. 18-09-00420-Anthropology of the Dagestan city: The Impact of Globalization on the Transformation of Culture and Everyday Life of Dagestan Citizens in the Post-Soviet Period.


399

THE PHENOMENON OF LINGUISTIC INTERFERENCE IN PROFESSIONAL INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

AND TRANSLATION (ON EXAMPLES OF UKRAINIAN-ENGLISH DIFFERENCES)

Tetiana Yefymenko, Tetiana Moroz,

Anzhelika Solodka, Yana Prosiannikova Mykolaiv V. O. Sukhomlynsky National University,

Mykolaiv, Ukraine Kherson State University, Kherson, Ukraine

Abstract: The theoretical bases of interference research are analyzed in the article,

the essence of the concept of "interference" is turned out. The translation of linguistic interference, causes and mechanisms of its appearance, its impact on professional communication are considered in the paper. The publication deals with the manifestations of interference within the limits of imperfect parts of the language and the difficulties of translation caused by the syntactic and punctuation features of the language. Comparison of grammatical systems of contacting languages makes it possible to avoid some of the difficulties caused by interference, because of their conscious comparison. The phenomenon of interference is studied in linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics, methods of teaching foreign languages. Actualization of the linguistic aspect of interference occurs at all levels of the language system and is realized in speech regardless of the speaker’s consciousness. Linguistic interference in translation can appear both at the level of morphemes and at the level of words represented by different parts of speech: pronouns, verbs, nouns, adverbs, Participle I, Participle II, prepositions, conjunctions. All interferences covered in the paper have been analyzed. Consequently, interference is one of the factors, one of the engines of language development, linguistic changes that are accumulated and drown in it. In a subordinate plan, mass and frequent interference means the constant mixing of two systems, their more or less mutual assimilation. Thus, identifying areas of linguistic interference, studies have attested interference phenomenon are important for improving language culture. Attracting attention to those areas and units of language where there is a probable occurrence of deviations from the norm under the influence of another language can help to avoid interference. It was emphasized that it is precisely the account of the manifestations of interference in the training of professional intercultural communication and translation that can ensure the effectiveness of the educational process for the preparation of translators.

Keywords: interference, professional intercultural communication and translation, transformation, phenomenon, grammatical systems.

Due to the processes aimed at the integration and cooperation of

the parts of the world, which require effective intercultural communication, the inherent attribute of a modern person is the high level of possession not only the native language, but also foreign


400

languages, which is a component of professionalism and social status of a person.

The reason for the interference is the fact that a person builds his foreign language statement according to the norms of his native language and establishes unusual relations between the individual language facts of a foreign language. Due to the expansion of intercultural professional contacts, the need of society for specialists in various fields who speak a foreign language is increasing. However, foreign language skills for intercultural professional interaction presuppose mastering professionally significant concepts of foreign language culture, which determine the specifics of social and business behavior, which depends on historical traditions and customs, way of life, etc.

The content and results of diverse intercultural contacts in many respects depend on the ability of their participants to understand each other and to reach agreement, considering the ethnic culture of each of the interacting parties, the psychology of people’s dominant in one or another culture of values.

Methodology

The choice of methods and techniques is conditioned by the

research aim and theoretical orientation of the paper. They incorporate ideas of the intercultural theory of communication and linguistics. The descriptive method is used to be a characteristic of the definition and structure of interference. In the scientific literature there is a lack of research related to the consideration of interference in the training of professional translation.

The aim of this publication is to consider the manifestations of interference within the ambiguous parts of speech and the difficulties in translation caused by the syntactic and punctuation features of the language, its influence in translation and professional intercultural communication.

Literature Review

First of all, let’s define the concept of interference. Interference has

repeatedly been the object of research of domestic and foreign linguists.


401

In particular, this problem is a range of scientific interests of such scientists as Dyachkov,1 Kovylina,2 Rozentsveih.3

When considering such a complex phenomenon as interference, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the term "interference" is considered by most scientists in different ways. Note that interference is understood by I. S. Alekseeva4 as a violation of the language norm under the influence of elements of another language, as well as the process of influence of one language on another. The manifestation of interference in the study of a foreign language in such a category of students as translators has its own characteristics due to their future professional activities. The translator’s communicative activity is connected with the perception of the text of written or oral speech in one language, translation of the text from one language system to another (transcoding) and reproduction of the received text in written or oral form in another language.5

Studying the language interference in professional intercultural communication and translation, V. V. Alimov6 describes the psychological basis of interference in translators: when translating, the translator deals first with the process of perception of the speech expression in the original language. This perception at the identification stage is carried out as a process of comparing objects that are perceived with perceptive standards of such objects that are stored in the memory of the translator. This comparison is based on the standards of words of both the source language and the language in which the translation is carried out: in the absence or insufficient formation of standards in one language, the translator uses perceptive standards from another language with different degrees of awareness. It is this replacement of the perceptual standards of one language by the perceptive standards of another language that is the basis for the emergence of interference.

Accounting interferences in intercultural communication and translation can: -prevent errors and to reduce their number;

1 M. V. Dyachkov, Problems of bilingualism (multilingualism), Moscow, Institute of National Problems in the Ministry of Defense of the RF Press, 1992. 2 L. N. Kovylina, Syntactic interference and ways to study, Candidate thesis, Kiev, 1983. 3 V. Yu. Rozentsveih, "New in linguistics", Language contacts, (1972), no. 6, p. 534-539. 4 I. S. Alekseeva, The Introduction into the Translatology, Кyiv, VTS "Akademiia" Press, 2004. 5 Ibidem; V. V. Alimov, Interference in translation on the material of the professional-oriented cross-cultural communication and translation in the sphere of the professional communication, Moscow, Kom. Kniga Press, 2005. 6 T. S. Baliashvili, Interference as a bilingual problem, Tbilisi, Tbilisi university Press, 1988.


402

-facilitate learning to identify it and avoid all sorts of problems associated with linguistic interference; -contribute to more effective development of second language competencies; -reduce time to mastery of new material and translations; -allow you to better develop self-control and prevent the occurrence interference phenomena among students. Numerous studies of the interaction of cultures show that the

content and results of diverse intercultural contacts depend largely on the ability of their participants to understand each other and reach agreement, considering the ethnic culture of each of the interacting parties, the psychology of the peoples who dominate in a particular culture of values.7

In cultural anthropology these relations between different cultures are called "intercultural communication", which means the exchange between two or more cultures and their products in different forms.8 Such communication, carried out in a foreign language for the purpose of establishing or developing relations in a professional environment, is a professional type of foreign language intercultural communication.

For the successful implementation of speech communication requires certain knowledge and skills. L. I. Grishaeva and L. V. Tsurikova9 subdivide the knowledge to:

1) contextual knowledge (extralinguistic knowledge about the world); 2) interactionally knowledge (reflecting the prior discursive experience of the participants of communication, the standard algorithms of communicative behavior); 3) language knowledge (knowledge about the design of their communicative intentions in a particular situation of communication). Traditionally, communication skills are subdivided into skills to

correctly, intelligently explain their thoughts and adequately perceive information from communication partners within the framework of a common skills block and a block of special skills. In both blocks, both verbal and nonverbal components are distinguished. Special communication skills include mainly the skills necessary in professional

7 A. P. Sadokhyn, Intercultural communication, Moscow, Alpha-M Press, 2006. 8 Ibidem. 9 L. I. Grishaeva, L. V. Tsurikova, Success strategies and risk factors in intercultural communication, Voronezh, VSU Press, 2005.


403

activity (the ability to conduct a presentation, a business conversation, organize a production meeting, instruct subordinates, etc.).

The content, structure and strategies of communication are culturally conditioned. Each participant in cultural contact has its own system of rules functioning in such a way that sent and received messages can be encoded and decoded. Signs of intercultural differences can be interpreted as differences between verbal and nonverbal codes in a specific context of communication.

In addition to cultural differences, the process of interpretation is influenced by the age, sex, profession, social status of the communicant. The process of intercultural interaction often involves participants with different communicative expectations, determined by the social and discursive experience of their native culture, as well as stereotypes of communication partners belonging to an alien culture. In the course of such an imposition of linguistic and cultural codes of communication participants, communicative interference, known as the phenomenon of interference, may occur.

The phenomenon of interference is studied in linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics, methods of teaching foreign languages. Actualization of the linguistic aspect of interference occurs at all levels of the language system and is realized in speech regardless of the speaker’s consciousness.

However, all these types of interference reflect only the linguistic nature of the phenomenon, which manifests itself in communication not only in linguistic, but also in the intercultural aspect.

Socio-cultural, or cultural interference, according to A. V. Shchepilova,10 is caused not by the very system of language, but by the culture that this language reflects.

Similar realities, phenomena and norms of behavior in different cultures can cause interference.11 In other words, the communication partner incorrectly perceives and interprets the phenomena and events of another culture, as well as the communicative behavior of his interlocutor, that is, perceives and evaluates his personality and message through the prism of norms and values accepted in his native language, through the prism of the world picture he has mastered.

LCI (linguo-cultural variety of interference)

10 A . V. Shepilova, Theory and methods of teaching French as a second foreign language, Moscow, VLADOS Publishing House, 2005. 11 Ibidem.


404

In linguistics and methodology there is also a notion of linguo-cultural variety of interference (LCI), the emergence of which in intercultural communication and translation is caused by the discrepancy or imposition of some cultural codes on others, as well as full or partial lacunarity in the field of cultural connotation.12

This kind of interference covers both linguistic and cultural components. P. V. Timachev13 considers linguo-cultural interference in the framework of the linguo-cultural approach, which consists in studying communicative failures arising from the imposition of cultural codes, a certain set of knowledge about the culture of a certain linguistic community, the structural designation of this knowledge through certain verbal, mental, and adverbal units. Its questions are mainly engaged in such sciences as linguo-culturology, psychology, sociolinguistics.

In the theory of intercultural communication, the narrow concept of LCI is replaced by a broader concept of interference. Close to the concept of LCI is also the concept of "socio-cultural error". It implies all those errors or shortcomings of writing, mastering the English language, which are the result of differences in the socio-cultural perception of the world, and include errors at the level of socio-cultural background knowledge; errors at the level of speech behavior of communicants; errors against the background of the general culture of writing.14

However, in this approach, the phenomenon of interference is simply reduced to errors and the phenomenon is not analyzed in terms of the cause and consequences of its occurrence and manifestation.

In the methodology of teaching a foreign language interference is proposed to be considered as a conflict interaction of cognitive-speech mechanisms, manifested in the secondary linguistic personality in deviations from linguistic, discursive, socio-cultural norms of one linguistic culture under the influence of another.15

This definition emphasizes the complexity of the interaction of cognitive speech mechanisms of contacting languages and cultures, and rightly focuses on the conflict nature of interaction. However, the specificity of the intercultural component of interference seems to recede

12 P. V. Timachev, "Linguocultural interference as a communicative hindrance: on the material of the English language", Candidate thesis, Volgograd, 2005. 13 Ibidem. 14 L. G. Kuzmina, V. V. Saphonova, "Typology of sociocultural errors in the English written language of Russian students", The foreign languages, (1998), no. 6, pp. 20-29. 15 N. P. Fedorova, "Overcoming linguistic and cultural interference in the process of teaching foreign language students of non-linguistic high schools (on the material of the English language)", N. Novgorod, Progress Press, 2010.


405

into the background. At the same time, the specificity of this aspect of interference is very important for the methodology of teaching a foreign language.

If the phenomena of language interference are explicated in the form of speech errors and violations of language norms, and most cases are visible to the teacher who wants to teach students to overcome them, the violations of intercultural communication are less obvious and are little described.

Linguistic and cultural interference can be defined as a conflict phenomenon that occurs in communications based on the replacement of missing or incomplete concepts of the foreign culture in their ignorance, misunderstandings, incorrect perceptions or interpretations of concepts of their own culture expressed in speech activities.

This type of interference in the methodology should be considered specifically with respect to linguistic interference, and the students should be focused on its independent overcoming.

LCI includes some features of the linguistic, cultural and socio-cultural type of interference with a more pronounced linguistic component. At the same time, elements of both discourse and non-speech behavior can be carriers of the national-cultural specificity of the partner in foreign-language intercultural communication.

The phenomenon of LCI in intercultural professional communication leads to the wrong interpretation of the problem and conflict situations in situations of intercultural communication. All this can contribute to the rejection of the subsequent intercultural interaction.16

The phenomenon of linguistic interference in translation. In linguistic literature, the problem of interference is considered at different levels: phonetic, morphological, syntactical, lexical and semantic.

It seems quite logical to consider the phenomenon of linguistic interference in translation as a part of morphological and syntactical interference, and therefore-grammatical, because morphemes are "building material" for words, and sentences are constructed from words.

Morphological interference is most studied at the level of morphemes.17 But it can take place not only at the level of morphemes, but also at the

16 A. A. Berdichevskij, Methods of intercultural education by means of the Russian language as a foreign language: a book for a teacher, Moscow, Russkij Yazyk Press, 2011. 17 M. Byram, "Intercultural communicative competence in foreign language education: questions of theory, practice and research", in The Language Learning Journal, no. 41, (2013), pp. 251-253; A. Zaripova, O. Akimova, O. Palutina, "Languages for special


406

level of words that are different parts of the language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions.18

Various legal, scientific and technical documents, orders, instructions, correspondence develop in accordance with certain rules and have a number of grammatical features which, together with the usual grammatical differences are the cause of linguistic interference.

Results

Nouns in Ukrainian and English

Nouns in Ukrainian and English are characterized by differences in

the categories of gender, numbers that lead to interference: successes – progress; data – information; right – business; data, argumentation – evidence; research – work; names of sciences and subjects – physics, logistics. So, in the sentence, many successes were achieved communicants translate many instead of much or a lot of. Replacing such nouns with pronouns: successes (they) – progress, use them instead of it.

Let’s consider the peculiarities of the translation on the example of individual sentences.In addition to nouns used only in the singular, in the English language there are those that are used only in the plural, and this also leads to interference: arms, processes, goods and others:

-The goods have already been received. -These small arms differ from others by their high rate of fire. They will be adopted in the Army this year. Here, under the influence of the Ukrainian language is translated

with errors: has, this, differences, its, it. There are several cases when the plural form of the English noun

does not correspond to the plural form of the Ukrainian noun in the translation, therefore, during the translation it is necessary to take into account the form of the verb-predicate, the demonstrative pronoun

purposes in translation training", Proceedings of the VIII International education conference, (2016), pp. 3167-3170; L. B. Perry, L. Southwell, "Developing intercultural understanding and skills: models and approaches", in Intercultural Education Journal, no. 6, (2011), pp. 453-466; E. Haugen, "New in linguistics", in Language contacts, no. 6, (1972), pp. 61-80; A. Roskosa, D. Rupniece, "Advantages and disadvantages of using group work in translator training", in Social and Behavioral Sciences Journal, no. 231, (2016), pp. 244-250; I. I. Khaldeeva, Tender in the theory and practice of learning interlanguage communication, Moscow, Nauka Press, 2001. 18 V. V. Alimov, Interference in translation on the material of the professional-oriented cross-cultural communication and translation in the sphere of the professional communication, Moscow, Kom. Kniga Press, 2005.


407

(this/these), the numerals (one or more than one), the presence and type of the article:

-These means are not sufficient in the given case. -Politrol is a good means for purification. The plural form of some English nouns can be ambiguous, so the

translation of a noun must be consistent with the meaning of the sentence. We can make a considerable saving by using this equipment. Then we can use our savings to buy raw materials.

Some English plural nouns can have both singular (for example, if they mean a certain branch of science) and plural (for example, if they mean a set of objects):

-Statistics is an interesting science. -These statistics are very unreliable.

Prepositions in Ukrainian and English

The difference in the cases of Ukrainian and English may also

cause interference. In English, the case is usually transmitted using prepositions:

-Burning or combustion of the fuel mixed with the air takes place in the engine cylinders. The role of prepositions in the English language is very large and

there are significant difficulties in professional intercultural communication and translation.

Prepositions in English are the means of expressing the relationship of a noun or pronoun with other words in a sentence. In the Ukrainian sentence, temporal, spatial, causal and other relations are expressed by prepositions and endings of cases. In English, these relations are expressed only by prepositions, since nouns and pronouns in the nominative case have no special endings. For example:

-The Buyer is to open a Letter of Credit with the State Bank. It is possible to result and other examples of interference at the

level of prepositions: -to press against smth; -to protect from smth, shield from (against) smth; -at smb’s request; -on credit. Examples of differences between prepositions in Ukrainian and

English can be extended by adding cases where prepositions are in Ukrainian terms, and they are not needed in English:

-to advance some distance;


408

-to approach smth. Conversely, in Ukrainian expressions there are no prepositions, but

in English they are: -to prove to smb; -to report to smb; -to interfere with smth; -to contribute to smth; -compensate for damages.

Negative constructions and conjunctions

Very often, during the translation from the Ukrainian language

into English interference, there are negative constructions. As you know, there can be only one objection in the English translation, while in Ukrainian there are several. Example:

-Nobody knows nothing about it. Instead of: Nobody knows anything about it.

Also, the interference is experienced in pronoun neither and the double conjunction neither ... nor:

-Neither supplier nor consignee were not reported that being shipped the equipment was damaged Instead of: Neither supplier nor consignee was reported that being shipped the equipment was damaged. That is, by analogy with the Ukrainian language, another objection

is used and it is not taken into account that in sentences with the conjunction neither ... nor the predicate is consistent with the nearest subject: was reported, but not were not reported.

Personal pronouns

Certain difficulties in the translation causes a personal pronoun. In

English, it is translated by possessive pronouns: my, mine, his, her, its, our, ours, your, yours and their, theirs:

He put his money into his pocket and she put hers into her purse. Pronouns are often influenced by interference in constructions as

well: -Let them discuss this matter themselves. -Nobody noticed us come in. In such sentences, under the influence of the Ukrainian language,

communicants often translate they instead of them, we instead of us, that is, use personal pronouns, and not objective case.


409

Verbs It should be emphasized that the greatest interference is

experienced by verbs, which in each language are under the control of certain rules. Violation of these rules often leads to interference.

At the initial stage of language learning, those who study the language forget to put the ending "s " in verbs in the third person singular of the present tense, confuse the basic tense forms of verbs:

-The researcher carries out the experiments. -The operating conditions are being examined. The last sentence uses the continuous tense in the passive voice,

with which communicants have some difficulties, because there is no continuous tense in the Ukrainian language, so this sentence is translated as follows: The operating conditions are examined.

Ukrainian-speaking communicants are experiencing difficulties using the Perfect, Continuous and Perfect Continuous forms, especially in the passive voice in the future. Similar constructions are often used in professional intercultural communication and translation:

-The tests will have been completed by 5 o’clock. Communicants translate: ... will be completed... -In the 60s of the last century electrical engineering was just making its first rather timid steps. Communicants use the past simple tense: In the 60s of the last century electrical engineering just made its first rather timid steps. -Have you been considering the decay of unstable nuclei for a rather long time? Communicants use the perfect or just the continuous tense: -Have you considered...? Or Were you considering...? Communicants have special difficulties with the use of the

sequence of tenses: -The conference discussed the problems which were extremely important for designing new types of computers. During the translation in English instead of the future in the past

(would) often use the future (will): -It was shown that two pieces of lead would stick together. Modal verbs and their equivalents cause considerable difficulties in

English: -According to the contract the goods are to be delivered in two lots. Instead of the equivalent to be to communicants use must. The

situation is similar with modal equivalents to have to, to be able to. The greatest interference suffers Subjunctive mood, which in

English correspond to the form of Subjunctive I, Subjunctive II,


410

Conditional and Suppositional: -If the manager were here now, he would sign your documents. To reduce the impact of interference, grammatical transformations

are used: permutation, replacement, addition, deletion, and complex transformation.

Permutation is a transformation that changes the order of words in a phrase or sentence:

-Much work has been done on the problem. Replacement is a transformation, when instead of words used the

phrase, instead of the phrase used by the sentence, instead of a few sentences-one complex sentence and vice versa:

-We shall discuss those points in greater detail. Addition is a transformation that increases the number of words,

word forms, or sentence members in a translation: -The mutual effect introduces a complex change. Deletion is a transformation in the translation of which is the

removal of a particular language element (word, word form, member, or part of a sentence):

-This is very difficult problem to tackle. Complex transformation encompasses two or more simple

grammatical transformations: -The motor was found to stop within 2 second.

Conclusions

The important condition of an adequate translation is the ability to

correctly analyze the grammatical composition and structure of foreign language sentences and to construct sentences in translation in accordance with the norms of the language of translation. Of course, the translator must be well-informed about the grammatical features of the source and the target language, the basics of the theory of translation in general and in the professional intercultural sphere in particular, as well as with translated correspondences in the field of grammar and vocabulary, translation transformations, ways of translating different linguistic and speech phenomena. Great importance to the translator is the knowledge of the subject of translation, it should be oriented in the subject field, which belongs to the text intended for translation.

In order to reduce the influence of interference in professional intercultural communication and translation, it is necessary to study language differences, to identify phenomena that provoke interference, and to predict their negative impact even while studying the relevant


411

sections of grammar, consolidating skills to overcome interference in the process of assimilation of theory, the implementation of training exercises and practices of translation in the field of professional communication.

Thus, research has shown that effective intercultural communication stands in the unity of two aspects-linguistic and cultural. Successful international relations equally require advanced language knowledge and a high level of intercultural competence. To date, the prevalence of the English language as a language of international communication contributes, on the one hand, facilitating such contacts, and on the other hand by smoothing out the peculiarities of the national cultures of interlocutors, which further complicates the process of intercultural communication, because the participants perceive each other through the prism of an alien language and certain features of English-speaking cultures subconsciously associated with it, in the current situation there are many new aspects of the phenomenon of interference.


412


413

SPEECH MANIPULATION AS ONE OF THE PROPERTIES OF MODERN POLITICAL DISCOURSE

Aigul A. Karamova, Еlena A. Burceva, Amina Sh. Abdullina,

Rishat F. Khasanov, Olga V. Lysova, Gulfira R. Abdullina Birsk branch of Bashkir State University, Birsk, Russian

Federation

Abstract: The article deals with the study of the language persuasive basic means of contemporary Russian political discourse. In addition, the most active manipulative strategies of political discourse are considered. The research is based on the principles of discursive analysis, which involves analysis of speech resources in the context of a wide non-linguistic context. In addition, linguistic methods are used: contextual, component, syntax, word-building analysis. It is expedient to take as a basis the system-level characteristic of linguistic means while systematizing the language persuasive means of political discourse, according to which the following groups can be distinguished: lexico-phraseological means, grammatical means (morphological, syntactic). The description should be made by tying the units under study, on the one hand, to a broad non-linguistic context, on the other hand to language persuasive strategies, to which a unit is involved. The main strategies are implication, reduction, contact with the addressee, distancing from the expressed opinion. The novelty of the study is to determine the linguistic status of language persuasive means, to identify the principle of their research and to develop a mechanism for their description.

Keywords: political discourse, loaded language, language persuasive strategies, language persuasive means.

One of the main characteristic of political discourse (along with

ideology, evaluation, expressiveness) is manipulative capability.1 The relevance of studying the manipulative capability of political

discourse is currently explained by the following. The revealed facts of long-term total ideological manipulation by the consciousness of the Soviet citizen convince of the effectiveness of his methods, "inspire" modern political technologists to implement them, improve them. According to S.G. Kara-Murza,2 manipulative capability as a means of power becomes fully possible only in a civil, democratic society, when the actions of a citizen can determine the fate of this power, and consequently, in the interests of power - to direct these actions in the right direction. However, the modern era is an era of information

1 A. A. Karamova, Modern political discourse (communicative and pragmatic aspect), Moscow, Golos-Press, 2017. 2 S. G. Kara-Murza, Manipulation of consciousness, Moscow, Eksmo, 2000.


414

struggle,3 which is "clearly or implicitly between states in defense of their own interests in the confrontation over zones of political influence, markets, disputed territory, property, defense sphere, etc.".4 The main weapon of this struggle (and the main danger) are methods and means of influence on the human psyche. Today manipulation is a common type of ideological influence in political discourse. It, unlike emotional and psychological persuasion by evaluative and expressive means, has a hidden effect on the subconscious sphere of the recipient, by building complex strategies. The manipulator sometimes achieves more effective results than the aggressor by suggesting beneficial ideas.

Manipulation should be understood as an implicit speech influence on the subconscious of the addressee in order to correct the existing picture of the world, the formation of motives beneficial to the addressee behavior.

Manipulation is a special kind of political communication, where the subjects themselves, their behavior, interaction, ways of achieving the goal are specific. Manipulant (politician or media) has a hidden effect on the subconscious sphere of the manipulated (people), correcting, forming a picture of the political world in a profitable way with the ultimate goal of achieving certain actions. The effectiveness of manipulation largely depends on individual characteristics, the formation of the target’s outlook, capable / incapable of recognizing manipulations and resisting them. Taking into account the scale of the use of manipulative methods in political discourse, it is appropriate and relevant to talk about the development of psychological protection ways against manipulative influence, the essence of which can be reduced to the need for critical comprehension of the information received.

The aim of the article is to define the principle of investigating language persuasive means and to develop a mechanism for their description.

Also, we should pay attention to the fact that manipulation has a verbal nature. That is, the language system does not have special means, originally "conceived" as manipulative (as, for example, evaluation words intended for evaluation). There are means with a certain suggestive potential, which, when involved in the implementation of language persuasive strategies, become means of manipulation.

3 S. P. Rastorguev, Philosophy of information war, Moscow, Moscow Psychological and Social Institute, 2003. 4 V. F. Prokofiev, The secret weapon of information warfare, Moscow, SINTET, 1999.


415

Taking into account all of the above mentioned, analyzing language persuasive means, it is advisable to keep in mind only their suggestive potential, which is realized in the framework of language persuasive strategies.

Experience shows that the main manipulative strategies in the political discourse are: the implication strategy is the concealment of true meanings,5 the reduction strategy is the simplification of the current problems,6 the strategy of establishing contact with the addressee,7 the strategy of distancing from the expressed opinion and removing responsibility for words/actions.8

Literature review

Manipulation is a subject of interdisciplinary study. Manipulation is

a phenomenon primarily psychological, associated with the management of consciousness (most often - mass) and, further, - the action. The psychological doctrine of manipulation goes back to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov on higher nervous activity (to the theory of conditioned reflexes) and is based on the psychoanalysis of Freud (in particular, on the teaching of the subconscious).

According to the psychological point of view, manipulation, according to E.L. Dotsenko,9 "a kind of psychological influence, the skillful execution of which leads to a hidden excitement of another person’s intentions, which do not coincide with his actual desires". Therefore, today, researchers are actively studying the mental mechanisms of manipulative effects on consciousness.10

Many researchers are interested in the question of the signs of manipulation. The answer to this question is important for practical purposes, since there is a need to distinguish between manipulation and other types of influence on the addressee (rational and emotional-

5 O. L. Mikhaleva, “Discourse of the object vs discourse of the subject: system-forming characteristics”, in Systemic and systemic in language and speech, Irkutsk, Publishing House of Irk-gos. University, 2007, pp. 17-33. 6 P. O. Mironova, The strategy of reductionism in contemporary political discourse: the cognitive-pragmatic aspect, The theses of the candidate of philology science, Omsk, 2003. 7 Yu. S. Rynkovich, “Conversational strategies in modern media”, in RR, 6, 2007, pp. 72-74. 8 Yu. S. Stepanov, “Alternative World, Discourse, Fact and Principle of Causality”, in Language and Science of the End of the 20th Century. Moscow, RGGU, 1995, pp. 35-73. 9 E. L. Dotsenko, Psychology of manipulation: phenomena, mechanisms and protection, Moscow, Moscow State University, 1997. 10 S. G. Kara-Murza, Manipulation of consciousness, Moscow, Eksmo. (2000).


416

psychological beliefs) that are also used in political discourse. Researchers identify different signs of manipulation, placing at the forefront of one of them. N.I. Klushina11 considers the lack of access to independent sources of information as the main sign of manipulation; M.V. Chernyakova12 - the hidden nature of manipulation; E.L. Dotsenko13 - "goal-setting for the addressee," etc. The most complete generalization and analysis of the features distinguished by different scientists was made by E.L. Dotsenko.14 Researchers, highlighting a number of signs peculiar to manipulation, in the majority converge in one - in its latent character.

Researchers distinguish loaded language as the main means of manipulation. According to S.G. Kara-Murza,15 language is rightly considered the main means of suggestion, since suggestibility through words is a deep sense of the psyche that arose earlier than the capacity for analytical thinking. That is why today, a lot of work on the study of language persuasive strategies, tactics, speech suggestive means are done.16

Researchers think that manipulation as a specific type of communication. "Any manipulation of consciousness is interaction",17 states SG. Kara-Murza, since "a man can become a victim of manipulation only if he acts as its author, accomplice".18 M.V. Chernyakova,19 summarizing the experience of studying the properties of the manipulator (subject of manipulation), states about its generally negative nature. The manipulator is guided by unseemly goals to achieve unilateral benefits; refers to the addressee "from top to bottom", only as to the object of influence, not recognizing in it the presence of its own persistent opinion, its position. As for the object of manipulation, its

11 N. I. Klushina, “Persuasion and manipulation: delineation of concepts’, in RR, 5, 2007, pp. 50-53. 12 M. V. Chernyakova, Realization of the manipulative potential of the conceptual metaphor in the Russian and American political narrative, dedicated to the war in Iraq in 2003-2004, The theses of the candidate of philology science. Ekaterenburg, 2007. 13 E. L. Dotsenko, Psychology of manipulation: phenomena, mechanisms and protection, Moscow, Moscow State University, 1997. 14 Ibidem, p. 61. 15 S. G. Kara-Murza, Manipulation of consciousness, Moscow, Eksmo, 2000. 16 O. S. Issers, Communicative strategies and tactics of Russian speech, Moscow, Editorial URSS, 2002. 17 S. G. Kara-Murza, Manipulation of consciousness, Moscow, Eksmo, 2000. 18 Ibidem, p. 35. 19 M. V. Chernyakova, Realization of the manipulative potential of the conceptual metaphor in the Russian and American political narrative, dedicated to the war in Iraq in 2003-2004, The theses of the candidate of philology science, Ekaterenburg, 2007.


417

features are conditioned by the unconscious nature of manipulative influence. The object of manipulation is most often people who are susceptible to suggestion, allowing themselves to be manipulated, without noticing the very fact of introducing motives of behavior that are beneficial to the manipulator.20 The nature of political communication predetermines the possibility of manipulation. Collective, mass addressee (or crowd, according to G. Lebon,21 where it means "not the accumulation of people in one place, but the human totality possessing a psychic community",22 is extremely suggestible. The consciousness is individual, and the unconscious is collective. Individuals dissolve in the mass under the influence of suggestion, as suggestion in the crowd is contagious.23

According to researchers are interested in the current issue of psychological protection from manipulation, that is, according to E.L. Dotsenko,24 "the use of the subject of psychological means to eliminate or mitigate the damage that threatens him from another subject". This is associated with the activity of research in the field of critical discourse analysis, during which, according to M.V. Gavrilova "implicitly expressed attitudes in the system of social relations"25 are revealed and "hidden effects of discourse influence on this system"26 are demonstrated.


The selection of factual material was based on the principles of

discursive analysis, which involves the study of speech media in the context of a broad non-linguistic context. Discourse analysis is understood as a set of methods and techniques for interpreting various kinds of texts or utterances as products of speech activity carried out in specific socio-political circumstances and cultural and historical

20 A. A. Karamova, Modern political discourse (communicative and pragmatic aspect), Moscow, Golos-Press, 2017. 21 G. Lebon, Psychology of the peoples and the masses, Moscow, Layout, 1995. 22 A. Brushlinsky, “Social psychology in Russia and the theory of Serge Moscovici”, in Century Crowd. Historical treatise of the psychology of the masses, Moscow, Center for Psychology and Psychotherapy, 1996, pp. 8-10. 23 G. Lebon, Psychology of the peoples and the masses, Moscow, Layout, 1995. 24 E. L. Dotsenko, Psychology of manipulation: phenomena, mechanisms and protection, Moscow, Moscow State University, 1997. 25 M. V. Gavrilova, Critical discourse analysis in modern foreign linguistics, St. Petersburg, Publishing house S.-Petersburg. University, 2003. 26 Ibidem, p. 17.


418

conditions.27 A distinctive feature of discourse analysis is the attraction, consideration of a broad social context that plays an exclusive role in discourse.28 The identification of the suggestive potential of a language means in speech is impossible without resorting to the communicative event. The statement of the fact of the manipulative nature of the statement/text will be incorrect without such an appeal. That is why the texts of the pre-election political discourse, whose main purpose is to attract the addressee to their side, are often used as a source of factual material, often using mechanisms of hidden psychological influence. The contextual analysis method was actively used, which is explained by the specific nature of the subject of the study. In some cases, methods of component analysis of the lexical unit were involved (in order to identify the ideological component in the lexical meaning of ideological keywords); method of syntactic analysis (in order to determine the structural features of some syntactic constructions - indefinite- personal, passive); word-formative analysis (in particular, when working with constructions containing nominalization).29

The main and ultimate goal of such studies and their practical importance is, in accordance with the principles of critical discourse analysis, in the development of mechanisms for psychological protection against manipulative influences.

Results

Lexical and phraseological means. Metaphor. Reduction strategy:

˗ creation of a light / dark temporal image: the legacy weighed heavily on (LDPR);

˗ creating an attractive / repulsive image:30 ... I felt like a part of our country and our great people (V.V. Putin);

˗ creating a stereotypical, one-sidedly beneficial vision of political phenomena, for example, seeing the situation of elections through the

27 V. Z. Demyankov, “Text and discourse as terms and words of everyday language”, in IV International Scientific Conference: Language, Culture, Society. Moscow, 2007, pp. 86-95. 28 K. Ya. Sigal, “Compose constructions and discourse”, in RAN news. A series of literature and language, 5, 2001, pp. 42-45. 29 G. R. Abdullina, Z. K. Ishkildina, M. I. Karabaev, L. K. Samsitova, L. R. Fayzullina, “Morphonological Phenomena in Derivation Process (as Exemplified by the Bashkir Language)”, in Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 9 (36), 2016. 30 G. G. Pocheptsov, Imageology, Moscow, Refl-book; Kiev, Wackler, 2001.


419

prism of a military metaphor: From defense to a nationwide offense! (G.A. Zyuganov).

The strategy of implication:31 administrative barriers instead of bureaucracy, red tape (V.V. Putin).

Key words-ideologemes The strategy of establishing contact. Thus, the Marxist-Leninist ideology exploits the means of the key

concept of "labor" -the worker, the man of labor, etc., endows them with a purely positive meaning, uses them as appeals (direct and indirect), and elevates the worker to the status of his addressee.

The strategy of establishing contact. It: - an adverb together "we-party + people": We lived together for

centuries. (V.V. Putin); - words like "we-party + people": We are one in the most important ...

(D.A. Medvedev); - treatment of the connotation "I am mine":32 Compatriots! Friends!

(D.A. Medvedev). Grammatical means of manipulation Pronouns. Contacting strategy: - a pronoun we are inclusive in the meaning of "we-party": We are

citizens of one country! (RSP). - pronoun our in the sense of "belonging to us-party + people":

History once again set the peoples of our country before the same choice ... (Communist Party).

- the pronoun is all in the meaning of "we-party + people": ... we all, the people of Russia - have achieved a lot ... (V.V. Putin).

The indefinite- personal constructions The strategy of distancing from the expressed opinion. With the help of Ø3mn "a phantom image of the enemy is created

and its exclusion from the personal sphere of the speaker occurs".33 In this case, the "Ø3mn referent is always" another"34. Therefore, the verb-

31 Yu. S. Baskova, Euphemisms as a means of manipulation in the language of the media, The abstract theses of the candidate of philology science, Krasnodar, 2006. 32 O. L. Mikhaleva, “Discourse of the object vs discourse of the subject: system-forming characteristics”, in Systemic and systemic in language and speech, Irkutsk, Publishing House of Irk-gos, University, 2007, pp. 17-33. 33 Ibidem, p. 7. 34 Ibidem, p. 9.


420

predicate will express a negative, from the point of view of the speaker, action: Threw our country into a pit (Russia 1);

Reduction strategy. The subject outlines not only the zones of alienation, but also shed

all responsibility for actions and words, attributing them to "someone else’s".35 In addition, indefinite-personal constructions are involved in the creation of dark temporal images: the Soviet era was issued a verdict (V. Solovyov).

Passive constructions. The strategy of implication. The referent of the agent of passive constructions can turn out to

be both "alien" and "his own" with the corresponding evaluation characteristics: Mass illiteracy was eliminated ... (CPRF) - the actions of "our own" and And what was the army brought to? (V.V. Zhirinovsky) - the actions of "strangers".

The manipulative essence of passive constructions lies in implicitly embedded information about the subject’s belonging to the domain of his / other. The addressee is invited to speculate which subject is covered "behind the scenes", with which the addressee can easily cope, relying on the polarity of the assessment.

The strategy of distancing from the expressed opinion. The semantics of the predicate of passive constructions "must be

done by someone" involves them in the implementation of the strategy of distancing from the expressed opinion, the removal of responsibility for what has been said: The conditions must be created in society ... (United Russia).

Constructions with nominalization.36 The strategy of the subject’s implication. Constructions with nominalization make possible to replace the

position of the subject with both "one’s own" and "another’s" (with the corresponding assessments): One of the undeniable achievements of the last decades ... (D.A. Medvedev) is a subject from the "own" area; If as a result of economic growth the rich people are more rich and the poor are poor, then this is ... plundering the country! (S.M. Mironov) - a subject from the category of "alien".

Reduction strategy.

35 M. H. Rakhimbergenova, Linguocognitive strategies to reflect the image of an ethnically "alien" in the Russian press, The theses of the candidate of philology science, Ekaterenburg, 2008. 36 P. Serio, “Russian language and analysis of Soviet political discourse: an analysis of nominalization”, in A quadrature of meaning: The French school of discourse analysis, Moscow, Progress, 1999, pp. 337-383.


421

Structures with nominalization can be used to create positive / negative images of one’s own / others, including by shifting responsibility to "someone else’s" for bad (see previous examples).

The strategy of distancing from the expressed opinion, removing the responsibility for what needs to be done: Therefore, the tightening of migration legislation is inevitable (V.V. Zhirinovsky).

Constructions with conventional and communicative implicatures.

The strategy of implication. Constructions with conventional implicatures (presuppositions)37 -

a latent supply of suggested information as true, not requiring verification: The state must regulate prices (G.A. Zyuganov) - an estimated presupposition "the state does not regulate prices".

Communicative implicatures are based on the violation of the Principles of Cooperation (according to G.P. Grice).38 For example, a deliberate violation of the principle of quantity: But they made statements that NATO’s doors are open to Georgia, so ... (Rustavi 2).

Discussion

The base of language persuasive means should be limited to the

possibility of implementing manipulative strategies, the main ones in the political discourse being the strategies of implication, reduction, contact with the addressee, distancing from the expressed opinion.

To implement the implication strategy, the following are involved: - metaphors (as semantically biplane units), - passive constructions, constructions with nominalization, in

which information about the subject’s belonging to the domain of his /other own is implied (since the position of the agent in such constructions may take an ideologically diverse subject), but which can be easily deciphered in the recipient’s mind, proceeding from a positive / negative context,

- Constructions with conventional implicatures (presuppositions), in which the assertion (what needs to be proved, in our case - to inspire) is given under the guise of presupposition (what is obviously true does not require proof),

37 O. L. Mikhaleva, Political Discourse: The Specificity of Manipulative Impact, Moscow, Librocom, 2009. 38 G. P. Grice, “Logic of speech communication”, in New in foreign linguistics. Pragmatics. Moscow, Progress, 1985, pp. 217-237.


422

- constructions with communicative implicatures, in which implicit information is submitted in the guise of violation of the Principles of Cooperation (according to G.P. Grice).39

To implement the reduction strategy, we use: - metaphor as a way of cognition and structuring of political

reality, aimed at the formation of such a vision of the world, which is beneficial to the addressee;

- Indefinite-personal constructions with a common semantics of alienation (since Ø3Mn is always "alien"), reducing the "foreign" area, painting it in negative tones, waived responsibility for harmful actions and words to "someone else’s"; creating dark temporal images;

- passive constructions, constructions with nominalization, which play a role in creating positive / negative images of one’s own, including in waiving responsibility for everything bad to "someone else’s".

To implement the strategy of establishing contact with the addressee, the following are used:

- Keywords-ideologems (semantic ideologems) as a kind of positively stained evaluative vocabulary, denoting concepts that initially arouse the trust of the addressee, and therefore actively exploited by representatives of ideologies as a definition of their value priorities;

- words with the general meaning of "we-party + people" (where "party" means any institution) designed to demonstrate to the addressee that the subject of political communication does not think of itself in isolation from the people, that it acts in the name of the people, that the people themselves are Active politician;

- appeals designed to impress upon the addressee the idea of his involvement in the solution of important political issues, his important mission in determining the future of Russia.

To implement the strategy of distance from the expressed opinion, the following are used:

- passive constructions with a predicate in the sense of duty "someone must done something";

- constructions with a nominalization with a general meaning of disclaiming responsibility for what needs to be done.

Conclusion

The language does not have specific manipulative linguistic units,

but has in its arsenal only means with suggestive potential.

39 Ibidem, p. 222.


423

While systematizing the language persuasive means of political discourse, it is advisable to take as a basis the system-level characteristic of linguistic means, in accordance with which, first of all, to allocate lexical-phraseological and grammatical means. The description should be made by tying the units under study, on the one hand, according to the principles of discursive analysis, to a broad nonlinguistic context, on the other hand to speech manipulative strategies, to which the unit is involved (strategies for implication, reduction, contact with the addressee, distancing from the expressed opinion).

Thus, the article systematized and analyzed the language persuasive means of the contemporary political din the sphere of the manipulative capabilities of the language.


424


425

TEXT FUNCTIONS OF THE ASPECT-TENSE VERBS FORMS AS THE BASIC PRINCIPLE FOR TEACHING THE

ASPECT OF RUSSIAN VERBS

Olga S. Zavjalova Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia,

Moscow, Russian Federation

Abstract: The article deals with one of the most important problems of the methodology of teaching Russian as a foreign language: learning the system of Russian verbs’ aspects by students. It justifies the efficiency of the approach to the interpretation of the Russian verb aspects while understanding the principles of describing and presenting to the foreign audience the patterns of using the aspect-tense forms of Russian verbs in speech, suggested in the functional-communicative grammar by G.A. Zolotova, one of the leading schools in modern Russian Studies. The verb aspect in functional-communicative grammar is understood as a textual category. In accordance with the text organization capabilities of aspect-tense forms, we identify the following functions: aoristic, perfective for perfective verbs, and imperfective (procedural, characterizing) for imperfective verbs; suggest methods for teaching aspect-tense forms of Russian verbs to a foreign audience. The work aims to show the students why, in accordance with what requirements of the text, the perfective and imperfective verb forms with certain meanings are used. Understanding the patterns of using verbal forms in various functions in texts allows a foreigner to better analyze texts of any genre, as well as create his own verbal works, making full use of the “building” capacity of the perfective and imperfective verb forms. Ultimately, he will be able to better understand the very essence of the aspect category in Russian, which in turn will help mitigate or eliminate any difficulties that students encounter when learning this subject.

Keywords: textual functions of verbs, aorist, perfective, imperfective (procedural, characterizing).

The temporal forms of the verb as differentiating attributes of

style have been in the focus of style researchers for many years. Their synonymy in the system, various transpositions in usage required and will require such studies, which would consider morphology and syntax in terms of stylistics. This also determines the prospects of further research, which should include more aspects of joint research in the field of grammar and stylistics, especially in the field of functional stylistics, text linguistics, etc. The current research scope is more related to macrostylistics, while many unresolved problems persist in functional stylistics, which may be the subject of further research.1

1 J. Kuznetsova, V. Plungian, E. Rakhilina, “Time as secondary to space: Russian pod ùnder’ and iz-pod `from-under’ in temporal constructions”, in Russ Linguist, 37 (3), (2013), pp. 293-316.


426

The tense category is one of the most important categories of the space-time continuum, which is reflected in the language. Since the mid-1970s, in connection with the rapid development of text linguistics, the study of the functioning of temporal forms prioritized the text level. It was then that the research of the functioning of the grammatical category of tense at the text level was started. At present, the problem of fiction tense again causes an increased interest of linguists at the level of fiction discourse.2 The relevance of the problem is due to the growing interest in space and time issues in fiction, since there is a complex intertwining of time layers, violation of the chronological sequence, fable of events, a search for new ways to implement the mechanism of expression and functioning of the fiction tense.

Literature review

As is known, one of the main postulates in the communicative

grammar school is the requirement to investigate any phenomenon of the language as an integrity of its form, meaning, and function. G.A. Zolotova studied the usage of verb forms in a large number of texts, paying attention to their textual functions, which allowed her to conclude that the components of the verb aspect are: 1) the form, a set of word-formation means of expression of aspect values; 2) the categorial semantic meaning, as an objective basis of the verb aspect; and 3) the function that determines the role of the aspect-tense verb form in the text structure. Note that the notion of the verb aspect as a textual category correlates with the approach to the description of the aspect category, which is increasingly reflected in theoretical publications.3 On

2 A. Makarova, T. Nesset, “Space-time asymmetries: Russian v ìn(to)’ and the North Slavic Temporal Adverbial Continuum”, in Russ Linguist, 37 (3), (2013), pp. 317-345. 3 G. A. Zolotova, N. K. Onipenko, M. Yu. Sidorova, Communicative Grammar of the Russian Language. Мoscow, Vinogradov Institute of Russian Language of RAS, PPP Nauka Printers, 2004; D. Altshuler, “Aspectual Meaning Meets Discourse Coherence: A Look at the Russian Imperfective”, in Journal of Semantics, 29 (1), (2012), pp. 39-108; H. H. Josselson, “On teaching the aspect of the Russian verb”, in Language Learning, 1 (4), (1990), pp. 3-8; P. Jensen, “Narrative Description or Descriptive Narration: Problems of Aspectuality in Čechov”, in N. B. Thelin (ed.) Verbal Aspect in Discourse, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 1990, pp. 383-409; N.B. Thelin, “Verbal Aspect in Discourse: on the State of the Art”, in Ibidem, pp. 3-88; J. Forsyth, A Grammar of Aspect: Usage and Meaning in the Russian Verb, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1970; E. V. Petrukhina, “The Russian Aspect as a Morphological Derivative Category in the Context of Modern Studies of the Aspect Correlativity”, in Scando-Slavica, 60 (2), (2014), pp. 253-274; S. M. Dickey, “On the Development of the Imperfective General-Factual in Russian”, in Scando-Slavica, 58 (1), (2012), pp. 7-48; J. E. Dery, J. P. Koenig, “A


427

the other hand, the representation of the aspect-tense verb forms in connection with their functions in the text in the practical language-learning course is supported by methodological articles, where the organic connection between the grammar and the text is justified, proving that it is impossible to teach grammar outside the text.4

We believe that, from the methodological point of view, it is very important to help foreign students understand the essential fact that the verb aspect is primarily a textual category. Unfortunately, this approach to the aspect category has not yet been properly paid due attention in guidelines and educational literature for foreigners. We must state that currently the textual functions of the aspect-tense verb forms are not taken into account when teaching verb aspects. Students are encouraged to learn the form and meanings that are expressed by this form. It seems it would be useful to also show students why, in accordance with what requirements of the text, the Russians use the perfective and imperfective forms that have certain meanings. Understanding the patterns of using verbal forms in various functions in texts allows a foreigner to better analyze texts of any genre, as well as create his own verbal works, making full use of the “building” capacity of the perfective and imperfective verb forms. And as a result, it will allow better understanding the very essence of the verb aspect category in Russian.

Based on the V. V. Vinogradov’s publications, the following textual functions of verb forms are distinguished: The perfective aspect includes the dynamic aoristic and the resultant perfective. “The aoristic function is the main means of organizing a narrative: dynamic verbs successively replacing each other lead the story plot from the outset to the denouement”: Тогда Руслан одной рукою Взял меч сраженной головы И, бороду схватив в другую, Отсек ее, как горсть травы (Then Ruslan with one hand Took the sword of the slain head And, seizing the beard with the other, Cut it off like a handful of grass)-by Pushkin.

Perfective verbs are used to include in the story time the state (of the person, object, space) that is the result of a previous action or a

Narrative-Expectation-Based Approach to Temporal Update in Discourse Comprehension”, in Discourse Processes, 52 (7), (2015), pp. 559-584. 4 N. S. Novikova, O. M. Shcherbakova, The Blue Star. Stories and Tales of Russian and Foreign Writers with Tasks and Exercises (for Foreigners Studying the Russian Language), Moscow, Flinta-Nauka, 2007; J. P. Magliano, M. C. Schleich, “Verb Aspect and Situation Models”, in Discourse Processes, 29 (2), (2000), pp. 83-112; A. Haas, “Notes on Time and Aspect”, in International Journal of Philosophical Studies, 23 (4), (2015), pp. 504-517.


428

limiting state that has passed into another one”: Исполнились мои желания. Творец Тебя мне ниспослал, тебя, моя мадонна, Чистейшей прелести чистейший образец (I have fulfilled my desires. Creator has sent you to me, my Madonna, The purest example of the purest charm)-by Pushkin. Я памятник себе воздвиг нерукотворный, К нему не зарастет народная тропа (I have erected a monument to myself not made by hands, People will have never forgotten me)-by Pushkin.

The imperfective aspect divides into the procedural and usual-characterizing imperfective. Processual verbs represent an action or a state “in their observable extent, not limited to a time frame”: Редела тень. Восток алел. Огонь казачий пламенел. Пшеницу казаки варили; Драбанты у брегу Днепра Коней расседланных поили (The shadow was fading out. The east was flaming. Cossacks’ fire was burning red. Cossacks were cooking wheat; Bodyguards at Dnieper’s bank Were watering unsaddled horses)-by Pushkin.

“In the imperfective usual-characterizing function, the speaker speaking from a position remote in time and space represents actions, states, and relationships as ordinary occupations, skills, characteristics”:5 За морем царевна есть <...>; Днем свет божий затмевает, Ночью землю освещает, Месяц под косой блестит, А во лбу звезда горит. А сама-то величава, Выступает будто пава, А как речь-то говорит, Словно реченька журчит (Over the sea, there is a princess <...>; In the daytime, she outshines the world, At night, illuminates the earth, The moon shines under the braid, And a star shines on her forehead. And she herself is grand, Walks like a peacock, And when she speaks, She sounds like a little river)-by Pushkin.


This article aims to disclose and analyze some features of the

implementation and functioning of the tense category in fiction texts. Preterite is the most characteristic for the fiction style; it is well

suited to the image, which is the main way of narrative in fiction. Also, authors often use the preterite in descriptions, especially in epic works. The preterite of the experienced speech and the futuristic preterite can be distinguished as special functions in the fiction style. The perfect tense manifests itself when used in artistic prose as the initial and final perfect tense, which forms the so-called “frame,” and the preterite is

5 G. A. Zolotova, N. K. Onipenko, M. Yu. Sidorova, Communicative Grammar of the Russian Language, Мoscow, Vinogradov Institute of Russian Language of RAS, PPP Nauka Printers, 2004.


429

used inside the “frame.” The perfect tense can also be included in the preterite chains, break them and thereby focus on changing the vision method. Such a change of the hourly forms of the preterite and perfect tenses has a great stylistic value in fiction.6

A very common way of creating stylistic-morphological devices is the so-called transposition of the form, i.e. the transfer of word forms to the sphere of action of another grammatical meaning, and, consequently, the use of this word form in a meaning that is not inherent in it.

Verbs have particularly broad transpositional possibilities, first of all, a combination of time-related meanings of verbal forms as a result of the combination of two tenses, one of which is expressed directly by the form with its basic dictionary meaning, and the other by a speech or situational context, e.g.: figurative use of the present tense forms.

Numerous and diverse are metaphorical reinterpretations of the simple future tense form in colloquial speech: they include the designation of an action synchronous with the time of the speech, designation of a past event that is subjectively actualized in the present tense, expression of various modal meanings, etc.7

Six tense forms of verbs provide this comprehensive system of time directions, especially when the time frame is differentiated by an additional indication of the time, with adverbs or other adverbial adjectives.

1) The dominant temporal forms are the present tense and the preterite. In colloquial speech, however, the perfect tense is more often used instead of the preterite;

2) The preterite is frequent in novels, fairy tales, detectives, etc. The present tense is used in communications, reports, scientific articles (treatises). From the stylistic point of view, the temporal row is distinguished between stories (the preterite and the past perfect tense for the long past) and communications (the present tense and the perfect tense for the long past). Likewise, in lyrical works, we are more likely to meet the present tense than the preterite, as the lyrics express feelings, moods, and thoughts;

3) In literary criticism, a very important role is played by the distinction between the tense that is used to depict an event in the text

6 G. C. Rappaport, “The Aspectual System of Russian”, in The Parameter of Aspect, Dordrecht, Springer Netherlands, 1991, pp. 297-341. 7 S. M. Dickey, S. C. Kresin, “Verbal aspect and negation in Russian and Czech”, in Russ Linguist, 33 (2), (2009), p. 121.


430

itself and the tense that actually occurs in the time of the event described. The course of time is also focused on in movies;

4) An important stylistic means is the change from the temporal forms of the preterite in a calm story to the present tense to convey an event that passes very quickly, and then again to a calm tempo of the narrative in the preterite;

5) Laws that relate to people, nature and mathematical laws, proverbs containing wisdom of life, popular signs about the weathe-all these utterances acting constantly are made using the present tense.

Let us analyze some features of the change in temporal forms, namely, the stylistic present tense and other possibilities. A well-known stylistic means is the change from the narrative preterite to the present tense in the narrative to depict some stressful scenario.8

A relevant aspect of the tense category study as a stylistic means is the analysis of the use of temporal forms in fiction. The use of the present tense in a story about past events with the purpose to revive them is traditionally understood as the current historical time. The name of this phenomenon occurs, as is often the case in linguistics, from one of its cases, namely, from the use of the present tense in the author’s text of historical chronicles. There is a fundamental difference in the current orientation between a historical chronicle and a fiction (primarily, its author’s text), as noted back in the 1940s-1950s in the works of G. Muller and especially K. Hamburger: while the chronicle-documentary genre describes events that took place in reality, and, as a result, in real time, which the author tells from the viewpoint of his speech moment, the events in fiction are fictitious, or, in any case, artistically revised. Therefore, they are represented first of all in the corresponding author’s story in the time, which the author has defined, and which is a special case of the text time and exists in two main versions: the story sequence (the story itself) and the story simultaneity or repeatability (description), where the second version is here versatile and, usually, is connected with the former. From what has been said, it follows that the key concepts of the above definition of the historical present time (a narrative of the past, actualization) require refinement in relation to fiction texts. In addition, the phenomenon analyzed is found in modern fiction, not in the form of everyday narrative, but as stratification of other grammatical-stylistic phenomena, which are

8 E. Fortuin, J. Kamphuis, “The typology of Slavic aspect: a review of the East-West Theory of Slavic aspect”, in Russ Linguist, 39 (2), (2015), pp. 163-208.


431

determined by the peculiarities of the types of speech and their combinations.

One of the types of such stratification is the author’s speech in fiction. It is that “polar” sphere, in which real time from whatever position considered, either the author’s or the reader’s, is the most disparaged. While in a historical novel, it is still possible to talk about the more or less existing correlation of events that are portrayed from the point of view of both communicators, that is, to the past in the proper sense of the word, in other genres it becomes less definite, and in a fantastic futuristic novel, where real events (at least, from the author’s point of view) are described, such similarity is not present at all. Therefore, neither the universal interpretation of the meaning of the tense forms, nor the use of the present tense instead of the preterite in terms of the real time can be given; this tense determines only some cases, including the examples given above. In this case, one cannot be guided only by the time of the plot, since a fiction plot (like any work of art) is always perceived as the one witnessed, that is, once and for all actualized, regardless of what verb forms it is conveyed with. Thus, the concept of real time (the present and the past) should be replaced with respect to the author’s speech in general with more general concepts, and the actualization effect, on the contrary, requires a more specific interpretation.9

Thus, some illusion of visibility, which is determined by the invariant of the meaning of this form is typical for the conative present tense in general. However, when using the present tense in its descriptive and especially narrative functions, it is necessary to involve additional means of localization and expression of a completed action, which not only weaken this visibility of the created aspects, but also complement utterances with additional aspects overlapping the function, namely, the increased dynamism of the narrative and narrowed static nature or repeatability in descriptions, which can be generally defined as providing the genre of the whole text with a reportage style or as its cinematographic character.

If the main line of the author’s narrative is expressed with the preterite, the historical present tense can be used within an incomplete text, most often at the junction of paragraphs. The change in the tense form causes, by contrast, the effect of an emphasis, accentuation.

9 I. Mezhevich, “A feature-theoretic account of tense and aspect in Russian”, in Nat Lang Linguist Theory, 26 (2), (2008), pp. 359-401.


432

Contrastive use of the present tense is quite typical for modern fiction. The same principle is used to introduce the “timeless” present tense, which does not belong to the historical present tense, in the author’s narrative expressed with the preterite.

In contemporary fiction prose, the author’s speech and the speech of the characters (mostly not pronounced aloud) often merge within certain stylistic devices known by the following names:

1) reminiscence, which, in the case of such a merger, resembles episodes from the character’s life preceding the main line of the narrative; 2) imagination, which conveys imaginary representations (and also dreams) of the character in the author’s vision (in the author’s interpretation); 3) sensualization, which likewise depicts the perceptions and feelings of the character; 4) meditation, which contains a similar image of the character’s reflections and is also called an experienced speech. In all of the above methods, the historical present tense can be

used, both contrastive and non-contrastive. Moreover, in the latter case (especially, in a first-person story), these types of the present tense hardly differ from each other, as well as from the general line of the narrative, since in this case there is not only no contrast of time, but also no contrast of the person since the author himself is the main character. Therefore, a wholesome text with the non-contrasting present tense forms another special genre based on the author’s original speech, the stream of conscience, in which, like in any author’s text, there can be inclusions of direct and indirect speech of the characters, digressions, etc. (as in the novel by E.M. Remarque The Black Obelisk).

The direct speech of the characters of fiction prose contains all of the above cases of using real historical time in a slightly differentiated form and with the least frequency. In general, we can talk about imitating the prototype of the historical present time, since it obviously arose not in the text of the chronicles, but in the colloquial speech of the pre-literate period.

Results and discussion

It is best to start familiarizing students with the typical functions

of the aspect-tense verb forms in texts by analyzing a specific text. It is important to show the students that the ratio of the aspect-tense verb forms that perform different functions is one of the most important


433

components of the text composition. Take as an example The Wonderful Doctor story by A. I. Kuprin, which, together with a set of exercises for it, is included in The Blue Star, a study guide by N. S. Novikova and O. M. Shcherbakova.10 This is a story about a real episode from the life of Professor Pirogov. Briefly, the story is as follows: It begins with a description of the plight of the Mertsalovs because of the serious illness of the head of the family (lack of money, the death of one daughter, the illness of the other). Mertsalov goes to the city garden, where he unexpectedly for himself tells about his misfortune to a stranger who sat next to him on the bench. The stranger turned out to be a doctor who miraculously helped the Mertsalovs: he cured the sick girl and gave them some money. From the signature on the pharmacy prescription, the Mertsalovs understood that that doctor was Professor Pirogov. Soon after this meeting, the father of the family managed to find a job, and their life changed for the better, but the Mertsalovs always remembered their savior gratefully.

Thus, the exercises proposed by the study guide authors can be also supplemented by those that are aimed at:

1) reinforcing the skills to recognize the perfective and imperfective verb forms in the text and identify the values expressed by these forms; 2) familiarizing students with the typical functions of the perfective and imperfective verb forms in the text, conveying a particular meaning; 3) developing the skills to analyze the text composition. After the text is read and analyzed, the teacher asks students to

have a close look at five excerpts (they should be pre-printed separately, highlighting the verb forms, which will be analyzed).

In excerpt (1), the imperfective verb forms performing the imperfective procedural function are highlighted, and in excerpt (2) the aoristic perfective forms are highlighted: (1) Двое мальчиков уже более пяти минут стояли перед большим окном гастрономического магазина. Здесь лежали целые горы красных, крепких яблок и апельсинов. Лежали огромные рыбы, висели колбасы, и стояло большое количество банок с солеными и вареными закусками. Глядя на эту эффектную картину, мальчики совсем забыли о двенадцатиградусном морозе и о важном поручении, которое просила их выполнить мать (Two boys had been standing in front of a large window of the gastronomic store for already more than five minutes. Here, whole mountains of red, strong apples and oranges were lying. Huge fishes were lying, sausages were

10 N. S. Novikova, O. M. Shcherbakova, The Blue Star.


434

hanging, and a large number of cans with pickled and boiled snacks were standing. Looking at this spectacular picture, the boys completely forgot about the -12°C frost and about the important task given by their mother) (Quote from the specified study guide).

(2) Вдруг Мерцалов быстро поднялся со стула, на котором он до сих пор сидел, и решительно надел свою старую шляпу.

-Куда ты?-спросила Елизавета Ивановна. Мерцалов, взявшийся уже за ручку двери, повернулся. -Пойду еще,-ответил он. Выйдя на улицу, он пошел бесцельно вперед. Он ничего не искал, ни на

что не надеялся. Незаметно для себя он оказался в центре города у городского сада. Тут было тихо.

Он зашел в сад и сел отдохнуть на скамейку. В это время в конце аллеи послышались тихие шаги.

(Suddenly, Mertsalov stood up quickly from the chair, on which he had been sitting, and firmly put on his old hat.

-Where are you going? asked Elizaveta Ivanovna. Having already taken hold of the door handle, Mertsalov turned around. -I’ll go again, he answered. Having gone into the street, he headed forward aimlessly. He was not looking

for anything, neither he was hoping for anything. Unwittingly, he found himself in the downtown near the city garden. It was quiet here.

He entered the garden and sat down to rest on the bench. At that time, he heard quiet footsteps at the end of the alley.)

Below are the tasks we propose to perform: Read the excerpts. Identify the aspect of the selected verbs and

the meaning of these aspect forms. Describe what these passages are: a) descriptions of what the

boys saw; or b) a story about the actions of the characters. Is it possible to replace the imperfective verbs with perfective in

excerpt (1)? Do you think why? Try to draw conclusions. Why, in your opinion, does the author

need the imperfective forms? And when does the author use the perfective verbs?

In the following excerpt (3), the perfective forms in the perfective function are highlighted: (3) В этот ужасный год у Мерцалова и его семьи случались несчастья за несчастьем. Сначала он сам заболел тифом, и на его лечение ушли все деньги. Потом, когда он выздоровел, он узнал, что его место, скромное место управляющего домом за 25 рублей в месяц, занято другим… А тут еще начали болеть дети. Три месяца назад умерла одна девочка, теперь другая лежит с высокой температурой и без сознания (During


435

that terrible year, Mertsalov and his family suffered misfortune after misfortune. At first, he himself went ill with typhus, and all the money was spent for his treatment. When he has recovered, he came to know that his job of a house manager for 25 rubles a month was taken by another person... And then the children went severely ill. Three months ago, one girl died, now the other is lying with a fever and unconscious).

The tasks for excerpt (3) must be composed in such a way that, by comparing the use of the perfective forms in excerpts (2) and (3), and having successively answered the teacher’s questions, the students realized the different textual roles of the perfective forms.

In excerpt (4), the imperfective forms are highlighted: (4) Уже больше года жили Мерцаловы в этом подвале. Оба мальчика давно успели привыкнуть к сырым стенам, к этому ужасному запаху детского грязного белья и крыс-запаху нищеты. Но сегодня, после всего, что они видели на улице, после праздника, который они чувствовали везде, их маленькие сердца сжались от острого, недетского страдания. В углу, на грязной широкой кровати, лежала девочка лет семи: ее лицо горело, дышала она с трудом, широко раскрытые глаза смотрели бесцельно. Рядом с кроваткой, в люльке, кричал грудной ребенок. Высокая худая женщина с усталым, почерневшим от горя лицом стояла на коленях около больной девочки (For more than a year, the Mertsalovs had been living in this basement. Both boys have long got used to the damp walls, to this terrible smell of children’s dirty laundry and rats-the smell of poverty. But today, after everything they had seen on the street, after the festival that they sensed everywhere, their little hearts shrank from acute, unchildish suffering. In the corner, a girl of about seven was lying on a dirty wide bed: her face was burning, she was laboring for breath, her eyes widely open were looking aimlessly. Next to the crib, a baby was screaming in the cradle. A tall thin woman with a tired face blackened by grief was standing on her knees beside the sick girl).

Formulating tasks to this excerpt, the teacher should pursue two goals: First, it is important to draw the students’ attention to the different textual role of the imperfective verbs: for example, жили (were living/had been living) performs the imperfective usual-characterizing function, and the remaining imperfective verbs in this excerpt demonstrate the procedural use of imperfective forms. Secondly, for the development of skills in the analysis of the artistic text, it is expedient to relate this excerpt to the descriptive excerpt (1) and ask the students to think why the author placed the two excerpts almost next to each other? What role does it play in the development of the story?

In the last excerpt (5), the perfective verb forms performing the perfective function and the imperfective verb forms performing the imperfective usual-characterizing function are highlighted: (5) Я слышал


436

этот рассказ от самого Григория Емельяновича Мерцалова-того самого Гришки, который плакал над супом в описанную мною памятную ночь. Теперь он занимает довольно большой пост в одном из банков. И каждый раз, заканчивая свой рассказ о чудесном докторе, он говорит со слезами в голосе; С этих пор все изменилось. В начале января отец нашел работу. Машутка выздоровела. Мы с братом стали учиться в гимназии. Просто чудо сделал этот человек (I had heard this story from Grigory Emelianovich Mertsalov himself, known to you as Grishka, who was crying over the soup in the memorable night I have described. Now he holds a pretty high position in one of the banks. And every time, finishing his story about the wonderful doctor, he speaks with tears in his voice. Since then, everything has changed. In the beginning of January, my father found a job. Mashutka recovered, my brother and I started going to the gymnasium. It was just a miracle that this man did).

The tasks to excerpt (5) should be aimed at ensuring that students 1) understand what this passage is in terms of the story structure; 2) based on the conclusions drawn in the analysis of excerpts (1)-(4), tried to explain why the author chose such verbal forms with such a meaning in the epilogue.

In addition, the teacher can suggest recalling other narratives by Russian writers read by the students and answer the question “What other variants of verbal forms are possible at the end of the story, in the epilogue?”.

All the above exercises are aimed at developing the students’ skills of correlating the aspect-tense verb forms with certain elements of the semantic structure of the text.

For example, an analysis of The Wonderful Doctor by Kuprin shows that the imperfective forms meaning a process that is being observed are used by the author for the imperfective procedural function in descriptive fragments, when the narrative is told from the person of the characters. We suggested drawing students’ attention to two excerpts from the beginning of the story (excerpts (1) and (4)). Having compared these excerpts, we can see that Kuprin thoroughly “depicted” descriptive scenes. He intentionally collided the luxury and pre-Christmas rush of the city with poverty and despair of the Mertsalovs’ basement. This opposition is the opening of the story.

The imperfective verb forms in the imperfective usual-characterizing function in this text are infrequent. They are found, firstly, in fragments of the text that can be conditionally called the story background. They are not what the characters observed, but the author’s knowledge. The author reports here about the properties, characteristics, usual occupations of characters, i.e. everything that the


437

reader needs to know for a complete perception. And, secondly, we use this imperfective form at the end of the story, in the epilogue (excerpt (5)).

A comparison of excerpts (2) and (3) should help students understand the different textual purpose of the perfective verb forms. Excerpt (3) demonstrates the perfective use of the perfective verb forms. Perfective verb forms are found in those fragments of the text, where the author, in accordance with the logic of the narrative, needs 1) to report on facts of the past, which are significant for the story development (this also can be attributed to the story background); 2) to convey the results of actions, final states, important at the moment of narration, rather than the actions. Often, such perfective forms are found at the end of the story, in the epilogue (see excerpt (5)). Note also cases when such perfective forms are included into reproductive compositions: Вошел Мерцалов. Он был в летнем пальто, летней шляпе и в летних ботинках. Его руки посинели от мороза. Он не сказал жене ни одного слова, она не задала ни одного вопроса. Они поняли друг друга по тому отчаянию, которое прочитали друг у друга в глазах (Mertsalov entered. He was wearing a summer coat, a summer hat, and summer boots. His hands turned blue because of the frost. He did not say a word to his wife, she did not ask a single question. They understood each other seeing the despair that they had read in each other’s eyes).

These perfective forms break the chain of aoristic forms, representing an interpretation, explanation of the actions, mental states of the characters.

Aoristic forms, reporting on the actions of the characters, are the main means of conveying the story dynamics (stood up, put on, asked, etc.; see excerpt (2)).

To reinforce this knowledge, students need to perform a number of productive exercises. For example, they can tell a story that happened to a friend/acquaintance/relative, etc. Questions and tasks should be formulated so as to make students consciously choose the perfective or imperfective verb form, implementing a particular text-related task.

We have outlined only one of the paths that shows us a new look at the aspect category in the Russian language. We tried to show that understanding the verb aspect as a text category, understanding the textual nature of the perfective and imperfective verb forms allows foreigners to navigate through the text more easily, conduct a deeper and more meaningful analysis of the text, and grammatically correctly build their own verbal works.


438

As a summary, it should be noted that when considering the historical present time, it is expedient to consistently distinguish between the expression aspect and the content aspect. In the former, one can talk about the present tense of the fiction prose plot, in the latter, about the present time of the plot, which typically has the following main features for the present tense, the last three of which are optional:

1) the invariant of the form meaning (the grammatic present); 2) the story actualization; 3) the weakened illusion of the visibility of the verb action (pseudo-relevance), conditioned by own semantics of the perfective means of the context; 4) the meaning of the real past; 5) the additional effects of tone, compaction, and deceleration, which are caused by localized inclusion of the descriptive present tense in narratives; 6) the additional effect of emphasis, highlighting, which occurs in the contrasting change of the story preterite to the present tense on the verge of incomplete text. In general, it can be argued that two types of the story present time

are represented in fiction prose: the present (that is, “historical”) and the preterite, which differ from each other in terms of the content by the invariant meanings of the corresponding forms (the grammatical present and past tenses), and by a range of more temporary attributes. Both tenses almost never coincide with the real present and only optionally with the real past. As for the story past, in case the story is based on the present tense, it is expressed with the perfect tense or preterite, and in case the story is based on the preterite, it is expressed with the past perfect tense. And when it is developed to an independent story, it obtains the properties of the story present time and switches to the means appropriate for it: the present tense or the preterite with the same distribution of the concepts of grammatical, textual (story), and real time.

In conclusion, we would like to mention two other application areas for the communicative and grammatical theory in the methodical work:

1) It is necessary to investigate how it is possible to use the communicative and grammatical understanding of the aspect category when teaching foreign students at the initial stage. It is important to find out what the requirements for the text at this stage should be, and also to develop a system of exercises and detailed grammatical comments to them (we will need to consider the terminology that will be used in these comments).


439

2) The communicative and grammatical interpretation of the aspect category can significantly help in the development of study guides on the scientific style of speech. As is known, a scientific text, each of its varieties (text-description, text-message, text-reasoning, etc.), is characterized by a stable structure, the choice of the aspect-tense verb forms in a particular function is strictly regulated by the semantic task in each part. The task is to describe the compositional structure of various types of scientific texts, to investigate the patterns of using the aspect-tense verb forms for a certain textual function, and to present the results of these studies in the form of visual schemes/algorithms that can help a foreign student to avoid many errors. All this, from our point of view, can serve as a good addition to the already existing scientific speech study guides.


440


441

LINGUO-SOCIAL AND CULTURAL COMPETENCE AS A FACTOR OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF FUTURE

FOREIGN PHILOLOGY TEACHER

Dmytro A. Begeka

National Pedagogical University named after M. P. Drahomanov, Kiev, Ukraine

Abstract: The relevance of the research: the relevance of this research is grounded by

the need for the improvement of the professional training of the future foreign philology teacher for work at the Pedagogical University. The aim of the research: the aim is an analysis of the main elements of the linguo-social and cultural competence (LSCC) in the context of the professional training of the future Master as a future English philology teacher at the Pedagogical university for the formation of the LSCC among the Foreign philology students and improvement of the training quality. Research methods: a linguo-social and cultural method, system and structural analysis; systemization and generalization; empiric method (practical experience studying, observation, questioning, grading and self-rating etc.); pedagogical experiment; mathematical methods etc. Results: there was developed a form of the questionnaire concerning the definition of the future Master preparation level for the formation of linguo-social and cultural competence among the students; the subject knowledge was defined as well as the knowledge of standards in the context of the future Master’s acquisition of practical skills concerning the linguo-social and cultural competence among the students. At the nascent stage of the experiment in comparison with the acknowledge stage the future Masters of the experimental groups demonstrated a much higher interest for another culture, showed the ability to teach the students on the ground of the cultures dialogue, they faced a strengthened understanding of the non-verbal speech, ability to use different communicative roles, to work out the speech patterns, idioms, phraseological units etc. In general there was achieved the increased level of the future Masters qualification of the experimental groups in comparison with those of the control group. Significance of the research: Originality of the research lies in application within the pedagogical experiment of package of measures oriented to preparation of the future English philology teacher for work at the Pedagogical university as well as in development of requirements as obligatory conditions concerning the specialist training. There was formed a notion of the linguo-social and cultural competence of the future Foreign philology Master of the Pedagogical university; content, cognitive tasks, means and ways of the professional training of the future specialist under research were found out. Reading of the special purpose educational course and processing of the questionnaire brought a positive result.

Keywords: methodology, social transformations, transitional states, social subject, periods of transition, alternative, evaluation, time, instability, temporal referents.

Topicality. Timeliness consists in improvement of quality of the

education process of the Foreign philology specialists which is connected with preparation of the young people for interrelations in the modern


442

multicultural world, their patriotic and international upbringing, self-enrichment and finally – for the Euro-Atlantic integration of Ukraine. Problematic of the article is relevant to optimization of the process of the future Foreign philology teacher professional training for work at the Pedagogical university. The stated in the article objectives are oriented to definition of the main tasks, skills and abilities which condition the level of the future Master training for the formation of the LSCC among the students. The task of the research centered around the improvement of the future Foreign philology Master professional training level for the formation of the LSCC among the Foreign philology students of the Pedagogical university by means of mastering of the appropriate content (knowledge, skills, abilities, experience, values etc.) and of application of the proper ways and means.

Literature sources review. It is stated in literature that a cultural aspect of the language studying is quite a developed thing,1 that critical discourse researches become more and more popular in social sciences,2 In particular the researches showed that:

- sociolinguistics of the globalization is characterized by standardization and localization in the context of changes, connected with political changes, tourism, migration, urbanization and regional identification;3

- intercultural investigations should reasonably be performed taking into account motives, peculiarities and rules of cultural interrelations, with regard to their constant motion;4

- intercultural education for mobile students should be oriented to realizing of four interrelated aspects of their being abroad: emotional impact of the life abroad; understanding of the peculiarities of the

1 W. Baker, “Research into Practice: Cultural and intercultural awareness”, in Language Teaching, 48(1) (2015), 130-141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444814000287. 2 B. Forchtner, C. Schneickert, “Collective learning in social fields: Bourdieu, Habermas and critical discourse studies“, in Discourse and Society, 27(3) (2016), 293-307; S. Kirkham, “Constructing multiculturalism at school: Negotiating tensions in talk about ethnic diversity”, in Discourse and Society, 27(4) (2016), 383-400. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926516634548; D. Machin, “The need for a social and affordance-driven multimodal critical discourse studies”, in Discourse and Society, 27(3) (2016), 322-334. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926516630903. 3 B. Johnstone, “The Sociolinguistics of Globalization: Standardization and Localization in the Context of Change”, in Annual Review of Linguistics, 2(1) (2016), 349-365. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011415-040552. 4 C. Sarmento, “Interculturalism, multiculturalism, and intercultural studies: Questioning definitions and repositioning strategies”, in Intercultural Pragmatics, 11(4) (2014), 603-618. DOI 10.1515/ip-2014-0026.


443

communication in frames of another academic community; broader mastering of social experience; personal language problems:5

- modern intercultural trips provide rapidity of the new technologies, transmitting and receiving of the information which is in contemplation within the communication;

- metadialogical discussion (dialogical retrospection) improves the understanding of the dialogue and hidden motivations which lie at the bottom of the language usage;6

- there is a close interrelation between the intercultural adaptation and reaching of the reasonability of the speech act; intercultural adaptedness is characterized by four dimensions: emotional stability, flexibility/openness, perceptual acuity and self autonomy;7 discourse is discussed as a communicative event, situation in the context of accompanying sociocultural factors;8

- multimodal resources (speech and body movements) are used for formation of humans’ actions and that the organism being one of the modes repeats the speech;9

- cultural versatility influences mastering of the language, for instance, conceptual metaphors and metonymies, in a positive way;10

A. Beaven and H. Spencer-Oatey11 pay attention to the processes of adaptation during studying abroad; analyzes social and personal aspects (friends and social life, everyday life, language for socialization)

5 C. Borghetti, “Intercultural education in practice: Two pedagogical experiences with mobile students”, in Language and Intercultural Communication, 16(3), (2016), 502-513. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14708477.2016.1168045. 6 D. Koike, C.S. Blyth, “A metadialogic approach to intercultural dialogue. Uncovering hidden motivations”, in Language and Dialogue, 6(2) (2016), 223-253. DOI: 10.1075/ld.6.2.02koi. 7 N. Taguchi, “Cross-cultural adaptability and development of speech act production in study abroad”, in International Journal of Applied Linguistics United Kingdom, 25(3) (2015), 343-365. DOI: 10.1111/ijal.12073. 8 S. Ehrlich, “‘Sociolinguistic’ dimensions of discourse analysis”, in Journal of Sociolinguistics, 2016. - 20(2), pp.229-240. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/josl.12180. 9 L. Mondada, “Challenges of multimodality: Language and the body in social interaction”, in Journal of Sociolinguistics, 20(3) (2016), 336-366. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/josl.1_12177. 10 Y.-C. Chen, H.-L. Lai, “The influence of cultural universality and specificity on EFL learners’ comprehension of metaphor and metonymy”, in International Journal of applied Linguistics United Kingdom, 24(3) (2014), 312-336. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12021. 11 A. Beaven, H. Spencer-Oatey, “Cultural adaptation in different facets of life and the impact of language: A case study of personal adjustment patterns during study abroad”, in Language and Intercultural Communication, 16(3) (2016), 349-367. DOI: 10.1080/14708477.2016.1168048.


444

and academic aspects (courses, administrative issues, speech for academic purposes). The authors show that adaptation can develop with different speed as well as be decreased. They mention the necessity of the further investigations in order to define whether more general adaptation schemes in different spheres exist, if the adaptation is always the subject to modeling, what the reasons for the adaptation process ups and downs are.

Therewith the matter of “self-perception and perception of other people” is investigated within the framework of the European project IEREST concerning intercultural preparation of the future mobile students from point of view of the pedagogical experience. The importance of giving the students an opportunity to improve their previous intercultural skills, to advance their ability to build a successful intercultural communication and make intercultural meetings for the purpose of personal growth is revealed.12

The internationalization issue at the higher educational establishments from point of view of the multilingual context is also studied in the article,13 as well as possibilities of the cooperative learning in social spheres based on P. Bourdieu field theory and Y. Habermas cooperative learning theory.

During the process of the professional training of the future Foreign philology teacher at the Pedagogical university pride of place goes to the linguo-social and cultural competence as a necessary means for training the specialists for work at educational establishments and performing intercultural communication. It is known, that communication efficiency is directly proportional to the mutual understanding level among the communicants, which can be reached if the intercultural competence is present. The intercultural competence includes knowledge, skills and abilities, common for all the communication participants.14 The intercultural communication is the embodiment of the cultures dialogue as knowledge of one’s own culture and the culture of the country the language of which is being studied.

12 A. Beaven, I. Golubeva, “Intercultural preparation for future mobile students: A pedagogical experience”, in Language and Intercultural Communication, 16(3) (2016), 491-501. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14708477.2016.1168044. 13 A. Larrinaga, M. Amurrio, “Internationalisation in higher education and its impact in multilingual contexts: redefining identities of Basque-speaking academics”, in Language Culture and Curriculum, 28(2) (2015), 158-169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2015.1027215. 14 A.P. Sadokhin, “Intercultural Competence and Competence in Communication”, in Social Sciences and Contemporary World, 3 (2008), 156-166.


445

Intercultural competence is formed in the process of the intercultural communication,15 with which cultures interaction and mutual influence processes are closely connected. By the way, exactly at the bottom of the communicative misunderstandings lie non-realization, not knowing and not considering the differences and peculiarities among the communicants according to cultural background. The researchers announce that “not knowing of foreign culture will never lead to the successful communication”;16 it’s impossible to be understood without already formed linguo-social and cultural competence.17 That is because if one is not able to use language and speech they can become conflictogenic.18 Consequently, LSCC is based on the ground of linguistic, informational and social and cultural elements of the language and speech, on possessing knowledge about national and cultural peculiarities of the country, the language of which is being studied, on standards of verbal and nonlinguistic behavior of its speakers and on ability to build properly one’s communication and behavior.19 It’s no coincidence that in the countries of the European Union the aim of foreign language teaching is intercultural (social) competence; that is the process of the foreign language mastering based on competent volume of the intercultural studying. Nevertheless the issue concerning interrelation between culture and language within the structure and contents of studying needs further development.20

15 A. L. Berdichevsky, “Modern trends in learning a foreign language in Europe”, in Russian Language Abroad, 2 (2002), 60-65. 16 J. B. Zhalsanova, E.A. Uspenskaya, "Sociocultural component in the study of the second foreign language as a factor of impact in the competitiveness of a specialist”, in Proceedings of Voronezh State University. Series: Linguistics and intercultural communication, 4(October-December) (2016), 138-142. Available at: http://www.vestnik.vsu.ru/pdf/lingvo/2016/04/2016-04-28.pdf. 17 V.A. Zaitseva, "Linguistic and socio-cultural method in the preparation of translators", in О.I. Ulanovich (Ed.), Cross-cultural communication and modern technologies in the study and teaching of languages: materials of the International Scientific and Practical Conference, Minsk, 25 October 2011, Minsk: Belarusian State University Publishing house, (2012), 190-193. Available at: http://elib.bsu.by/handle/123456789/158728. 18 N.D. Golev, “Legalization of language conflicts as the basis of their typology”, in Interuniversity collection of scientific papers, N.D. Golev (Ed.), Yurislingvistika-9: True in Language and Right, Kemerovo; Barnaul: Altai University Publishing house, (2008), 136-155. Available at: http://siberia-expert.com/load/nomera_zhurnalov/1-1-0-13. 19 I.A. Bronetko, “Formation of linguistic and sociocultural competence of pupils in English lessons”, in Science and Education a New Dimension. Pedagogy and Psychology, II (9), Issue 19 (2014), 26-29, www.seanewdim.com. 20 T.P. Rudenko, "On the formation of linguistic-sociocultural competence in the context of global education", in Bulletin of Omsk University, 2 (2007), 115-120.


446

In literature resources it is revealed that the main way of the LSCC formation is a linguo-social and cultural method, which is based on acquisition of linguistic, social and cultural context.21 The accuracy and context-richness of the speech, integrated unity of linguistic and social and cultural structures lie at the bottom of this method. The linguo-social and cultural method provides besides the foreign language mastering acquisition of knowledge of culture history, traditions, stereotypes of nation of the language which is being studied, speech and behavior etiquette and application of this method provides better understanding of the partner in conversation and stimulates formation of speech perception on the subconscious level. But realization of the linguo-social and cultural method and development of skills concerning formation of the LSCC during the process of the future Foreign philology teacher professional training for work at the Pedagogical university require further advance.

Methods

The future Masters of the Foreign philology department were

under research during their job assistant training at the Pedagogical university and they were divided into experimental groups (EG) and control groups (CG). The latter ones had their practice according to the established procedure, and those from the EG had an additional specialized educational course “Principles of the formation of the professional foreign-language communicative competence” (which also included linguo-social and cultural topic and issues concerning the formation of the LSCC among the students). The future Masters of both above mentioned groups made communication-oriented lessons with the foreign philology students during job assistant training, improving their skills concerning the LSCC formation. By the beginning of the training and after its finish the future Masters of the EG and CG were given questionnaire behind closed doors. The following research methods were used: system and structural analysis; systemization and generalization; empiric method (practical experience studying, observation, questioning, grading and self-rating etc.); pedagogical experiment; mathematical methods etc.

21 N.Yu. Vtorushina, “Linvosociocultural method of teaching foreign languages”, Almanac of Modern Science and Education, 8-2 (2009), 44-46.


447

Results In the process of the future Master training much attention was

paid to formation of his/her goal oriented and combined selection of cultural, lexical and grammatical materials and their matching depending on the communication situations. There was emphasized the selection of the linguo-social and cultural means which help to compensate the lack of understanding of the partner in conversation, for instance: realias, toponyms, tropes, clichés, officialese, idioms etc. During learning spoken topics the future Master was pointed at working out the following questions: greeting depending on the time of day, meaning of a smile, understanding of body language, gestures, handshakes, addressing to another person, appropriate speech clichés etc. Comparison of own and foreign traditions including defining of the common and specific features was efficient, that influenced in a positive way the development of understanding and tolerance towards foreign culture, traditions and people.

The future Master was oriented to consider the fact that the LSCC as an element of the foreign language communicative competence is formed in an integrated manner with linguistic and speech competences formation.22 At the same time together with lexical and grammar material knowledge the rules of linguistic, speech and nonverbal behavior usual for the language speaker in different communicative situations were learned. There was organized reading of the texts of sociocultural contents with the parallel linguistic and cultural studies analysis. The LSCC formation in reading took place at the pre-textual, textual and post-textual stages together with defining exact goals with regard to sociocultural, sociolinguistic and social competence.23 In that way at the pre-textual stage the future Master was pointed at defining of the goals of competences development:

- sociocultural – to form the knowledge about life peculiarities and culture of the Great Britain according to the concrete topic;

22 Methodology of teaching foreign languages and cultures: theory and practice: S. Yu Nikolaeva (Ed.) a textbook for the students of classical, pedagogical and linguistic universities, Kyiv, Lenvit, 2013. 23 M.B Natsyuk, "Methodology of formation of linguistic and cultural competence of future teachers of English in the reading of fiction, in Scientific notes of Ternopil National Pedagogical University named after Volodymyr Hnatyuk. Series: pedagogy, 3 (2014), 90-97. Available at: http://nbuv.gov.ua/UJRN/NZTNPU_ped_2014_3_17.


448

- sociolinguistic – to explain the main features of the nationally marked lexicon, which is worked out in the composition and to semanticize it;

- social – to form background knowledge about peculiarities of the intercultural communication and its barriers.

Preparation of the future Master for working out the textual stage of reading with students involved formation of the abilities to formulate communicative task and orient the students at conscious awareness of information, defining of the nationally marked lexicon and explaining of social phenomena of the British culture and their impact on the events in the composition.

At the post-textual stage the future Master was oriented at controlling of students’ text understanding, comparing of peculiarities of two cultures, analysis of text’s contents and semantic conversion of the information given in the text, working upon using of the linguo-social and cultural information in one’s own expressions according to the standards and situations of the communication. Studies concerning using of the social information for the intercultural communication, realizing and overcoming barriers took place as well. In particular, the future Master and students were involved into an active dialogue of cultures (dialogues, lections and language speakers’ lessons, Internet speech, mass media).

Because of the fact that in study books the question about the process of nonverbal communication, gestures language, body movements is inadequately treated18, the attention was paid to working upon nonverbal speech modality, since nonverbal aspect of communication plays a great part in the process of pedagogical interaction between teacher and the foreign students.24 The future Master formed an ability to embody the issue about decoding of extralinguistic codes into the educational process that helped to master the intercultural communication more efficiently and to avoid barriers during communication of the educational process participants. For the most part the following nonverbal means were processed:

- gestures (pointing gestures, emphasizing gestures, imitation gestures, agreement gestures etc.) from point of view of additional means for information perception, memory enhancement, visual thinking;

24 A.V. Il’kiv, “The role of a non-verbal communication in the pedagogical interaction with foreign students”, in Proccedings of the International Research and Practice Conference. Modern Philology: Relevant Issues and Prospects of Research, Lublin, (Poland) (2017), 185-188.


449

- eyes as an opportunity to show one’s attitude toward something, set a question, give an answer, express incredulity, injustice etc;

- touch as an opportunity to attract one’s attention, set a contact, reveal one’s attitude toward the partner in conversation.

A great resource concerning mastering of the LSCC by the students was constituted by the future Master’s formation of ability to organize and mobilize them for individual receiving of lingual, speech and nonverbal knowledge and skills, that promoted experience broadening and creative activity development, motivation advance, planning and tasks fulfillment improvement. In this context an essential part was played by methods of projects, which “are always oriented at the individual activity of the students”,25 promoted the future Master’s formation of ability to set and control tasks fulfillment and deepened his/her pedagogical and organizational competence. At the same time the future Master’s realizing was formed that using of country specific information in the educational process promoted increasing of cognitive activity among the studying participants, communicativeness, positive motivation, activation of the individual work on the language.26 Consequently, during the lessons the future Masters taught the students to use phraseological units, idioms and proverbs, which influence communicants’ emotions and imagination as well as their general development. Therewith attention was paid to compositional analysis of phraseme (somatism, zoosemism, florism etc.), that is essential in formation and saving nation’s consciousness and identification.27 Development of penchant for knowledge, imagination, fantasy and intuition was promoted by creating on the lessons atmosphere of intellectual battle and emotional interinfluence, which advanced the level of knowledge quality and resulting character.28 Considering the statement

25 T.V. Shvets, “Using the method of projects in classes on Ukrainian literature in the process of preparing students of philology”, in Scientific and Pedagogic Internship. Philological Education of the Future: Prospective and Priority Directions of Scientific Research, Lublin, Poland, 2017, 139-142. 26 A.K. Krupko, "Culture-oriented linguistics approach to teaching the French language as a factor of developmental learning”, in Foreign languages for school, 6 (1990), 11-13. 27 Zh.V. Krasnobaeva-Chorna, “Cultural coding of the phraseological level of the value picture of the world: the question of the formation of the outlook of a modern philologist”, in Scientific and Pedagogic Internship. Philological Education of the Future: Prospective and Priority Directions of Scientific Research (2017), Lublin (Poland): Izdevniecida “Baltija Publishing”, 65-69. 28 N.M. Andronkina, Cognitive-activity approach to the formation of linguistic and sociocultural competence in teaching the German language to students of a language university, the Author’s Abstract, Thesis, Candidate of Science in Pedagogy, St. Petersburg, 2009, 31.


450

of S. Storti “a human learns not culture but behavior” the future Master was pointed at the importance of mastering samples of behavior by the students during cultural and linguistic codes realization; organization and participation in role and business games, projects; involving into country specific disputes, TV debates, and also using of authentic materials; creating of the speech situations on the lesson, which closely remind of those in real life.

In the process of the future Master training he/she was oriented at following below mentioned basic demands during the LSCC formation among the students:

- organization of an active speech practice including the linguo-social and cultural element and acquisition of culture-oriented linguistics knowledge, which among other issues include phraseological units, idioms, clichés and proverbs, etc.;

- working with the students upon authentic texts of country specific, social and linguocultural character;

- organization of the integral mastering by the students the language means as a part of speech actions, based on linguo-social and cultural material;

- application of the communicative cognitive approach for acquisition of the linguo-social and –material;

- learning behavior samples (lifestyle, rules, actions, social stereotypes, customs etc.);

- organization of modeling and decoding of linguistic and extralinguistic behavior models (face expression, visual contact, voice intonations, interpersonal space, gestures, body positioning, pauses) according to the standards, stereotypes and situations, communicative goal and intentions of another part of conversation;

- organization of the students for fulfillment of the problem-pioneering projects;

- organization of videofilms watching, which contain combination of linguistic and sociocultural codes;

- using of opportunities concerning involving the students into the dialogue of cultures (meetings, lections and dialogues with language speakers, trips abroad etc.). Questionnaire done among the future Masters at the verifying and formative stages of the experiment, gave an opportunity to define their preparation level for the LSCC formation among the students (table 1).

The questionnaire form contained language and speech questions as well as questions of nonverbal communication, history, economics, ethics, esthetics, project works, dramatization etc. They were worked


451

upon with the future Masters of the experimental groups. Every point of the questionnaire was auto-evaluated by the future Masters according to 100 points grade system. The results of self-scoring and quantitative changes, caused by the experiment are given in the table 1.

Table 1: Self-scoring of the future Masters during the questionnaire

performing concerning preparation for the LSCC formation among the Foreign philology students

№ Questionnaire content

Self-scoring

Verifying stage Formative stage

EG CG EG CG

1 2 3 4 5 6

1.

Ability to select linguistic and speech material of the linguo-social and

cultural character.

71.7 71.6 87.7 72.8

2.

Ability to teach the students English

phonetics, lexicology, grammar in the

integrated manner with simultaneous learning of

the linguo-social and cultural material.

72.9 70.4 87.2 80.9

3.

Ability to work upon nonverbal means of

communication (gestures language, body

movements, face expression and others)

62.1 62.3 78.4 70.2

4.

Ability to form the LSCC at the pre-textual, textual and post-textual

stages.

63.6 64.2 79.5 68.1

5.

Ability to organize the individual work of the

students, including working upon the tasks of the linguo-social and

cultural direction.

70.3 72.2 87.3 78.0

6.

Ability to organize dramatization of fiction with participation of the

students.

62.4 63.3 78.4 67.7

7.

Ability to work upon the gaps in imitated by the

students behavior, manners, habits of the

British.

72.1 73.2 88.2 78.8

8. Ability to point the 75.4 76.4 90.2 81.3


452

students at fulfillment of research projects, for

instance, project about platforms of

conservative and labor parties;

9.

Ability to organize creative projects, for

example, writing information about life in

Great Britain by the students.

66.2 65.3 82.4 70.1

10.

Ability to organize fulfillment by the

students of the practice-oriented projects, for

example, composing of pieces of advice

concerning behavior within foreign culture.

65.5 66.7 81.5 69.9

11.

Knowledge of differences of the

Ukrainian and Great Britain past.

72.7 73.5 78.4 76.1

12.

Knowledge of economic model of both countries

(production, trade, property, labour, quality

of life, education and world outlook).

73.8 74.3 79.7 78.0

13.

Awareness on the public administration system

and social organizations work of Great Britain.

70.9 71.8 87.4 76.3

14.

Awareness on differences about accommodation,

nutrition, transport, lifestyle, clothes in Great

Britain.

72.0 72.9 88.0 77.2

15.

Awareness on the art, games and

entertainments in Great Britain.

72.3 73.8 87.8 78.6

16.

Awareness on differences between

Ukrainians and British behavior standards.

69.3 66.9 85.3 70.7

17.

Awareness on stereotypes about native culture and the culture

of Great Britain.

68.9 68.8 85.0 70.2

18. Knowledge of the rules

needed for orientation in 71.2 73.6 86.8 76.9


453

Great Britain.

19. What personal changes appeared as a result of

the intercultural studies? Give short information

Average 69.6 70.1 84.4 74.5

Source: the author

The research showed that the following points of the

questionnaire at the verifying stage of the experiment had the highest self-scoring indexes: ability to organize creative projects, for example, writing information about life in the Great Britain by the students; knowledge of economic model of Ukraine and Great Britain; knowledge of mode of life, art, games and entertainments in Great Britain. Low self-scoring was made by the future Masters on the following questions: ability to percept nonverbal communication; ability to form the LSCC at the pre-textual, textual and post-textual stages; ability to work upon the gaps in imitated behavior, habits, manners of the British.

At the formative stage of the experiment the EG future Masters’ self-scoring indexes went up expressly in points 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15 and other points of the questionnaire. It happened due to the EG future Masters’ working upon abovementioned specialized course and the LSCC formation issues.

The future Masters’ answers to question 19 of the questionnaire “What personal changes appeared as a result of the intercultural studies?” were different. At the verifying stage of the experiment they were mainly referred to the importance of the linguo-social and cultural element in professional training, to selection of the educational material of the linguo-social and cultural contents and to the students’ individual work organization. At the end of the formative stage of the experiment the EG future Masters’ answers were clearer and more distinct. By their responses the students demonstrated increase of tolerance for foreign culture, content-richness of their own speech, understanding of the perception of another partner’s in the conversation speech, formedness of the abilities to teach the students how to use various communicative roles and understanding of the nonverbal speech. This future specialist category’s ability increased concerning using of speech patterns, words, idioms, phraseological units on the communication-oriented lessons. The ability to teach the students on the ground of the dialogue of the cultures and to take into account the status of the partner in the conversation was strengthened. At the same time the research results showed that self-scorings of the future Masters in both groups at the formative stage of the experiment were increased comparing with those at the verifying


454

stage. Nevertheless they were 10% higher in the EG comparing with the CG.

Coming to conclusion it should be mentioned that work upon the linguo-social and cultural material and the LSCC formation promoted development of the world’s culture in the consciousness of the participants of the educational process.

On the ground of the research performed the following conclusions are made:

1. Reading of the specialized educational course “Principles of formation of the professional foreign-language communicative competence” and working upon the questions of the questionnaire in the pedagogical experiment brought a positive result.

2. The fundamental factors of the professional training of the future Foreign philology Master for the LSCC formation among the foreign philology students are:

- relying on the communicative and cognitive approach; - ability to select the educational material, including that of the

linguo-social and cultural contents and to form the LSCC on its ground; - ability to organize the integrated acquisition of linguistic, speech

and linguo-social and cultural material; - ability to organize the individual work of the students including

working upon the tasks of the linguo-social and cultural contents; - ability to teach the students how to percept and use the

extralinguistc means; - ability to form among the students skills for imitation of the main

samples of the British behavior; - ability to orient the students at fulfillment of the problem-

research tasks (research, creative, information, artistic and practice-oriented projects);

- ability to arrange the work with the students concerning comparison of knowledge of history, economics, public administration, social organizations, mode of life, traditions, behavior standards, stereotypes, culture, art, sports of Ukraine and Great Britain.

3. The linguo-social and cultural competence in the context of the future foreign philology Master of the pedagogical university training provides mastering of the knowledge, skills and abilities to organize educational process with the students on the ground of the national and cultural peculiarities of the country, the language of which is being learnt, as well as standards of linguistic, speech and nonverbal behavior of the language speakers and to teach the students how to perform their communication and behavior taking into account these peculiarities and


455

standards; to form the ability to use different roles, strategies and linguistic and extralinguistic means in conditions of social interaction and to take into account the social status of the partner in conversation.


456


457

THE GROWTH OF AGGLUTINATIVITY IN THE WORD-FORMATION SYSTEM OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Marzhan U. Suleibanova

Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation

Abstract: The growth of agglutinativity in the semantics of the derived word is manifested in the elimination of the ambiguity of word-formation morphemes and thus in an increase in the number of morphemes, always characterized by the same value. This is most clearly expressed in the prefixed way of producing names. Many prefixes, both Russian (раз-, со-, сверх-) and borrowed (анти-, архи-, ультра-), are distinguished by the unity of meaning in combination with the fundamentals of different semantics and even different parts of speech. In the language of the 20th century, there is a significant increase in the productivity of this way of formation in the system of nouns and adjectives. The number of suffixing morphemes, which have a single meaning and are combined with strictly defined fundamentals, is also increasing. Many young, actively developing word-formation types are formed by borrowed affixes. The growth of agglutinativity in the formation of a verb is seen mainly in the activation of the prefixal method, which plays an incomparably greater role in the verb system than in the formation of names. On the contrary, suffixes in the verb system are distinguished by inflectionality, cohesion with inflectional morphemes.

Keywords: agglutinativity, polysemy of word-formation morphemes, productivity growth.

The most common trend in the development of the modern word-

formation system, which is found in many particular processes, is the growth of agglutinative features in the semantics and structure of the derived word.

What is the meaning of the term ,,agglutinativity” in relation to the Russian language? Agglutinativity is a property opposite to fusion. In the semantics of the derived word, it is found in a one-to-one correspondence between the signified and signifier, in the ,,separate presentation of information elements in the composition of the word form”,1 in the structure of the derived word in free ,,gluing” morphemes,2 in the absence of morphological mutual adaptation of

1 A. A. Reformatsky, Morphological typology and the problem of classification of languages, Moscow-Leningrad, 1965, p. 84. 2 J. Greenberg, Quantitative Approach to the Morphological Typology of Languages. New in linguistics, Moscow, 1963, pp. 60-90; I. Lekov, ,,Deviations from the inflectional system in the Slavic languages”, in VYa, 2, (1956), pp. 18-26; M. Cholakov, ,,Towards the


458

morphemes when they are combined. The growth of agglutinativity in the semantics of the derived word, i. e. the growth of one-to-one relations between the signified and the signifier, contributes to the dismemberment of words into morphemes, since a certain part of the meaning of the word is associated with each morpheme; thus, semantic dismemberment supports structural dismemberment.

Main part The growth of agglutinativity in the semantics of the derived word

is manifested in the elimination of the ambiguity of word-formation morphemes and thus in an increase in the number of morphemes, always characterized by the same value. This is most clearly expressed in the prefixed way of producing names. Many prefixes, both Russian (раз-, со-, сверх-) and borrowed (анти-, архи-, ультра-), are distinguished by the unity of meaning in combination with the fundamentals of different semantics and even different parts of speech. In the language of the 20th century, there is a significant increase in the productivity of this way of formation in the system of nouns and adjectives.

The number of suffixing morphemes, which have a single meaning and are combined with strictly defined bases, also increases. For example, the specialization of a number of suffixes is increasing. Middle names of residents with a suffix -анин, names of persons by profession with a suffix -щик and many others. Many young, actively developing word-formation types are formed by borrowed affixes, which acquire a single clear meaning in the Russian language of the Soviet era (for example, nouns with дром, -трон, -рама, and some others).

In the formation of the verb, the growth of agglutinativity is manifested mainly in the activation of the prefixal method, which plays an incomparably more important role in the verb system than in the formation of names. On the contrary, suffixes in the verb system are distinguished by inflectionality, cohesion with inflection morphemes.3

The most characteristic phenomenon is the increase in the role of prefixes not only in the verbal word-production (which was widely characteristic of Russian language before), but also in the formation of verbs from other parts of speech, primarily from nouns and adjectives. The production of verbs from names in a suffixed way covers only a few

Problem of Agility in the Slavonic Tongues”, in Bulletin of the Institute for Bulgarian Language, volume XI, 1964, pp. 95-99. 3 V. V. Vinogradov, Russian language, Moscow-Leningrad, 1947, pp. 440-442.


459

derivational types; the prefixal-suffixal types of abbreviated verbs are most actively developed. The prefixes often appear as elements devoid of derivational significance; they only support suffixes that are too weak to play the role of the sole ,,designer” of the word. Fusional means of word formation is insufficient and requires support from agglutinative prefixes.

The growth of agglutinativity in the structure of the derived word is found in phenomena leading in different ways to the obsolescence of the mutual adaptability of morphemes when they are combined:

1) alternations at the junction of morphemes are weakened (the rigor of the implementation of alternations in the old types decreases, new word-formation types appear, devoid of alternations);

2) the use of interfixes, i. e., ligament elements, which play the role of laying between morphemes and eliminating the need for alternations at the junctions of morphemes, is growing;

3) the imposition of morphemes is used more widely than before (,,interference of morphemes”); this phenomenon combines the features of agglutination and fusion: when applied, morphemes retain their phonemic composition and linear distinguishability, although some of them are two-functional, and this is not typical for agglutinative morphemes.4

Changes in the structure of the derived word, conducive to the growth of agglutinativity of Russian word formation, are stimulated by social factors, primarily the expansion of the composition of speakers of the literary language. Russian is becoming the language of inter-ethnic communication, the second native language for people of different nationalities of the Soviet Union. Many Russian people who previously spoke colloquial or territorial dialects take possession of the literary language. In this case, naturally, the ways of mastering a literary language are changing. Language is not learned from parents, not at home. Learning a literary language from extra-familial sources weakens the stability of some linguistic elements (for example, traditional alternations) that are not directly related to the transfer of lexical and grammatical meanings, and contributes to the heightened process of increasing the productivity of some word-building types and reducing the productivity of others. There is a sort of simplification of the system, leading to the ,,pushing of exceptions” (i. e., types and models that were previously little or unproductive, further weaken productivity, and productive types

4 E. A. Zemskaya, ,,On one particular compound of word-formation morphemes in Russian”, in VYa, 2, (1964), pp. 84-88.


460

and models enhance it). This socially conditioned process of ,,pushing exceptions” takes

place in different tiers of the language (morphological, phonetic), giving a general direction to their development.5

The growth of the agglutinativity of the word-formation system is also promoted by the significant influence on the literary language of the Soviet epoch by the word-building subsystems of terminology, professional and colloquial speech, which for various reasons is characterized by greater agglutinativity than literary word formation. Such reasons were the deliberate ,,construction” of terms, the desire for uniformity of their structure; freedom of conversational and vocational education from the impact of the norms of the literary language, limiting the word production in one way or another.

Calling the growth of agglutinativity the most common trend in the development of the system of modern word formation, we do not mean that the Russian language loses its inflectional character.

We note the leading line of development, which is found in a variety of changes, each of which is not so significant, but which are strong in their uni-directionality and multiplicity.

Agglutination leads to a reduction in the code (at least potential): the set of morphemes and morpheme units is reduced.

The desire to reduce the role of morphological alternations is the way to reduce the number of morpheme variants. Specialization of morphemes helps reduce their ambiguity, crowding out some of them-that is, reducing the number of code points as well. However, does this entail an increase in the length of the text during which the derivation values are expressed?

First of all, it should be emphasized that morphological alternations in the Russian language are always caused by the subsequent morpheme; they are her identity and identity. For example, the case in the form of о лесе (cf. без леса, в лесу) is expressed: flexion - <э>, changing of hard consonants to soft ones before flexion and non-impact flexion. The main indicator is inflection, since only it can be the only indicator of the case (cf. о еже, о мече); the name of the consonants and the type of stress are its attendants.

In morphological alternations, the words are easily distinguished: твердение (from твердеть) and твержение (from твердить), правение (from праветь) and правление (from править), поглупение (from поглупеть) and оглупление (from оглупить), in the vast majority of cases, the change of

5 E. D. Polivanov, For Marxist linguistics, Moscow, 1931, p. 46.


461

morphemes -ить/- ение is accompanied by alternation in the root; the change of morphemes -еть /-ение are usually not accompanied by it. Destruction of alternations would result in the fact that it would be impossible within the limits of a word to distinguish -ение correlative with -ить (with the meaning of an intransitive verb) from -ение correlative with -еть (with the meaning of an intransitive verb). For example, чернить, чернеть-чернение (having < н’> at the base excludes the possibility of alternations). Identifying -ение^ (//-ить) и -ение2 (//-еть) can no longer be through the word, but throughout a large segment of the text: чернение от времени and чернение материи сажей.

However, such cases in word-formation are rare: in a modern word-formation system, redundant information is so great that reducing the code so far only in rare cases leads to lengthening of texts, during which this derivational value is recognized.

Processes of increasing the regularity of word-formation types play an important role in the development of the word-formation system of the Russian language of the Soviet era. Such types are called regular, ,,according to which a morphological unit with a given affix with a standard value can always be formed from a certain type of foundation”.6

Derived words referring to such types stand in the way of turning into word forms, and the corresponding derivational morphemes become relational.

What does the transformation of derivational types into regular ones? The growth of their productivity. Increasing the productivity of word-formation types ,,makes completely non-inflectional affixes into almost inflexive”.7 In this case, two circumstances play an especially important role:

1) the standardity of the meaning of affixes in combination with a certain type of base;

2) a strict pattern of the combination of an affix with a certain type of basis (i. e. restrictions on the compatibility of an affix - if they exist, they must obey strict laws).

As an example of regular derivational types, feminine nouns - names of females correlative to masculine nouns, can be cited. For example, nouns with suffixes: -щик/-щица, -ник/-ница, -ист/-истка, -ец/ка.8

There is a strong relationship between the cognate masculine and

6 Russian language and Soviet society, Alma-Ata, Avenue, 1962, p. 31. 7 Ibidem. 8 G. O. Winokur, Notes on Russian word formation, Moscow, 1959, p. 439.


462

feminine nouns of the types mentioned. From each masculine noun, a feminine noun with a standard meaning is freely produced.

In the Russian language of the Soviet era, many word-formation types increase their regularity. These are verbal nouns with -ка, adjectives with -ость, adjectives with the suffix -ск-, derived from surnames, nouns and adjectives with the prefixes анти-, архи-, ультра-, сверх-, не- and some others, adjectives with prefix без-, formed on the basis of combinations of nouns with the preposition без, some types of prefixal verbs. Affixes forming high regularity word-formation types stand in the way of their transformation into relational morphemes (-ка, -остъ,), or prepositive particles, freely connected with words of different classes (анти-, сверх-, архи- and others).

The increase in the regularity of the named and a number of other word-building types, caused by the growth of their productivity, is mainly due to the same two factors external to the word-formation system of the literary language, which was mentioned above. This is the influence of general vocabulary on the general literary word formation, as well as the effect on the literary language of colloquial speech, which is peculiar to freedom from many restrictions operating in a strictly normalized literary language.

The words of different parts of speech are combined into the paradigm of a single lexeme (with this understanding, they become individual word forms within the paradigm of one lexeme). However, this should not seem to be something heretical, destroying all the basics of grammar. In Russian linguistic science, such an association has long been made: the verb paradigm includes participles and verbal adverbs. Participle is a regular type of verbal adjectives, and verbal adverb is a regular type of verbal adverbs. The idea of belonging of possessive adjectives with -ов, ин in the Old Slavonic and Old Russian languages to the paradigm of the existence name has been repeatedly expressed by scholars.9 It is quite fair, because these formations are functionally close to the genitive case and are not inferior to case forms in the regularity of production.

Thus, ,,it is necessary to emphasize the fundamental possibility of combining morphological units (word forms) belonging to different parts of speech in one lexeme. In German, das Lesen and lesen or das Laufen and Iaufen, etc., belong to the same paradigm (it is said that in

9 N. S. Trubetskoy, On the possessive adjectives (possesiva) of the Old Church Slavonic language. ,,Zbornik at the part of A. Beli”, Beograd, 1937, p. 16; A. Vayan, Guide to the Old Slavonic language, Moscow, 1952, p. 158.


463

these cases the verb is ,,substantiated”, as if there is some historical process here, and not the simultaneous coexistence of units included in one lexeme).

The possibility of coexistence within the same lexeme of word forms belonging to different parts of speech is justified by the fact that the distribution of morphological unity in parts of speech and the distribution of morphological unity in lexemes is based on completely different principles that do not overlap each other.10

The growth of regularity of a number of derivational types leads to a change in the composition and nature of the paradigms of different parts of speech. The number of paradigms is increasing, in which different parts of speech are united by close forced connection. Thus, the verb paradigm includes (more precisely, it is ready to enter) nouns with -ка with procedural meaning посадить-посажу... посадка), adjective paradigm-nouns with -ость with the meaning of an abstract feature (бронзовый, бронзового ... бронзовостъ, сборный, сборного... сборностъ), noun paradigm-adjectives with the prefix без-, meaning no thing called producing the basis (аэродром, аэродрома, без аэродрома, безаэродромный...) кондуктор, кондуктора, без кондуктора, бескондукторный).

This feature of modern word formation is deeply internally connected with its other characteristic feature, which facilitates its manifestation and development. New word-formation connections between parts of speech are born in the modern language. Their birth contributes to the phenomenon, which can be called the use in the formation of ready-made structures, semantically not related to the derived word.

The traditionally recognized only type of relations between producing and derived is destroyed: a derivative can semantically correlate with one element, and structurally with another. This new type of correlation does not contradict the basic tendency of the development of modern word formation-the growth of agglutinativity: the word-forming affix freely ,,glues” to the ready-made structure existing in the language. As a result of this, parts of speech that were not previously interconnected word-formative, that is, not acting in relation to each other as producing and derivative, enter into such relations. Contrary to the traditions and laws of Russian word formation of the 19th century, they begin to be derived from the basics of the adjective adverbial nouns with -о (such as водопадно, осторожно), semantically directly related to nouns, names with procedural meanings (such as химизация,

10 Russian language and Soviet society, p. 31.


464

тракторизация, векторизация, дождевание, гнездование, шлакование) from the fundamentals of nouns and adjectives; formations with -ствующий, attributed by different researchers to participles or adjectives with procedural meaning (such as хулиганствующий, радикальствующий) from the bases of essential names; nouns with the meaning of abstract attribute, properties (such as этажность, ходимость) from the basis of nouns and verbs.

These new word-formation connections are born now and sharply distinguish modern word formation from the 19th century word-formation, when adverbs were produced only from the fundamentals of qualitative adjectives, nouns and adjectives with procedural meaning-only from the bases of verbs, etc. Formations that violate these laws were isolated and were perceived as ,,word-formation monsters”. In modern language, they constitute numerous groups of words and form new word-formation types.

As a result, there is a restructuring of the entire system of word formation. The points of the system, previously isolated, not in contact with each other, are connected by a deep internal connection. The role of nouns as the generating bases of modern word formation is sharply increasing. In connection with this, the semantics of derived words of different parts of speech are changing. New residual adverbs of adverbs with -о, names of quality with -остъ, names of actions with -изация, -фикация differ from traditional words of the same categories underscored by objectivity, the ,,materiality” of their meaning.

The connection of two changes: the restructuring of paradigms, the transformation of derivational affixes into relational (with increasing regularity) and the birth of new word-formation connections means that in the first and second cases the freedom of production of language units increases. This is evident in the case of the transformation of derivational morphemes into relational. At the birth of new derivational relations between the generators and derivatives, the restrictions imposed by the language system are also lifted, with the result that the freedom to form new units increases.

When studying the grammatical system of the language, the concept of markedness - unmarkedness plays an important role.

If two language units having something in common in semantics are opposed to each other so that the meaning of one is narrower than the value of the other, then the first is marked and the second is unmarked. Such relationships bind, for example, units фрезеровщик-фрезеровщица, артист-артистка, учитель-учительница. Nouns фрезеров-щица, артистка, учительница indicate that they denote persons only


465

female, whereas words фрезеровщик, артист, учитель do not contain such a restriction: Учителя нашей школы-Иванова и Семенова-поедут летом в Крым; Мария Ивановна-хороший учитель.

Thus, the marked members of the opposition are units фрезеровщица, артистка, учительница, as they contain a limiting meaning: ‘a female, and words фрезеровщик, артист, учитель are unmarked, as they do not contain such a restriction (that is, they denote a person of either sex). Tagged members of the opposition have a narrower and, at the same time, more detailed value than unmarked members.

That is why in certain typical contexts it is possible to replace any marked member with an unmarked.11 So, the phrase ,,Семенова-хорошая учительница (спортсменка, чертежница)” can be changed into the phrase ,,Семенова-хороший учитель (спортсмен, чертежник)”.

Backward substitution - members unmarked with marked ones - in the same contexts is not always possible. In the phrase ,,Иван Петрович-хороший учитель”, we cannot replace the last word with a feminine noun (учительница), because it has a narrower meaning than the word учитель (it introduces a detailed meaning ,,female”, which is contrary to the context).

The possibility (or impossibility) of such substitutions serves as a diagnostic check for identifying marked and unmarked members of the opposition.

An example of the opposition, both members of which are marked, can be the words красавица and красавец: красавица means a female face, beauty means a male face. It is impossible to say ,,Миша у нас красавец” or ,,Красавец Наташа стояла перед зеркалом” impossible.

Oppositions, one member of which is unmarked, are called privative, that is, inequitable; Oppositions, both members of which are marked, are called equipalent, that is, equivalent.

In privative oppositions, members are contrasted on a more abstract basis than in equipalent oppositions. In our examples, we have two kinds of oppositions:

1) a female-a person of any gender; 2) a female-a male. It is quite obvious that in oppositions of the first kind the degree

of abstraction is higher: one of the language units in them has a

11 M. Dоkulil, ,,К otazce morfologickych protikladu”, in SaS, no. 2, 1958; B. Trnka, Morfologicke protiklady. О vgdeckem poznani soudobych jazykfl, Prague, 1958; R. Jakobson, Zur Struktur der russischen Verbums. Charisteria Guilelmo Mathesio quinquagenario, Prague, 1932; Travaux de l’institut de linguistique, II. Paris, 1958; Kf Izkov a H., ,,К pojeti neutralizace v morfologii”, in SaS, no 1, 1965; Travaux du cercle linguistique de Prague, t. 2. Prague, 1966.


466

generalized meaning common to both members, whereas each language unit in oppositions of the second kind has a narrow meaning and a member that expresses a common meaning (,,face of any gender”) is absent.

We have not considered all possible relationships between word-formation innovations and norms of the literary language. They are complex, diverse and contradictory.

The most typical cases are when new developing phenomena of word formation, corresponding to actively active word-formation tendencies, are perceived as a violation of lexical norms. Undoubtedly, this is a temporary phenomenon. It reflects the struggle of the old with the new. However, the outcome of this struggle is not always easy to foresee, since both the old and the new have their defenders. The first is patronized by the stability of the literary language as the main means of ensuring the continuity of the history and culture of the people, its consciously protected traditionalism; the development and strengthening of the new (word-building changes) is supported by the course of the historical development of the language system, which in turn is determined by the complex game of internal and external factors affecting the language.

These circumstances determined the nature of the material being studied. We studied the data of oral and written speech of different genres, often not yet becoming facts of the language, since they reveal the most distinctly word-formative innovations that characterize the potentials of the development of the language system.


467

G. APOLLINAIRE IN THE CONTEXT OF MODERN FRENCH LITERATURE: ,,NEW CONSCIOUSNESS” AND

PROSE WRITERS

Anastassia Petrova St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation

Abstract: This article attempts to demonstrate the influence that Guillaume

Apollinaire has had on the development of modern French literature (both of the 20th century and of the present day). Creative principles formulated by Apollinaire in the treatise “New consciousness and poets” remain fundamental for the most important writers of modern France. Analyzing artistic methods of surrealists, newborns, ULIPO group members, writers united around the publishing house “Minyui”, representatives of women’s and children’s French literature, we can conclude that all the main authors of the last century and of the present day follow the principles of Apollinaire: they experiment, mix genres, forms, styles and seek to amaze readers.

Keywords: Apollinaire, new consciousness, amazement, experiment, genre, form, style, poetic language, modern French prose.

Literary work of Guillaume Apollinaire still leaves room for

scientific researches, especially fruitful in the field of stylistics, experimentation of literary genres and forms. It is here that the author’s succession in relation to the stylistic models of the XIX century is clearly revealed, as well as the new that the French master brought to the traditions of literature.

Growth of interest in the structural laws of French prose observed in literary studies of the last decades allows to expand understanding of literary forms and genres of Guillaume Apollinaire and about his impact on the writers of our days. This necessitates the systematic study of Apollinaire’s work from a modern perspective. In addition, it is undoubtedly important to study the contribution of Apollinaire, both literary theoretician and writer, in the context of contemporary French prose. By modern we understand the XX and the XXI centuries. Carefully considering the structure of modern significant artistic texts, it is impossible not to mention the influence of Apollinaire’s tradition. It is important to note that the relevance of this article is due to the fact that Apollinaire in the context of modern French prose has never been considered neither by Russian nor French researchers-nor Anna Clansier,1 neither Jean Brugos,2 nor Dominique Comb,3 no Pierre-Marcel

1 A. Сlancier, Guillaume Apollinaire: les incertitudes de l’identité, Paris, L’Harmattan Press, 2006.


468

Adema,4 nor Michel Decoden in the complete collection of Apollinaire,5 not the researchers of the second row.6

Methodological basis

Methodological basis of the article is a complex approach

combining historical and style and artistic-axiological principles of understanding of Apollinaire’s prose in the context of modern French literature of the XX and the XXI centuries. The guiding idea in the development of the material became the artistic principles formulated by Apollinaire in the treatise “New consciousness and poets”. Research methods used in the article are based on the universal principle of linguistic and literary analysis; role of analytical methods, namely, holistic, historical and style, system-complex, comparative, literary and theoretical analysis. Reliability of the obtained results is achieved through the use of literary and theoretical research methods based on a solid linguistic foundation. The article was discussed in stages at the Department of Romance Philology of St. Petersburg State University. Results of the research are used by the author in the courses of literary translation, taught at St. Petersburg State University. In conclusion, results of the study are summarized.

Apollinaire and modern prose writers

Throughout the world, Guillaume Apollinaire is called a poet.

However, his significant contribution to art is not limited to poetry. Apollinaire thought as an art theorist, as an artist in the broadest sense, for a good reason poems, essays, novels, stories, and countless articles about art came from under his pen. When he was creating the treatise

2 J. Burgos, Guillaume Apollinaire. L’Enchanteurpourrissant, Paris, Minard Press, 1972; J. Burgos, C. Debon, M. Décaudin, Apollinaire, ensomme, Paris, Honoré Champion Press, 1998. 3 D. Combe, Poésie et récit. Une rhétorique des genres, Paris, José Corti Press, 1989. 4 P. M. Adéma, "Guillaume Apollinaire", Paris, LaTableronde Press, 1968. 5 M. Decoden, P. M. Adéma, A.Balland, J. Lecat, Apollinaire G. Euvresen prose complètes, Paris: Editions Gallimard Press, 1977-1993. 6 L.Follet, "Apollinaire vers et prose. La Réécriture du textelittéraire", Annales littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, (1987), no. 3, p. 97-105; A. Fonteyne, Apollinaire prosateur, Paris, Nizet Press, 1964; G. Gérard, Introduction à l’architexte, Paris, Seuil Press, 1979; R. Godenne, La Nouvelle française, Paris, PUF Press, 1974; G. Mounin, Les belles infidèlеs, Lille, Universitaires de Lille Press, 1994.


469

"New consciousness and poets",7 he was considering the problems of art by the example of poetry, but in fact meant any literary work, and in fact all the theses of Apollinaire, recorded in the famous treatise, can be interpreted in relation to prose.

Among the French poets Apollinaire became famous as the creator of "calligrams", but in prose he managed to carry out almost more experiments. In France, at the beginning of the XX century, Apollinaire was considered one of the most progressive, courageous and promising figures of literature. Contemporaries perceived 30-year-old Apollinaire as an authority, as a teacher, almost as a poetic prophet. Pierre Reverdy said about him: "To a greater extent, than anyone today, he has drawn new ways, opened new horizons. He deserves all our fascination. All our reverence".8

For the way experimental and original French prose has become in the twentieth century and nowadays, France owes it to Guillaume Apollinaire, whose influence is often underestimated, since, as a rule, only Apollinaire’s poetry is in the interests of researchers. The purpose of this article is to show that modern French literature largely originated on the foundation laid by Apollinaire.

Modern French literature (not only literature of our days, but in general French literature of the XX century) differs from other literatures by its desire for novelty and experimentation. Experiment concerns either form or genre. By experiment we in this article understand mixing genres, styles, creation of hybrid genres and hybrid forms. In the XX century almost all notable French authors experimented in one way or another: surrealists, newborns, members of ULIPO’s potential literature workshop, authors united around the publishing house "Minyui", representatives of women’s French literature (Maylis de Kerangal, Olivia Rosenthal, Annie Ernaux, Gaëlle Obiégly), children’s writers (Bernard Friot, Timothée de Fombelle), laureates of The Prix Goncourt of recent years - Mathias Énard, Éric Vuillard, Philippe Claudel etc. And whatever associative chain we build, analyzing the works of the mentioned authors, it will lead us to Apollinaire’s treatise "New consciousness and poets": "So, the new consciousness accepts any, even risky, literary experiments, although these experiments are sometimes hardly lyrical. That is why in modern poetry

7 G. Apollinaire, "New consciousness and poets", in Writers of France about literature, Compilers T. Balashova, F. V. Narkir’er. Transl. by V. Kozovoi. Мoscow, Progress Press, 1978. https://sci.house/zarubejnaya-literatura-scibook/novoe-soznanie-poetyi-20677.html. 8 M. Yasnov, Following Orpheus. Apollinaire G. Collection of works in three volumes, Moscow, Simpozium Press., 2011, p.55.

https://sci.house/zarubejnaya-literatura-scibook/novoe-soznanie-poetyi-20677.html

https://sci.house/zarubejnaya-literatura-scibook/novoe-soznanie-poetyi-20677.html


470

lyric is only one of the focal areas of the new consciousness, which is often limited to search and research, without trying to give them lyrical significance. All this is only material that accumulates a poet, who accumulates a new consciousness, but from this material stocks of authenticity are formed, simplicity and modesty of which should not be repelled, for its consequences and results can be significant — extremely significant".9

The above-mentioned quotation contains both an important for Apollinaire thought about the experiment, a confirmation that the experiment does not necessarily have to deal with lyrics, and a mention of simplicity, which can also to be a consequence of the experiment.

Apollinaire’s research and experiments

First of all, it should be noted that by "new consciousness" Apollinaire

understands a progressive way of creative thinking through which literature develops and updates. The term “new consciousness” is used by Apollinaire in the treatise “New consciousness and poets” (1917). The first, I think, key word that determines, from Apollinaire’s point of view, the principle of the work of the new consciousness is a research: "Research and search for truth-both in the sphere of ethical and in the field of imagination-these are the main signs of this new consciousness".10

Apollinaire’s use of the word "explorer" on the first page of the treatise is extremely important because modern French literature is of a research, experimental nature. Annie Ernaux calls her own texts "littératurescientifique" (scientific, research literature). The writer explores everyday life, history, but in the philological sense she explores the form and genre, because her books are a sort of artistic diaries (novel diary, short story diary). Annie Ernaux creates a specific hybrid genre-she actually gives an interview about her life, and only a language game, rhythmic inserts tell us that her prose is an artistic text. In addition to Annie Ernaux, Éric Vuillard calls his books research. Unlike Annie Ernaux, he explores purely history and also creates a hybrid genre: fusion of documentary novel and artistic fiction. In addition, in the case of Éric Vuillard it is also a mix of styles: an unemotional reporter text and a very elegant modern prose with unbanal metaphors and a kind of intermittent intonation.

9 G. Apollinaire, "New consciousness and poets", in Writers of France about literature, Мoscow, Progress Press, 1978, p. 57. 10 Ibidem, p. 53.


471

Research fuse is linked to formal searches. Apollinaire says: "Formal searches have become of great importance from now on. And it is logical".11

What do these formal searches lead to? For Apollinaire, they lead to the fact that he finds in the language new unexpected combinations of words (mixing archaic and modern Apollinaire language, the use of rare words) or unexpected grammatical structures. It is known that Apollinaire paid special attention to the search for rare words, he used the entire notebooks for rare words. French researchers of Apollinaire write about his love for rare words, for complex terms and unknown names. Daniel Delbray, in the book "Apollinaire et sesrécits"12 says that Apollinaire specifically created lists of complex incomprehensible words and terms for use in creating artistic texts. Therefore, Apollinaire’s "natural combinations" are a conscious combination of complex and simple, own and extraneous, known and incomprehensible, real and fictional.

He subsequently filled his own works with "exotic" vocabulary. And, of course, do not forget about those rare names (geographical, culinary) that the writer invented, confusing both readers and critics.

Apollinaire writes: "There are thousands of natural combinations that have never been created. People imagine them mentally and bring them to incarnation, thus creating, together with nature, the higher art of life. These are new combinations, these new creatures of the art of life we call progress".13

In particular, the entire novel "Disappearance" by Georges Perec14 is built on new combinations. The eclecticism of this text is associated with the formal removal of the letter “e” from it (in the Russian translation of Valery Kislov the letter "o" is removed); Émile Ajar and Maylis de Kerangal, which mixes high style, ancient French argo, modern speaking and professional jargon, such as builders or doctors, also made themselves the glory on unexpected combinations and eclecticism of the language. It is known that Kerangal immersed in the environment of physicians and architects to write the books "Bridge" and "Mend the Living", studied their specific dictionary, not always clear to the reader. Unexpected words and any experiment on mixing genres and styles causes the audience to be amazed. In the treatise "New consciousness and poets", Apollinaire calls astonishment a "mighty new force": "It is

11 Ibidem, p. 53. 12 D. Delbray, "Apollinaire et sesrécits ", New York, Michigan University Press, 2008. 13 G. Apollinaire, "New consciousness and poets", in Writers of France about literature, Мoscow, Progress Press, 1978, p. 58 14 G. Perec, Disappearance-a novel without letter "E", Paris, PUF Press, 1969.


472

thanks to amazement, due to the significant role that it assigns to amazement, the new consciousness differs from all previous artistic and literary movements".15

Summarizing the theoretical calculations of Apollinaire, we can say that all his experiments he conducts for the sake of excitement in the reader a sense of amazement. Both the notion of novelty and the notion of progress are inextricably linked with a sense of amazement. According to Apollinaire’s logic, the new thing is where there is a place for amazement: "But is there nothing new under the sun? We still have to check it out. They already took an X-ray of my head. I, a living man, saw my own skull, and there’s no novelty in that? Enough!".16

Logical connectors-a model of amazement

In one of Apollinaire’s stories "Oranjade" (from the cycle

"Uncollected stories", 1907-1918), the doctor with amazement kills his patient. Narrator emphasizes that the doctor was driven by amazement, and as if he justified the murderer: "Il futcondamné et dut payer de sa vie le bizarre attentat que luiavait fait commettre une frénésie causée par un étonnement nullement criminal mais uniquement scientifique".17

Amazement for Apollinaire as a writer plays a crucial role in the literature.

Apollinaire’s prose texts amaze first of all by its clear organization, the correctness of the formulation of sentences with the direct order of words and the abundance of logical connectors with which the author intentionally experiments.

Note that most often the specific use of connectors at Apollinaire occurs only in the speech of the storyteller, and not in direct speech, thus, I think, the author distinguishes his own experiment and linguistic reality.

In the story “La Fiancée posthume” the connector “et” is used to rhythmize the text as the beginning. At the same time, the author is not confused by repetitions, which once again testifies to the musical role of the connector: "Et il regarda Mme Muscade, qui, placide, ne bronchait pas. "Oui, dans la rue», affirma M. Muscade. Et ilcommença".18

15 G. Apollinaire, "New consciousness and poets", in Writers of France about literature, Мoscow, Progress Press, 1978, p. 58 16 Idem, L’Orangeade. Contesretrouvés. Oeuvres en prose complètes, Paris, Gallimard Press, 1977, p. 505. 17 Ibidem, p. 341. 18 Ibidem.


473

Repetition of the connector, which does not bear any logical load, stylistically gives the text a parable rhythmized intonation beloved by Apollinaire.

There are, however, fragments in the story in which the use of connectors "et" and "mais" is kind of random, redundant. The reader stumbles over these connectors, since they, as superfluous elements, rather violate the logic of the narrative. For example: "Les Muscade habitaient une petite villa située du côté du Suquet, et d’oùl’onavaitvue sur la mer, les îles de Lérins et les longues plages de sable sur lesquelles des troupes d’enfants nus et minces s’ébattentl’été, avant le crépuscule".19

In this sentence, the first connector "et" is redundant. In the sense, to comply with logical connections and to avoid repetition enough connector "où", which introduces the appendage sentence. From the literary point of view, we can assume that the effect of stumbling on the first description of the house of characters is designed to alert the reader, to let him understand: there’s something wrong in this house. The same effect is achieved in the first description of the garden: "Les eucalyptus tapissèrent le sol de petits cheveux odoriférants. Il y enavaittant, qu’éteignantl’éclat du mica, ilsrecouvrat ententièrement les allées des jardins, et le mimosa enflammait toutes ses fleurs embaumées".20

It is unclear even how in this case to translate this connector "et" into Russian. There can be no connecting union "and" between the description of eucalyptus and the description of mimosa, the opposition in the form of the union "a", which also translates "et", is also unnatural. Connector is redundant, it has to create logical connections, but it does not create them, which means that the reader doubts its own logic, makes the reader wonder and probably think again about that is so special in the described house and garden. Apollinaire literally pushes his audience to the idea of the strange language, which tells a strange story about parents looking for a groom for his dead daughter.

In the story "L’Ami Méritarte" the rhythmic function, instead of the connector "et", is performed by the connector "mais". Two long paragraphs in a row start with "mais", it is impossible to skip this when proofreading, so there is no doubt that repeat is intentional: "Mais l’ami Méritarte voulait élever son art jusqu’au lyrisme. Il nous servit, un soir, un potage aux vermicelles, des oeufs à la coque, unesalade de laitue aux fleurs de capucines et du fromage à la crème. Mais que devînmes-nous lorquel’ ami Méritarte nous annonçaqu’il se livrait désormais à la philosophie et qu’il nous invitait à devenirses

19 Ibidem, p. 340. 20 Ibidem, p. 341.


474

disciples le jeudisuivant. Nous fûmes exacts au rendez-vous, mais à voirnos mines inquiètes on eûtdeviné que la métaphysique des fourneaux nous inspiraitpeu de confiance".21

On the one hand, with the help of "mais" the narrator repeats the beat, creates, like the previous novel, the effect of parable intonation, on the other hand-"mais" is too often used in this text and appointment, there is the impression that the author, blossoming the narrative subjectively negative "but", does not oppose anything, but warn the reader about something (apparently, that the character cook will poison all guests in the end of the novel). “But” in this case does not fulfill its role as an anti-union.

In the story "L’Albanais" the antiquity union "mais" is used as "et": "Anglaise, ellel’était par son père, officier cruel, condamné à mort dans l’Inde pour sévicescontre les indigènes. MaissamèreétaitMaltaise".22

The word "but" in this case introduces an additional contrasting to the text, perhaps due solely to the negative description of the heroine, in which the incompatible is combined. The narrator says about her: "Un philologuel’eûtadorée, un grammairienn’eûtpu que la détester malgré sabeauté".23

I think this sentiment applies not only to heroin, but also to Apollinaire’s prose. A similar use of the "mais" union occurs in a short cycle of three novels "Trois histoires de châtimentsdivins". Heroes are described as follows: "La patronne étaitrousse, commeune orange, mais le patron sentait le pissala".24

Opposition of red hair to the smell of onions seems doubtful. On the other hand, Apollinaire implicitly contrasts the onion to orange, and that already makes sense. The character leaves a bad smell of old town for the sake of a new quarter, where smells are also mixed and not always combined.

In the story "L’Hérésiarque" Apollinaire uses many different connectors. For example: "Au contraire, les réformateurs et les prophèteslaisseraient la Catholicité fort indifférente. Eneffet, elle ne se soucie plus du fond de sa religion. Aussiest-il bien rare que se produisent de ces petites dissensions théologiques qui amenaient autrefois la fondationd’unehérésie. À la vérité, il arrive souvent que des prêtrescatholiques se séparent de l’église".25

In this passage, Apollinaire uses logical connectors four times. The first is a contrasting, the second is used to enter an argument; the third

21 Ibidem, p. 379. 22 Ibidem, p. 392. 23 Ibidem. 24 Ibidem, p. 124. 25 Ibidem, p. 110.


475

expresses the consequence, the fourth erases all the above. In the Russian translation connectors are preserved as signs of logical transitions, but not as regulators of arguments. If you remove all connectors except the last one from the translation, the meaning of the text will not change. This fact indicates that not all of them are necessary for Apollinaire to express logical relationships. Clearly logically stated information and its refutation in the last sentence draw the reader’s attention to the subtext, which clearly shows the ironic view of the author on the phenomena of the Catholic world.

In the cycle of novels "Trois histoires de châtimentsdivins" in the first text "Le Giton" the action takes place so rapidly, the interchange literally comes to the climax and the conclusion, the whole story takes only one and a half pages. In this case, different connectors are used, that is, the text is very clearly structured. The author as if deliberately slows down the action to make the story look logical. Describing the bad behavior of Louis Gian, which ends with death, that is, God’s punishment, the narrator articulates the events as follows: "Jusqu’à quatorze ans il fréquenta peu l’école, mais paillarda sous les ponts…" "Ensuiteil se prodigua à un Turc brutal et gourmand»; «Pourtantil ne sut pas dans la fortune garder cette sérénite qui estle privilège des vertueux". "À la fin, l’inconduite de Louis Gian futenhorreur au Ciel, commeellel’était à sesancienscamarades".26

Using connectors “ensuite”, “pourtant”, “à la fin” is not wrong, but seems excessive, redundant on such a short text interval. The author seeks to expand in time, what is in the story, in fact, concise, and give logic content that does not lend itself to any analysis: the boy behaved badly, so God killed him. It reminds an anecdote, modern black humor. Apollinaire has almost all prose texts in one way or another filled with irony and black humor, almost surreal absurdity, to which logic is extraneous.

In the third story from the cycle "D’un monstre à Lyon oul’envie", where the relationship between man and God is also deeply ironic, there is largely no logic and there are artificially compensating its logical connectors. For example, when a husband who has lost faith in God because his wife was unable to get pregnant, the idea of divorce arises: "Il relutl’histoire de Napoléon, et délibéramême de répudieruneépousestérile, demeuréepieuse malgré son mari. Il se trouvaalors un médecin sans renom, mais de haute science, qui ayantappris la détresse du riche soyeux, entreprit la cure, et, de façonoud’autre, renditpropre à êtreensemencée la terreinféconde".27

26 Ibidem, p. 124. 27 Ibidem, pp. 127-128.


476

Using the logical connector "alors" shows the reader the inconsistency of the character. There is no logic in thinking about divorce and "then" (actually "so") looking for a new doctor for a wife. Religious throwers of the hero will later prove his lack of logic and common sense.

The plot of this story seems so strange that you gradually stop looking for logic in it, but the author, who does not forget about connectors, seems to insist on it. For example, the narrator writes about how a priest decided to seduce a pregnant woman to punish her husband who lost faith: "Il accomplit un acte naturel qu’ilest inutile de nommer et exposait un pilon à mortier, un bâton pastoral, uneflûte à Robin, et mieux, un rossignoltel que beaucoup de dames l’eussentvoulu entendre chanter Kyrie eleison. Celle-ci, malgré sadévotion, ne fut pas indifférente et eutenvie d’être le mortier du pilon, la cage du rossignol. Mais, étanthonnête, elle ne pouvaitsatisfaire son vouloir. Néanmoins, ilest certain qu’éprouvant des démangeaisons, elle se gratta".28

The use of connectors "mais" and "néanmoins" is redundant and indicates the contradictory character of the heroine. Further events are also described using connectors that do not add logic to the narrative, but rather look like a linguistic mockery of ridiculous content: "Bien que les phénomènesrelatifs aux envies des femmes grosses soientcontestés par plusieurs savants, il me paraît certain aussi que la dame était enceinte d’unefille. Car quelquesmois après, elleaccoucha, et, lorsque le mari, haletantd’émotion, voulut savoir de quelsexeétaitl’enfant, la sage-femme leva les bras au cielendisant: "C’est un monstre!" Et le médecin qui l’assistaitdit: "C’est un hermaphrodite".29

The story of how a woman touched herself, and she gave birth to a hermaphrodite, is so devoid of logic-including religious, that the logical connectors "bien que" and "car" look in the text extraneous, imposing logic absurdity. In addition, in this text fragment cause-effect relationships are violated: the woman was pregnant by the girl not because she gave birth to the girl, but vice versa. That is, connector "car" is meaningless. Obviously, grammatically built nonsense is needed by the author in order to ridicule the piety of the characters.

We can cite a lot of situations of using connectors by Apollinaire, conditionally speaking, not for the intended purpose, and every time we analyze, we will come to the conclusion that the logical grammatical organization of absurd texts works to strengthen phantasmagoria, absurdity, black humor, irony. In the novel "The Three Don Juans",30 the

28 Ibidem, p. 128. 29 Ibidem, p. 129. 30 Ibidem.


477

narrator, for example, often repeats the connector “eneffet”, although no performance and even a statement of fact he does not mean at Apollinaire. The thing is that facts do not exist on their own, they grow up in a language environment. The form in Apollinaire’s prose creates content-this is the function of the form he wrote in the treatise “New consciousness and poets”-and with the help of a language experiment on logical connectors, using breaking the logical links inside the text Apollinaire achieves the very effect of amazement to which he aspires.

The desire to amaze the reader is felt in all modern French literature-even in children’s literature. Bernard Friot experiments with forms-as Apolliner, he seeks to prove that he is able to create a horror story, a fairy tale, a parable, and a detective, and with the forms-he has a telegram story, a play story, an epistolary story, story in the form of vers libre. We emphasize once again that all these experiments of Bernard Friot exist within the framework of children’s literature, which, as a rule, is distinguished by its conservatism all over the world.

Synthesis of arts

Another important point of the Apollinaire treatise is the desire for

the synthesis of arts. In terms of striving for the synthesis of arts, we can mention a lot of persons: Pablo Picasso with his synthesis of painting and literary in verse prose, many surrealists who followed in his footsteps; novelists and synthesis of cinematographic, cinematography and literature; ULIPO and synthesis of mathematics and literature. Canadian French-speaking contemporary writer Nicole Brossard adds photos to her books. It is strange that Robbe-Grillet, criticizing Balzac’s novel, does not mention Apollinaire’s manifesto. Especially as separate passages of the script of Robbe-Grillet to Alain René’s film "Last Summer in Marienbad" (1961) are perceived as an echo of "The Rotting Sorcerer".

Robbe-Grillet in his scenario, like Apollinaire in a fairy tale parable, uses the technique of a refren that points to the place where the action takes place, and describes this place. At Apollinaire: "Merlin retired to the deaf forest, gloomy and ancient".31

Variations on the theme of the forest, which will always be characterized by the narrator as "gloomy and deaf", permeates the entire text of "The Rotting Sorcerer". In the scenario of Robbe-Grillet the

31 Idem, "New consciousness and poets", in Writers of France about literature, Мoscow, Progress Press, 1978, p. 55


478

descriptions of the place are also repeated as a chorus: "...through these living rooms, galleries, in this building of a different century, in this huge, luxurious, baroque living room, gloomy, where endless corridors are replaced by corridors...".32

Poetic intonation, which is characterized by a specific not direct order of words, and even the choice of words (for example, the repetition of the word "gloomy") brings together the texts of Apollinaire and Robbe-Grillet.

Articles by Alain Robbe-Grillet "For a new novel" differ in many respects from the manifesto of Apollinaire, which, although considered as poetic, extends to literature as a whole. However, there is an obvious relationship between the "new consciousness" and the "new novel". For example, Robbe-Grillet, like Apollinaire, writes about the importance of research and abandons the notion of a literary school: "A new novel is not a theory, but a study. Consequently, it does not create any system of laws. So, we are not talking about a literary school in the narrow sense of this word".33

Like Apollinaire, Robbe-Grillet is interested in the possibilities of cinematography: "The origins of the steady attraction of novelists to cinematographic creativity lie beyond its limits. They are interested not in the objectivity of the camera, but in its possibilities in the sphere of subjective, imaginary. They see cinema not as a means of expression, but as a means of research; and most of all their attention naturally attracts what was most inaccessible to literature: that is, not so much the visual image as the sound series-voices, noises, atmosphere, music-and especially the ability to influence simultaneously the two organs of perception: eye and ear; finally, the ability to express-both in image and in sound-with almost unquestionably obvious objectivity what is just a dream or a memory, in short-imaginary".34

This passage of Robbe-Grillet coincides with Apollinaire’s idea of synthesis of arts: music, painting and literature.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, France became an almost utopian country for poets. The thing that Guillaume Apollinaire wrote about the synthesis of the arts in the treatise "New Consciousness and poets",35 the thing that Osip Mandelstam believed in, arguing in 1921 that the poets of his era "speak the language of all times, all cultures",36

32 Ibidem, p. 45. 33 A. Robbe-Grillet, For the New Novel. A. Collection of works, Мoscow, Simpozium Press, 2000, p. 460. 34 Ibidem, p. 473. 35 G. Apollinaire, "New consciousness and poets", 1978. 36 M. Balan, Livre d’artiste: notes in the margin. Livre d’artiste. Exhibition of books from the collection of Mark Bashmakov. Catalogue, St. Petersburg, Publishing House of the State Hermitage, 2013, p. 54.


479

and dreaming of a "synthetic poet of modernity",37 in which "ideas, scientific systems, state theories sing as precisely as nightingales and roses sang in its predecessors",38 existed as a given and gradually gained strength.

For a good reason French writers from Apollinaire to Michel Deguy so fruitfully analyzed the works of the painters: René Char – Alberto Giacometti, Yves Bonnefoy – Giorgio de Chirico, Jean Tardieu – Vasili Kandinski. In 1910, Apollinaire was assigned to write a chronicle devoted to art in the daily newspaper "Intransijan", and soon to write critical articles for the "Paris-Journal", and in 1913 Apollinaire became a co-publisher of of the legendary magazine "Les Soirées de Paris".

A kind of obsession of French writers with painting could have gone unnoticed if it had not led to mutual attraction and, as a consequence, the emergence of the phenomenon of “book of artist” ("livre d’artiste") in 1900, which showed a striking mariage of literature and painting and turned out to be the second step on the way to the creation of synthetic art. The phenomenon began to develop at the turn of the century, passing various phases - from the collaboration of the writer and artist and the creation of an ideal ensemble (for example, R. Dufy and G. Apollinaire-"Le Bestiaireou Cortège d’Orphée", "Bestiary or Cortege of Orpheus", 1911) to the invention of "simultan book" (S. Delaunay and B. Cendrars in "La Prose du Transsibérien et de la Petite Jehanne de France", "Prose of the Trans-Siberian Train and Little Jeanne of France", 1913) and the demonstrative gap between the text and the picture in famous "illustrations hors texte" (for example, etchings by P. Picasso to "The Unknown Masterpiece of Balzac", 1931).

Of course, the co-work of the writer and artist takes place nonlinearly, often there is a struggle for the primacy, for authorship, artists sometimes create: "…not so much an equivalent as a counterbalance of the verse".39

Nevertheless, obviously, the search for a new artistic language has led to what can be called the diffusion of visual and literary.

Pablo Picasso’s poetic prose is one of the most successful examples of harmonious work with elements of visual and literary. Despite the fact that Picasso follows the path outlined by the surrealists, the basic postulates of the surrealists are: "…and the automatism, and the primacy of the subconscious, especially dreams, and generating all this Freudian concept of psyche-are not the main source of art for Picasso-poet". 40 "He writes

37 Ibidem, p. 172. 38 Ibidem. 39 Ibidem, p. 75. 40 M. Andrula, "Preface. P. Picasso Poems", Мoscow, Tekst, 2008, p. 12


480

spontaneously, but not automatically. Partly realizing that he is playing, he accepts the accomplished act of scripture and gives himself greater freedom to manipulate speech. The work created by him is so specific that the recognition of his authorship does not require a signature".41

In the works of surrealists, compared to the texts of Picasso, such a harmonious plexus of literary and visual is rarely found. Note also that Picasso managed to turn his experiment into an artistic technique, which is repeated from text to text and characterizes a significant section of the poet’s work.

In addition to "natural combinations", Apollinaire’s experimental prose consists of so-called "presumed truths": "These truths, as a rule, give rise to astonishment because they are contrary to the accepted opinion. Many of them have not been studied. It is enough to identify them to lead to astonishment". 42

By "presumed truths" as well as "natural combinations" Apollinaire literally means any game of imagination and any game in genres, forms, language. An analysis of Apollinaire’s most experimental prosaic text, "The Rottting Sorcerer", will certainly lead us to the conclusion that we are dealing with a progressive art in Apollinaire’s understanding, which has discovered incredible potential of prose, which later consciously or involuntarily took advantage of classics of modern French literature, both elite and mass.

Poetic language as part of the experiment.

As for experiments with poetic language, it should be noted that

the poetic fragments of the text at Apollinaire are framed separately from the prose, as in the fairy tale parable "The Rotting Sorcerer", and inside the prose, as again in "The Rotting Sorcerer", and as separate readings in stories. Nicole Brossard, Philippe Claudel and Olivia Rosenthal exploit this ability of French to sound musically, as well as the manner of alternating poetry and prose. The latter builds a novel on a mix of forms "On n’est pas la pour disparaître".

The key point in clarifying the relationship between prose and poetry in Apollinaire’s texts may be the publication in 1907 of the parable fairy tale "The Cemetery" ("L’Obituaire") in the magazine "The Sun". For the second time "The Cemetery" was published in 1909 in the magazine "Poems and Prose" in the form of a poem. Later in 1913, for "The Anthology of New Poets", Apollinaire renames the poem, calling it

41 Ibidem, p. 12. 42 M. Andrula, Preface. P. Picasso Poems, p. 12.


481

"The House of the Dead". It is still unknown which of the texts appeared earlier. Apollinaire himself claimed that the poem: "This poem appeared on the pages of the magazine in prosaic form. However, it is only necessary to read the text, and you will feel strange in it, extraneous to prose, you will see that the work is made of poetic fabric. The truth is: I wrote this poem when I was fond of verslibres, and then in a moment of creative crisis, wanting to renounce lyrics, I suddenly realized that my text had the potential for a beautiful prosaic sketches. And I printed this prose in "The Sun". [...]. Then my friends forced me to restore the original poetic form of the text".43

The last example, which should be cited, but it is difficult to write into any single large subgroup, is the book "Fauna", created in prose following the example of the Apollinaire’s work "Bestiary, or The Cortege of Orpheus".

In conclusion, it should be noted that it is very difficult to downplay the role of Apollinaire as a writer of the beginning of the century in the formation of modern French literature. The study of modern French literature is impossible without reference to its basics, and these foundations in the XX century were laid by Apollinaire. Therefore, this article will help radically change the attitude to Apollinaire’s contribution to the development of modern prose.

43 M. Decoden, P. M. Adéma, A.Balland, J. Lecat, "Apollinaire G. Euvresen prose complètes", Paris, Editions Gallimard Press, 1977-1993, p. 740.


482


483

NOMINATIVE CHAINS IN THE NOVEL THE TERRACOTTA OLD WOMAN BY E. S. CHIZHOVA

Vladimir P. Kazakov

Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation

Abstract: The article deals with nominative chains in the novel «The Terracotta old

woman» by E. S. Chizhova in order to identify thematic groups of chains and their connection to problems of the work and the position of the author. The relevance of the study is conditioned by expansion of functions of nominative chains in the literary text. Using the method of continuous sampling, 240 chains were extracted from the text of the novel. The chains belonging to following thematic groups were analyzed: clothing, food, premises, the appearance of a person, historical events, literature. These thematic groups characterize a person and main spheres of his/her life: physical sphere (where he/she lives and works, how he/she dresses, what he/she eats) and intellectual sphere (his/her attitude to the recent past of the country and the current state of society, the range of his/her reading as an indicator of cultural level), as well as his/her appearance. Nominatives that form chains are analyzed taking into account their stylistic coloring and evaluative connotations manifested in the context. Particular attention is paid to functioning of nominatives in contexts with stylistically marked vocabulary and in contexts where nominatives acquire estimative connotations. It is concluded that nominative chains in the novel by E. S. Chizhova help to convey an author’s view of the position of an intellectual in the post-Soviet society. Obtained results broaden the notion of expressive possibilities of nominative chains in contemporary literary text.

Keywords: nominative chain, estimated values, connotation, context, author’s position.

E. S. Chizhova is a writer, novelist, author of several novels, one

of which, Time of Women, was awarded the "Russian Booker" award (2009). This work has become the main object of philological researches.1 We address the less known and less studied novel The Terracotta old woman by E. S. Chizhova.

The research hypothesis is that nominative chains in the novel are not only the means of describing characters and the situation, but also help to convey the author’s attitude to the problem set forth in the work – the problem of position of an intellectual in the post-Soviet society.

1 N. G. Babenko, “New page of the St. Petersburg text: poetics of Elena Chizhova’s story "The Time of Women", in The World of the Russian word, 1, (2013), pp. 86-91; T. Pudova, “Petersburg in the prose by Elena Chizhova: "Nyutochka’s House" and "Time of women", in Polilog. Studia Neofilologiczne, 2, (2012), pp. 285-293; Yu. Pykhtina, “Structure and functions of the chronotope in the novel “The Time of Women” by E. S. Chizhova”, in GISAP: Philological Sciences, 11, (2016), pp. 15-18.


484

The study of nominative chains in the novel The Terracotta old woman by E. S. Chizhova is aimed at resolving of following tasks:

1) definition and characterization of the most frequent thematic groups of nominative chains; 2) identification of the fact how the use of these chains is related to problematic of the work and position of the author.

Literature review Chains of nominative sentences are traditionally considered as one

of means of expressiveness in the literary text, since they allow "to create laconic, expressive and contentful words".2 A textbook example is A. Fet’s poem "Whisper, timid breathing...".3 It is noted that modern fictional prose replaces figural nominative chains with informative and conceptualizing and truly informative ones.4 An example from the novel "The Time of Women" by E. S. Chizhova: "In the basement in the yard there is a common laundry. All good housewives went there. First, I went there, too. But then I swore off. Heat, stuffiness, these huge boilers"5 (nominative chain is italicized). Functioning of nominatives is supported by the actualizing character of Russian prose of the beginning of the 21st century.6 Compare an example from the novel The Terracotta old woman by E. S. Chizhova: "The pedagogical council sits in the director’s office. The office is decorated with a taste for a decent life: dark oak furniture, heavy curtains".7

Nominative chains are usually represented by nominative sentences. For example: "Maple walkways. Lawns showered on with gold ... With mold smells it from the ground".8 Separate chains of nominatives with a determinative value are singled out in the scientific literature, coinciding with nominative sentences in form. For example: "I saw him this

2 E. N. Shiryaev, “Nominative sentence”, in Russian language. Encyclopedia, Moscow, The Soviet Encyclopedia, 1979, p. 152. 3 A. A. Fet, Poems, Moscow, Exmo, 2009. 4 T. E. Naydina, “The world in nominatives (syntactic way of representation of the world picture in the information age)”, in Materials of the XIII Congress of MAPRYAL: Russian language and literature in the space of world culture, Saint Petersburg, MAPRYAL, 2015, pp. 159-163. 5 E. S. Chizhova, Time of women: novels, Moscow, АСТ: Astrel, 2011. 6 O. V. Arzyamova, “Updating techniques of the actualizing syntax in Russian prose of the end of the XX-the beginning of the XXI century”, in Materials of the XIII Congress of the MAPRYAL, pp. 11-15. 7 E. S. Chizhova, Terracotta old woman, Moscow, АСТ: Astrel, 2012, p. 57. 8 Ibidem, p. 45.


485

morning. A common man as he should be. Eastern lineament, cheap leather jacket".9. Chains of this kind are used in describing characters of literary art works.10 G. K. Khamzina notes the formal affinity of the nominative characterizing the nominative proposal and its involvement into the system of means for implementing the text "observer’s position" category.11 Attention should also be paid to nominatives, the appearance of which in the text is due to parcellation and segmentation.12 For example: "Animal kingdom is Yanina’s specialization. Ants, amoebas, rabbits"13 (example of parcellation).

In this article, a broad understanding of nominatives is accepted; it takes into account all the conditions for their functioning mentioned above.

Researchers paid attention to expressive possibilities of nominatives, expansion of their functions in contemporary literary text, but a complex and unsolved problem is identification of how the patterns of functioning of syntactic means (nominative chains in particular) are related to problems of the literary piece and position of the author.


Using the method of continuous sampling, 240 chains were

extracted from the text of the novel, which count from 2 to 5 nominatives (single examples of chains consisting of 6 and 9 components were also noted). More than half of all chains (136 examples) are two-component ones. As the number of components increases, the number of examples decreases (three-component chains-73, four-component ones-22, five-component ones-7). The example of five-component chain: "I stroll into the kitchen, open the fridge. Cheese, sausage, soup in a saucepan. A bank of colorful yogurt. There is a started bottle on the door".14

9 Ibidem, p. 116. 10 G. N. Akimova, New in syntax of modern Russian language, Moscow, High school, 1990. 11 G. K. Khamzina, “The ratio of implicit and explicit components of the utterance-nominative semantics”, in Russian and Comparative Philology. System-functional aspect, Kazan, Kazan State University, 2003, pp. 139-142. 12 M. V. Panov (ed.), Russian language and Soviet society. Morphology and syntax of the modern Russian language, Moscow, Science PH, 1968. 13 E. S. Chizhova, Terracotta old woman, p. 25. 14 Ibidem, p. 21.


486

When analyzing nominative chains, the contextual analysis method is used. Context is considered as an environment in which nominatives function and under the influence of which they receive estimative connotations.

Results

Let us address the novel The Terracotta old woman by E. S. Chizhova.

The main character, Tatyana Andreevna, worked as a teacher in a university, but accepts an invitation to become an assistant to a businessman who is involved in furniture production. Despite the fact that she turns out to be a successful manager, after a while Tatyana Andreevna leaves the business. Being a real intellectual, she does not want and can not live according to dog-eat-dog laws of business life reflected in the novel.15

Nominative chains in the novel The Terracotta old woman are diverse in thematic sense. They are used to characterize an appearance of a person, clothes, premises, name food products, reflect the sphere of business relations, events of history, phenomena of culture and art, etc. Forming nominative chains function both in stylistically neutral contexts and in contexts with stylistically marked vocabulary and in contexts where nominatives acquire estimative connotations (estimation values include sensory, sublimated and rationalistic estimations from the point of view of N. D. Arutyunova).16 Stylistically marked contexts prevail (61% of the total number of nominative chains), and in a significant part of such contexts (51%), the negative evaluation is manifested, which arises primarily under the influence of following factors:

1) lexical meaning and stylistic coloring of nouns in the composition of nominative chains: "But I despise! To make the matters worse... First, it is dangerous. Vintage? Dishrags. Common second-hand. You do not know who she was…"17 (See the meaning of the word "Dishrags": "Colloq. Worn, shabby clothes, shoes");18

15 M. V. Yershov, “The Terracotta old woman”: between the image of the city and the museum exhibit”, in Culture of urban space: power, business and civil society in preserving and multiplying cultural traditions of Russia: materials of the All-Russian Scientific and Methodological Conference, Omsk, The Nauka Publishing House, 2013, pp. 291-295. 16 N. D. Arutyunova, Types of language values: Estimation, Moscow, Science PH, 1988. 17 E. S. Chizhova, Terracotta old woman, p. 3. 18 S. A. Kuznetsov (ed.), Great Dictionary of the Russian language, Saint Petersburg, Norint PH, 2000.


487

2) meaning of adjectives and participles arranged with the nominatives: "Rare passers-by moved short runs, clinging to the walls of houses. The dead city with dark eyeless facades... ".19

We will characterize the most frequent thematic groups of nominative chains (groups that include more than 10 examples), taking into account manifestation of the evaluation component: clothing (30 examples), food (17 examples), premises (15 examples), a person’s appearance (14 examples), literature (14 examples), historical events (12 examples). These thematic groups characterize physical and intellectual spheres of human life as well as person’s appearance.

1. Thematic group "clothes". Most of nominative chains receive estimative connotations in the novel. On one hand, it’s fashionable, new clothes, from good material (a), on the other hand, clothes are old or simple and do not fit properly (b). Let’s compare:

a) "I had bought from speculators. a French dress, an Italian blouse – I was fascinated by these words".20 It’s about Tatiana Andreyevna in her youth time, when she strove to dress fashionably;

b) "Slippers. Thick stockings. At the ankle, they crumpled pleated ... A seamstress, sitting at a nearby table, takes out a plastic jar".21 We are talking about a worker of a furniture factory.

It is remarkable that elegant, stylish clothes more likely belong to negative characters. For example: "He entered the waiting room and stopped at the door: black wool suit, silk shirt in color".22 This is Namir, a man invited to provide a racket of the furniture business to "cover" it. "A fair blouse. A skirt made of natural fabric. Her clothes were bought in the most expensive store...".23 This is the mother of Ivan, a boy whose tutor is Tatiana Andreyevna. Despite the skill to dress and refined manners, she does not make the author well disposed, because she "forgot" her son, did not establish a trusting relationship with him.

On the contrary, simple or old clothes are clothes of either Tatyana Andreyevna herself in present, or of characters who are close to her in some way. For example: "The aunt (a blue suit, a white blouse-jabot tattered in laundrings) leads the figure around".24 This is the chairman of commission, who examines documents of the furniture factory. With her

19 E. S. Chizhova, Terracotta old woman, p. 84. 20 Ibidem, p. 21. 21 Ibidem, p. 104. 22 Ibidem, p. 96. 23 Ibidem, p. 159. 24 Ibidem, p. 70.


488

Tatiana Andreyevna manages to find a common ground ("With this aunt we grew up in one country").25

Thus, functioning of the nominative chains of the thematic group "clothing" reflects not only social stratification, but also author’s attitude to that outwardly attractive modern world, into which Tatiana Andreyevna never managed to fit.

2. Thematic group "food". Most of nominatives of this group also have estimative connotations, with mostly positive evaluation. For example: «– Awesome salad! Classics of the genre, - my ex eats and praises highly";26 "Excellent grocery. Coffee, muffins, vegetable oil, - she opens the kitchen cabinet".27 We note that a lexically expressed positive evaluation appears in the first case ("awesome salad") in the speech of Tatiana Andreevna’s ex-husband, who subsequently addresses those present at the celebration with empty pretentious words, and in the second example ("excellent grocery") it is a humanitarian aid that is sold illegally. In examples given above and in some other ones, nominative chains of the considered group appear in contexts reflecting critical attitude of the author to those who can (and could) settle their life well. See also: "We, overseers of our own exhibitions, approached the selection rigorously: sprats of Baltic production, red caviar with a green label, imported liver paste. Far Eastern crabs. In extreme cases, cod liver. All the usual that jays received in orders. Once a week"28 (we are talking about catering service of the Soviet era).

3. Thematic group "premises". Nominative chains with estimative connotations also predominate in this group: both positive (5 examples) and negative ones (7 examples). A positive evaluation is presented, in particular, in examples describing houses and apartments where pupils live, with whom Tatiana Andreyevna practices. For example: "High oak doors. Flowers on marble candlesticks. There is a turngate in main entrance. Just in case the female tutor carries a passport with her"29 (the house where Maxim lives); "She stood, looking round skulkingly. Patterned wallpaper. Landscapes in gilded framework. Dark bronze lamp: female figure. There are three dome bell-like lights in hands. Such ones I saw only in antique shops"30 (Ivan’s flat). The place where Tatiana Andreyevna will work looks quite

25 Ibidem. 26 Ibidem, p. 451. 27 Ibidem, p. 44. 28 Ibidem, p. 145. 29 Ibidem, p. 52. 30 Ibidem, p. 127.


489

different: "A narrow wooden staircase, the walls full of notes from the ceiling to the floor. The smell of urine and fried cabbage: I walk, trying not to breathe".31

The world of comfort in which children of rich parents live, contrasts with working conditions of Tatiana Andreyevna and her colleagues, which is reflected in estimative values of nominative chains.

4. Thematic group "appearance of a person". Nominations of this group differ from those of other thematic groups in the fact that the majority of names comprising this group (9 out of 14) do not have distinctly positive or negative connotations. Nominative chains are used here in the context of an explicit or implicit comparison.

Thus, two boys are compared: guests who came for the birthday of Tatiana Andreyevna’s daughter, Alexandra:

"Perhaps, I like this boy: strict suit, sharply outlined cheekbones. Expression of restrained perseverance. I remembered his name at once: Rodion.

The second one’s name was either Vitali or Valerii. Blond hair, cheeks blush girlish way. Light plastic gestures. To my mind, too plastic ones".32

A comparison in favor of greater naturalness can also be traced in description of two girls, also guests of Alexandra: "I like her face/Strict lineament, minimal makeup. In a smart dress she feels uneasy-moves her shoulder, as if straightening a strap".33 The second girl, who came to visit, Foxy, surely does not cause sympathy of the narrator: "Foxy is attached to the load to her knight".34

Another line of comparison of nominative chains is observed in contexts associated with the work of Tatiana Andreyevna as a manager and a tutor: the passage of time, past and present.

For example, Olga Vladimirovna, mother of Ivan, a boy with whom Tatyana Andreevna practices, in a photograph with her mother: "Her mother finished eight-year school: wide hips, short strong legs. In the third generation, everything grew lengthened and narrowed. Elegant calves, chiseled ankles: a common granddaughter, who managed to turn into a fawn...35

When meeting with Elena, a colleague in the furniture factory, Tatiana Andreyevna’s view is also turned into the past: "I remember her former smile: simple-minded, like a song near the fire, Soft cheekbones,

31 Ibidem, p. 36. 32 Ibidem, p. 145. 33 Ibidem, p. 146. 34 Ibidem. 35 Ibidem, p. 161.


490

delicate contour of the chin… Something has changed in her face. As if it has been run over by a graver".36

The context, in which the narrator represents how the children playing in the children’s room will look like in the afternoon of their life, is interesting: "These children will certainly remember in the afternoon of their life. I’m trying to imagine their future: here they become old men and old women, sat down in deep armchairs. Gray hair, wrinkled hands... In their memory remains the beautiful (italics of the author-V. K.) childhood colored with all the colors of the rainbow: playing balls is a delightful game".37 This is a look from the future onto the present, which will become the past, and this, a beautiful past, in contrast to the future that draws a chain of nominatives ("Gray hair, wrinkled hands ..."). Life flows and changes people, but memories of what passes away are painted in warm colors.

5. Thematic group "literature". Nominatives included in this thematic group (14 examples of nominative chains) are natural in the novel, since the main character, Tatiana Andreyevna, is a philologist by education (as well as the author of the novel). Tatiana Andreyevna turns to literature in her memoirs and reflections, in conversations with her daughter and ex-husband. Nominative chains are represented by names of Russian writers and poets (A. Pushkin, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, M. Bulgakov, M. Tsvetaeva, I. Brodsky), including Soviet poets (P. Kogan, M. Svetlov, I. Selvinskiy), foreign writers (D. Austin, L. Feuchtwanger, S. Zweig, H. Hesse, T. Mann), as well as Greek playwrights (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides). The chains of the considered thematic group denote the cultural context with which the author correlates the described reality, and also is a means of describing characters. Let us comment on following examples of nominative chains in this connection.

1) Russia through the eyes of foreigners: "He spoke German rather poorly, but he spoke about Russian poetry with genuine enthusiasm: Pushkin, Tsvetaeva, Brodsky-the clerk lists difficult names";38 "Tolstoy, Dostoevsky-the West has got used to these names".39 In this context, Russian classical literature is characterized as a "promoted brand."

2) Interest in reading in childhood as a character description (Tatiana Andreyevna): "First-Feuchtwanger and Stefan Zweig. Ugly Duchess Margarita Moultash. Twenty-four hours from life of a woman... I took

36 Ibidem, p. 115. 37 Ibidem, p. 37. 38 Ibidem, p. 4. 39 Ibidem.


491

these books in the library. I read them skulkingly from parents. In the night, under my blanket using a torch. My parents did not know about anything. Then, in student years, Hermann Hesse and Thomas Mann".40 E. S. Chizhova recalled her personal experience of familiarizing herself with foreign literature: "Shakespeare-yes. And in the original. He was my first strongest literary experience. But then translated literature came into my life. First of all, German one: Hermann Hesse, Thomas Mann".41 It is obvious that Tatiana Andreyevna’s memoirs about her childhood are based on facts of biography of the author of the novel.

3) World literature in the associative row, which emerges in the mind of the character when describing the surrounding dull reality:

"...Parnassus is a dull industrial area [the italics of the author.-V. K.], built in the Soviet times.

I came there in autumn for the first time. The 6th Lower Driveway was indicated on the paper I have checked. The poetic name corresponded to nothing [author’s italics.-V. K.]. Kastal key, Apollo, insanity of the Bacchaes... Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides are ancient Greeks who have entered the golden fund of world culture. Hesiod with his worldwide flood".42

The phraseology "to ascend to Parnassus" means "to become a poet, to speak in verse" ("According to beliefs of ancient Greeks, Parnassus is the mountain on which the Muses, patronesses of arts and sciences lived").43 In the novel, the contrast between the name of the industrial zone, where Tatiana Andreyevna comes to meet with the director of the factory, and the poetic name of the mountain, is shown. Note that these associations arise with a retrospective look at the past, when Tatiana Andreyevna has already left the business; when she went to Parnassus, there were no such thoughts: "I have been thinking of nothing of a kind. [author’s italics.-V. K.] I was just staring around".44

4) A quote from a literary work in the context of reflections on contradictions of the modern era:

"I pull the balcony door. The city’s magnificent, the city is poor, the sight is captive, attractive view...

40 Ibidem, p. 20. 41 E. Pogorelaya, "The ability to start with a sound...”, in Issues of literature, 3, (2011). 42 E. S. Chizhova, Terracotta old woman, p. 10. 43 A. K. Birikh, V. M. Mokienko, L. I. Stepanova, Russian phraseology. Historical and etymological dictionary, Moscow, АСТ: Astrel, 2005. 44 E. S. Chizhova, Terracotta old woman, p. 10.


492

I look with bated breath: high bell tower, behind it-the St. Nicholas Cathedral. The walls of the cathedral are covered with gray sags. On the opposite is the old Gostiny Dvor.

The breathtaking beauty of death. I only read about this: a city that died after the revolution. It seems that it was from someone from the Serapions. Petersburg was subject to dying. The dark, pagan city: a dying and resurrecting deity. We too live in the epoch of death [the italics of the author.-V. K.].45

Nominative chain is taken from the poem by A. S. Pushkin "The city is magnificent, the city is poor...", where the chain consists of more components: The city’s magnificent, the city is poor, the sight is captive, attractive view; just cold and granite, the sky is pale-it’s all what’s left to have for you...".46 But if Petersburg is represented as a city of contrasts in the poem, then this association is related to the attitude to history and contradictions of the modern era in the novel.

5) Intertext as a means of creating a subtext important for understanding the relationship between the characters:

"She tells with enthusiasm. It seems that I managed to get used to terms. If this goes on, very soon she will dream of regiments of 12-arshine logs. Marching into the forest warehouse.

-What about forest? Did you try to trade? As of: beam, roundwood, batten, grate, slab... - I quote my favorite story with pleasure.

-Mum!-she looks reproachfully.-I am not Sweetheart. Stop that. In any case, at least I have read it".47 In the novel we mean the story by A. P. Chekhov, "Sweetheart", in

which the situation is presented when the main character, Sweetheart, is imbued with thoughts and feelings of her chosen ones without having her own opinion. Here is a fragment of the story by A. P. Chekhov: "It seemed to her that she had been trading wood for a long time, that the most important and necessary thing in her life was wood, and something dear and touching was heard in her words: beam, roundwood, batten, planking, amonia, grate, half timber, slab... At night, when she slept, she dreamed of whole mountains of planks and batten, long, endless lines of carts transporting wood far beyond the city; she dreamt like a whole regiment of twelve-arshine, five-peak logs, steadily marched to a forest warehouse...".48

45 Ididem, p. 36. 46 A. S. Pushkin, Works in 3 volumes, volume 1, Moscow, Fiction Literature, 1985. 47 E. S. Chizhova, Terracotta old woman, p. 129. 48 A. P. Chekhov, The Selected. In 2 vols, volume 2: The Serious, Moscow, PROZAIK, 2010.


493

Exchange of remarks in the novel by E. S. Chizhova is an intellectual and emotional contact possible due to the fact that background knowledge from the field of literature is common to participants of the act of communication: mother and daughter. Tatiana Andreyevna sneers at the influence that, as it seems to her, Vitya has on her daughter. Alexandra catches irony-subtext (the subtext is the "hidden meaning of the utterance, not directly expressed, but the internal content of the speech stemming from the situation, individual details, replicas, dialogues of the heroes"),49 which is more important than the literal meaning of the quote. However, the reader must be the same prepared recipient, otherwise the depth of meaning-intertext and subtext-will be inaccessible, which means that an important feature of the artistic image will miss the reader.

6. Thematic group "historical events". Nominative chains representing this group appear in Tatiana Andreyevna’s reasoning and in her dialogs with her husband, a historian by education. Most of the examples (8 of 12) reflect the recent history of Russia, more precisely, the period from the 1920s to 1991. If the events indicated by the nominatives presented in the novel are arranged in chronological order, a sequence of historical facts important for the history of the country is built, namely:

1) collectivization (1928-1937 gg.) and industrialization (1929-1941 gg.): "Their broad pants appeared during the times of industrialization. Collectivization, yackization";50 "After the revolution, village girls came in swarms. So what?"-What do you mean "what"?-I get amazed.-Successes of industrialization. Cast iron per capita...";51

2) corn campaign (1950s-1960s) and economic reform of 1965: "There was much in his memories. All this nonsense under bald crop duster. Kosygin’s reform: that was the case, too".52

3) the period of stagnation (from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s): "And what does the people have to do with this?" -"What should this possibly mean?-his outrage was sincere.-What about jokes? What about contempt for ideology? One can say, everyone blew the same trumpet".53

49 S. P. Belokurova, Dictionary of literary terms, Saint Petersburg, Parity, 2007. 50 E. S. Chizhova, Terracotta old woman, p. 30. 51 Ibidem, p. 48. 52 Ibidem, p. 87. 53 Ibidem, p. 46.


494

4) perestroika (second half of the 1980s): "Perestroika, glasnost... Today they announce it, tomorrow they will cancel it, moreover, they will mark especially zealous people and put them down, they will";54

5) monetary reform in the USSR in 1991 (January-April 1991): "The minister, a well-fed bird, screeched through both channels: stabilization of financial system, regulating of cash flows";55

6) August putsch, August 18-21, 1991: "We talked with Yana every hour. It seemed to us, this is not happening. Tanks on the outskirts of the city. Live broadcast".56

Nominative chains of the thematic group under consideration receive various estimative values, which are created primarily by the context. In particular, in one of the examples mentioned above ("Perestroika, Glasnost... Today they announce it, tomorrow they will cancel it..."), the context of improperly direct speech reveals the significance of psychological assessment: the distrust of the director of the tannery to changes in the political life of the country. The significance of a negative evaluation in a number of cases is expressed by the very nominatives (colloquial "nonsense", occasional "yackization") and distributors ("nonsense under bald crop duster" ("Bald crop duster" is one of nicknames of Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev, leader of the Communist Party (1953-1964) and the Soviet government (1958-1964). According to G. G. Slyshkin,57 "names of leaders are characterized by precedence and estimated load, have the ability to diversify and associative transfer (metaphorical and metonymic)". Khrushchev’s nickname resented in the novel by E. S. Chizhova is based on the appearance (bald) and on reforms he is carrying out in agriculture (corn duster), the attempt to introduce corn in the agriculture of the USSR (the so-called corn campaign)).

Note that an adequate perception of both text and subtext requires background knowledge that allows the reader to "dive" into events described. So, the minister who spoke about stabilization of financial system and regulation of cash flows ("The minister, a well-fed bird, screeched through both channels...") is obviously the USSR Prime Minister V.S. Pavlov; on his initiative, a monetary reform was carried out

54 Ibidem, p. 87. 55 Ibidem, p. 26. 56 Ibidem. 57 G. G. Slyshkin, “Microgroup nicknames of N. S. Khrushchev and features of naming in the environment of the highest political elite”, in Volgograd State Pedagogical University Herald, 4 (68), (2012), pp. 115-118.


495

in early 1991, which caused discontent among the population.58 Let’s also pay attention to the fact that the nominatives included into the thematic group "historical events" denote events that have not been unequivocally evaluated in society or call actions of power structures that were negatively evaluated (corn campaign, August putsch).

Discussion

The considered nominative chains help convey the author’s

perception of facts of recent history and assessment of the situation of intellectuals in the transitional period of the nineties of the twentieth century, which were reflected in the novel The Terracotta old woman.

Appeal to history in general and to Soviet history in particular, is not accidental in the novel The Terracotta old woman. E. S. Chizhova complains that the Soviet past is uninteresting for majority of the population, people do not have the feeling that the story continues, as if everything has started only in the 1990s.59 However, one must know history in order to avoid mistakes of the past. This opinion was expressed by the author in an interview: "It seems to me that in general I am deeply immersed into the twentieth century, in its tragic history. I have already said that the calendar twentieth century is over, but in a certain sense it still lasts, since the Soviet civilization has not disappeared anywhere. Yes, we changed the economic system, but got stuck in the Soviet past in the civilizational sense. Again and again we step on the same rake, and it seems that there is no end in sight".60 The author’s attitude to history explains not only the selection of nominatives, but also estimated values that arise in context with nominative chains. E. S. Chizhova presents events of history not as an uninvolved spectator, but as their participant: "...to write a novel, I need personal impressions and memories of time, about this or that era. I must feel that all this is happening to me".61 The subjective perception of historical events mentioned in the novel determines the estimative values of nominatives and emotions of characters reflected in the context.

The appraisal of sociocultural changes that occurred as catastrophic ones, given in an interview with E. S. Chizhova caused not

58 Yu. S. Osipov (ed.), The Great Russian Encyclopedia: 35 vols. V. 25, Moscow, The Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2014. 59 B. Ellen, “A Writer Invites Russia to Engage Its Painful Past”, in The New York Times, 2010. 60 E. Chizhova, “Author Interview”, in Beauty and Lace, 2012. 61 Ibidem.


496

only the estimated marking of nominative chains, but also a backward look,62 reflection in nominative chains of various time plans.

The intellectual of old education finds it difficult to find a place in realities of the 1990s, and patterns of use of nominative chains revealed by observations reflect the author’s opinion "about impossibly difficult survival of an old-school person in a new society"63 (for example, see groups "clothes", "premises").

Observations over nominative chains in the novel The Terracotta old woman allow us to draw following conclusions:

1. The most frequent thematic groups of chains characterize physical and intellectual spheres of life of a person as well as his appearance.

2. Nominative chains that characterize the physical sphere of a person’s life function mainly in context with stylistically marked vocabulary and in contexts where nominatives acquire estimative connotations. Peculiarities of functioning of nominative chains of corresponding thematic groups reflect the author’s critical attitude to those who managed to settle in the changed world well and sympathy for the protagonist-the Petersburg intellectual.

3. Nominative chains that characterize the intellectual sphere of human life, denote the historical and cultural context with which the author contrasts the described reality. Adequate perception of both text and subtext requires background knowledge that allows a reader to become a witness of the described as well as evaluate the meaning of the intertext.

4. Nominative chains characterizing the appearance of a person are observed in the contexts of an explicit or implicit comparison. Different characters as well as appearance of one character in different periods of life are compared. Changes in appearance turn out to be connected with passage of time and even with change of epochs.

5. Nominative chains in the novel The Terracotta old woman by E. S. Chizhova is a syntactic means of expressiveness of literary text helping to convey the author’s view on the position of an intellectual in the post-Soviet society.

62 I. Matejunaite, “Woman, state and motherhood in Elena Chizhova’s novels (based on novels "Time of Women" and “The Terracotta old woman”)”, in ILCEA. Revue de l’Institut des langues et cultures d’Europe, Amérique, Afrique, Asie et Australie, 2017. 63 V. Pustovaya, “Rocket and boots. How to abolish post-history”, in October, 3, (2012).


497

,,THE ROBBER BROTHERS” AND RAZIN FOLKLORE IN THE WORKS OF A. S. PUSHKIN

Tamusa H. Akhmadova, Inna B. Bachalova,

Petimat Kh. Khunarikova, Maryam Kh. Sadulaeva Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation

Abstract: The purpose of the article is to analyze the study of the first interest of A. S. Pushkin to the image of the national hero Stepan Razin. The idea that Alexander Sergeevich at the end of his life translated songs about Stepan Razin as one of the best examples of Russian folk art is substantiated. The idea is traced that Nikolay Raevsky played a decisive role in Pushkin’s appeal to Razin folklore. The authors conclude that the poem by A. S. Pushkin's “The Robber Brothers” served as a kind of stimulus in the revolutionary mood of the Decembrists.

Keywords: A. S. Pushkin, Caucasus, Don Cossacks, folk legends, Razin folklore, Stepan Razin, songs, ,,The Robber Brothers”.

The theme of peasant uprisings in the works of A. S. Pushkin is

the basis for solving a number of fundamental issues of his social problems, but despite this outstanding importance, it is still not well understood. Researchers studied mainly the works of A. S. Pushkin about Pugachev.

Another leader of the peasant movement on the Don in the 17th century, Stepan Razin, who attracted Pushkin, is still aloof from the central issues and large themes of Pushkin studies.

We turn to the moment of the first interest of the poet to the image of Stepan Razin.

The Prisoner of the Caucasus, The Fountain of Bakhchisaray, The Flying Ridge of Clouds Is Thinning, Alas, why does she shine,

Summer journey of A. S. Pushkin in 1820 with the Raevsky family in the south of Russia turned out to be extremely fruitful for his poetry. “The Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “The Fountain of Bakhchisaray”, “Eugene Onegin” and a number of such lyrical works as “The Demon”, “The Flying Ridge of Clouds Is Thinning”, “Alas, why does she shine” were written under the impression of this unforgettable trip together with the wonderful Russian the family of one of the heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812. “Crimea is the cradle of my Onegin”, said A. S. Pushkin, pointing to the connection of the central heroes of his favorite creation with the images of the young Rayevsky. No less creative impact on the poet had a “military Don” with spring flood, wide steppes, Cossack villages and folk legends. These extraordinary impressions of Alexander Sergeyevich from nature, history and folklore of Podonschina


498

turned out to be no less fruitful primary source of his greatest creative ideas than the Caucasus and the “sweet Tavrida”.

The route of General Raevsky covered the Don Region at several points. After passing through Rostov, the travelers stopped for the night in the village of the Don Cossacks Aksai, the next day they dined with Ataman Denisov in New Cherkassk, and in the morning went to Old Cherkassy, which is rich in historical memories.

Don villages and towns were full of legends about the struggle of the Cossacks against tsarism, which often grew into real peasant wars and glorified the names of Razin, Pugachev, Bolotnikov, Bulavin. Some of these names were extremely fascinating to Pushkin, when he listened to the center of the Don Cossacks traditions and songs about the exploits of free Don.

A number of events of the famous Cossack uprising occurred in the old “Cherkassy town” and its district. The main area of activity of Razin was Don. He spent all his youth on the Don, the popular movement led by him was born on the Don, and he was captured and turned over to the royal authorities on the Don. In the Don region, there were age-old songs about this fearless defender of the oppressed people: “It happened with us, brothers, on the Quiet Don,/On the Quiet Don, in Cherkassy city./A good fellow named Stenka Razin Timofeevich was born”.1

Pushkin especially appreciated this song and translated it into French at the end of his life, as one of the best examples of Russian folk art. In addition to this song, in the area of the Don Cossacks, stories about the son of Stepan Razin, his execution, and the girl on the thieves' vessel were known.2

This whole cycle of folk tales attracted Nikolay Raevsky, an intelligent, gifted, well-educated young officer of the Decembrist, great-grandson of Lomonosov to his mother, who planned to collect memories of Razin scattered among the people, hoping to write a story of his rebellion. Raevsky passionately loved poetry. He immediately sensed on the Don the richest ore of oral creativity and, perhaps, he was one of the first to indicate A. S. Pushkin on this topic.

Heroic songs about the ancient peasant war were being promoted by an epic figure of the leader of the disadvantaged, despising death and leading the brute to a merciless battle with the royal warlords.

Razin's famous overseas campaigns lent the legendary grandeur of his name. Sunny Persia, with its oriental brilliance, unexpectedly

1 Yu. G. Kruglov, Russian folk poetry, Leningrad, Prosveshchenie, 1981, p. 297. 2 A. N. Lozanova, Folk songs about Stepan Razin, Saratov, 1828, p. 25.


499

announced its coloring to this lengthy song about the insurgent poor of the Moscow State. The great social tragedy of the 17th century was lit up with reflections of fabulous legends about the brave campaign of the Cossacks on the Khvalynskoye sea and about the unprecedented tribute collected by the Shamakhan fabrics, gems, gold and beautiful Persian women. The appearance of the ataman, a sage, a fearless fighter for the disenfranchised “mob”, conquering terrible torture, blockade and death, rose above all the tumultuous events of this spontaneous war. That is why Stepanushka, quartered on Red Square, according to legends and beliefs, escaped from his tormentors, hiding from them in the peasant world, and he only occasionally appears to his believers-he rides at midnight on the Volga's highland bank or swims in a pattern under silk sails. He came in the form of Pugachev to transfer landlords to the land of serfs, and he would come again to rescue the enslaved slaves.

Such was the powerful image, which rose in all its heroic growth from popular legends about the terrible offensive of the masses on boyar Russia. Vladimir, a saint with his fabulous vites, did not express the true power and tragic essence of national history; these powerless leaders of deprived villages and villages climbing their age-old oppressors expressed this power. It is noteworthy that the people in their song poetry put Razin above Ilya Muromets: “Ship sails-/Steppe Razin is Ataman on it/Ilya Muromets is Esaul”.

Don songs struck A. S. Pushkin. He wanted to show the image of a nationwide hero, who seemed to have acquired his greatest historical prototype. The author wrote that Razin is “the only poetic face of Russian history”. In the summer of 1820, thoughts of Stepan Razin and Pugachev appeared in the mind of the poet, which began to penetrate more and more deeply into his work.

The theme of daring Cossack raids soon enlivened with the poet’s new impressions. In early August, the Raevskys set off on their way back from the Caucasus to the Crimea. They chose the direction from Pyatigorsk along the Kuban River with the lands of the Black Sea Cossacks on the Taman Peninsula. They passed through the Kuban serfs - Ladoga, Ust - Labinskaya, Ekaterinodar, guard villages, where Pushkin never stopped admiring the Cossacks. He wrote to his brother that someday “he would read to him his remarks on the Black Sea and Don Cossacks”.3 A. S. Pushkin did not dare to entrust the letter with his thoughts about the Cossack “liberty”, the features of which are still

3 A. S. Pushkin, Full composition of writings, volume 13, Academy of Sciences of the USSR Publ., 1937, p. 18.


500

preserved in the border villages. However, it is quite obvious from his later notes that the Cossacks captivate him as a phenomenon of protest and freedom in the realm of slavery and oppression, and that the bogatyr - Cossack for him is the poetic idea of the freedom.4

“The robber brothers” were the first attempts to realize the plan of the poem about Stepan Razin. The surviving passage depicts, however, ordinary robbers, although with some poetization of their case: “Peers, funny nights, and our violent raids”.5 Story about a split trip on a snowy night is also fascinating, but this is only part of a large poem on a different topic - about Cossack raids of the Razin type and about the love tragedy of the leader of the freemen. The historical accuracy of the plan is flawless: the army of Razin included fugitive convicts, various “walking people”. This, apparently, marked the way for the hero of the poem: he could dispel his longing in the great campaigns of the Cossacks and, perhaps, play a role in the love drama of prisoners of prisoners. In any case, in the further section of the plan, the place and nature of the action change dramatically. There are no longer forest murderers who kill single travelers, but fighting Cossacks-the есаsul and his chieftain, as the ranks and representatives of the Cossack troops. To develop this new environment, A. S. Pushkin appeals to folklore and historical legends about Razin. No matter how seductive for him the figure of the famous chieftain, he does not expect the opportunity to publish in the existing conditions of the Russian press a poem about this sworn enemy of tsarism, written by the exiled poet. He finds a way out in the generalization of the forbidden image, in that typification of the historical personality, which frees it from the need to preserve the true name of the hero.

Based on Razin’s biography, on legends and songs about him, Pushkin obviously assumes to freely state and process this factual data in a new genre of a romantic poem. The historical Stepan Razin will appear in the person of an anonymous chieftain, apparently acting in a different era, but preserving the basic traits of his character (after all, the heroes of the Caucasian Prisoner were anonymous). If the person turns out to be hidden, the most interesting phenomenon of Russian life and the immense character of the nameless folk hero will remain.

The plan of the poem is constructed in full accordance with the history and song legends, but without historical names. Short concise

4 N. V. Shelgunov, Romanticism Russian, 1873, p. 27. 5 A. S. Pushkin, Complete works in one volume, Moscow, Alfa-Kniga Publ., 2010, p. 520.


501

designations of A. S. Pushkin leaves no doubt about his source and hero’s prototype.

In the poetic style of The Band of Brothers, there are traces of folk-song techniques inherent in Razin folklore, such as negative comparisons: “A flock of crows did not fly/On piles of smoldering bones./Beyond the Volga, at night, around the lights/The detachment of the gang gathered”.6

“Brothers robbers” not by chance begin with an ominous picture of the gathering of the crows on steel rotting remains. This introductory parallelism is also characteristic geographically or topographically, i.e. as a designation of the scene of the poem “beyond the Volga”. This is one of the main theaters of the Razin movement. “Mother Volga” throughout its length, from its source to the Caspian Sea, was considered a great way for people to walk and became famous in the history of robberies as the main arena and a true haven of desperate and brave people: “I was nursed, I was nursed by Mother Volga,/I went to the robbery from this side”.

The Razin songwriters also celebrate the endless Volga steppes, which are wide open for the companions of unrestrained freemen: “Far away did you stretch the steppe,/From Saratov steppe to Tsaritsyn/Nobody go in the steppe,/Only the robbers went here”.

Echoes of riotous songs of the Cossack cycle are heard throughout the Pushkin poem. Ancient collectors and researchers of this folklore testify that the highest poetic dignity and warm sympathy are full of failures after the struggle, deadly wounds and shoots7. As is known, the action of the Robber Brothers is built on this: “So what? Well done;/Not long brothers feasted,/Caught us/And the blacksmiths chained us to each other,/And the guards took to the prison”.8

The central dramatic episode, unfolded in a broad dynamic picture, is the escape of the shackled brothers from the prison guard.

A. S. Pushkin remarkably caught and expressed in his poem that feeling of fraternity, camaraderie, inseparable friendship of Cossack and robber, which was celebrated in folk songs as the highest force of “walking people”. The title of the poem indicates not only the degree of kinship of the characters, but also their indissoluble link in the struggle, in danger, in death. In historical terms, Stepan Razin’s brother Frol, his closest associates-Serejka Krivoy, Vaska Us and others, were glorified for their unwavering loyalty to the ataman.

6 A. S. Pushkin, Complete works in one volume, p. 516. 7 N. Aristov, On the historical significance of Russian predatory songs, Voronezh, 1875, p. 153. 8 A. S. Pushkin, Complete works in one volume, pp. 517-518.


502

One of the main themes of the cycle - the rapprochement of Razin with the poor - was developed in the version about two brothers (the so-called “Astrakhan”). According to V.F. Miller, about the two brothers of Razin - Stepan and Frol, who actually performed together, there was an option about two Boyarchenkov brothers:9 “In the glorious city of Cherkasy,/Two darling brothers/Lived there, lived”.

These were the brothers of Razin; they did not go to the military office, but collected the poor for raids.10 All this goes out in a song beyond the borders of consanguinity and sings an inseparable Cossack partnership, connection and friendship across the grave. In the poem by A. S. Pushkin, the younger brother - robber, exhausted in imprisonment, calls his elder as “comrade and friend”. Somewhat later, this motif was also sounded in Koltsov’s poems, especially in his “Senka Razin” (renamed “The Song of the Robber”), where there is a characteristic verse: “Together with the brothers, for the prey/He flew like a falcon to the ends of the world”.

The same motif sounds in his “Tosca at will”: “Where are my friends - comrades?/Where are you? Where have you scattered?/Apparently, they forgot the old time,/It used to be at midnight quiet/I shout, whistle to them from the forest”.11

All rich in motifs of razin folklore, the poem of A. S. Pushkin was burned in the Chisinau spring of 1823 (as in the Boldin autumn, the tenth chapter of Eugene Onegin). It is possible that the need to gloss over the image of the leader of the famous peasant war to the extent of his unrecognizability while maintaining the true features of his exceptional personality and unparalleled struggle created the insurmountable difficulties that forced the poet to abandon the further development of his plan.

When the passage “The Brothers of the Thieves” appeared in the press in 1825, the poem amazed everyone, according to V. G. Belinsky, with his bold national flavor: for the first time in literature, a Russian robber with a knife instead of daggers and pistols was made a hero. Judging by the plan, the continuation of the poem would show the Cossack trips in full width, revealing to their full height the powerful personalities of their famous chieftains, that is, would depict the old Russian freemen in all its expanse and power.

The introductory poem - the monologue “The Robber Brothers”, surviving from this huge epic, is marked by a single striving and is

9 A. N. Lozanova, Folk songs about Stepan Razin, p. 58. 10 Ibidem, p. 62. 11 A. V. Koltsov, Full composition of writings, St. Petersburg, 1909, p. 106, 114.


503

expressed in a lively and bold language, close to the adverb of the criminal people depicted in it. A. S. Pushkin, highlighting only his favorite message “To Ovid”, stated that "he did not write anything better". However, the theme of the poem marked a significant stage of poetic growth, introducing new material into Russian literature. Pushkin gives here the first essay on the Russian jail, deploying a deeply human beginning in the sullen nature of the inveterate "criminal". In the poem, one can hear the hatred of lawlessness, humiliation and oppression, along with deep sympathy for the victims of government arbitrariness.

“The Robber Brothers” were highly appreciated among the Decembrists. Nikolay Raevsky, who played a decisive role in Pushkin’s address to Razin folklore and even preserved a passage from the poem that was burned in 1823, highly regarded him for the simplicity of the story and the naturalness of the national language. “You will complete the consolidation in us of this simple and natural speech, which our public has not yet appreciated, despite the excellent images of “Gypsy” and “Robbers”. ,,You will, finally, reduce poetry from her joles”-wrote this cleverest reader to Pushkin on May 10, 1825, as if sketching, in connection with Boris Godunov, the upcoming Russian poetry for a true depiction of life.

A collector of song tales about Razin and partly even a researcher of his movement, Nikolay Raevsky could sensitively and faithfully evaluate those remarkable features of realism, colloquial Russian speech and genuine democratic thought, which his brilliant friend had revealed, turning to the precious materials of peasant unrest. From conversations with Pushkin in the south and, probably, acquaintance with the draft version of the entire poem about the campaign of the Volga ataman, Nikolay Raevsky could particularly deeply and wholeheartedly embrace the idea of the Brothers of Rogues and appreciate this essay as a wonderful chapter of the lost epic about the powerful Volga ataman.

No less characteristic is the keen interest in this work of K.F. Ryleeva and A. P. Bestuzhev, who insisted on its publication in their almanac.

As a modern researcher correctly points out, even freed by Pushkin from elements of a sharp social significance... the printed version of the poem had a great influence on the formation of the ideology of the Decembrists, on strengthening their hatred for “damned slavery”, for “autocracy”. Not without reason, one of the participants of the movement, Steingel, in a letter to Nicholas 1, stated that “The Robber Brothers” breathe freedom, and put Pushkin’s poem on a par with “Confession of Nalivayka” and “Voynarovsky” of K. Ryleev,


504

pointing out that these three works were crucial in the Decembrist political uprising.

All this testifies to the fact that the surviving leaves of the burnt manuscript of the “Robbers” preserved its protesting and liberating aspirations, which could strengthen and temper the rebellious moods of the poet’s most advanced peers. Among the political conspirators of 1825, the passage of the poem published in the Polar Star was not perceived as an extraordinary incident in the current prison chronicles, but as a genuine protest of the freedom-loving poet against oppression and enslaved people, revealing hidden charges of giant rebellion in the depths of Russian life.


505

GENRE SEARCHES IN THE CHECHEN PROSE OF THE 50S-80S

A. M. Khusikhanov, T. K. Akhmadova, M. K. Sadulaeva,

M. P. Asukhanova, E. H. Dalieva Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation Ingush State University, Magas, Russian Federation

Abstract: The article considers the period of development of Chechen literature after

the return of Chechens from Stalin’s deportation to Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The 50s and 80s are characterized as the years of the revival and further development of various genres of Chechen literature. In this regard, the authors of the article pay attention to the creativity not only of the initiators of Chechen literature, but also to the achievements of their followers and successors, such as S. Baduev, S. Arsanov, A. Mamakaev, N. Muzaev, M. Mamakaev, H. Oshayev, R. Akhmatova, A. Aydamirov, S. Okuev, M. Beksultanov, K. Ibrahimov and others. The article discusses the genres of poetry, drama, tales, story and novels. The interrelation of Chechen literature with the literatures of the peoples of the North Caucasus is indicated.

Keywords: Chechen literature, classics, deportation, drama, genre, Kazakhstan, novel, poetry, revolution, story, tale.

Chechen literature in the second half of the 50s is distinguished by

thematic and genre diversity. In the formation of the literature of this period, an important role was played by the new moral atmosphere in society after the return of the Chechens and Ingush from the Stalinist deportation. The end of the 1950s is a time of fundamental changes in the inner world and in the civic position of people.1 This was reflected primarily in poetry. Its standard-bearers were poets of the older generation: M. Mamakaev, N. Muzaev, B. Saidov, A. Mamakaev, A. Suleymanov, M. Sulaev, H. Edilov, and others. Some of them were the founders of Chechen poetry in the 20s. The topic ,,Personality and Society” occupied a special role in their work, interrupted by war and expulsion to Siberia and Central Aziai in 1944. The years spent far from the homeland exacerbated the sound of this topic. The poetry of those years is filled with thoughts about the fate of the people; it gave depth and sincerity to new verses. At the same time, there are not only national, but also universal problems in poetry of the 50s.2

A characteristic feature of the works of poets of the 60-80s was a lyrical and philosophical understanding of the life of the people. The lyrical hero of

1 Kh. V. Turkaev, The problem of the moral choice of the lyrical hero in Chechen poetry of the second half of the 50s-early 60s. Poetry and timeliness. Questions of creative individuality of the poets of the Chechen-Ingush Republic and the mutual enrichment of artistic cultures, Grozny, 1989, p. 22. 2 A. M. Khusikhanov, Ideological and philosophical quest in poetry N. Muzaeva. Poetry and timeliness. Questions of creative individuality of the poets of the Chechen-Ingush Republic and the mutual enrichment of artistic cultures, Grozny, 1989, p. 109.


506

their works is guided in life by three values. The first is his homeland where the fathers lived; the second topic is the Caucasus. Finally, the third is the Soviet Union, Russia.

The theme of the story was continued in prose of the 50s - 80s. The novels of H. Oshayev ,,Fiery Years”, M. Mamakayev ,,Murid Revolution” and ,,Zelimkhan”, A. Aydamirov ,,Name of Freedom” and ,,Long Nights”, Sh. Okuev ,,Red Flowers on Snow” and ,,Prologue” appeared. In these works, the authors associated significant events in the history of Chechnya with the fate of the heroes. The synthesis of documentary, journalism and artistic fiction became the background on which it was told about the fate of a person at a specific historical moment. The heroes of the novels, Russians and Chechens, are fighting together for a bright future.

In the second half of the 80s and the beginning of the 90s, writers focused on topical issues of modern times that required artistic understanding. The genres of the novel and the romance became popular in literature, including: ,,Rise” by A. Aydamirov, ,,At dawn, when the stars are extinguished” by M. Akhmadov, ,,Smell of rotten foliage” by I. Elsanov, and ,,Melodies of the Motherland” by S.-H. Nunuev. Each author in his own way decides the theme of the formation of the moral position of the hero in the modern world. Chechen writers considered the problem of man, his historical roots, inheritance of the moral and ethical traditions and ethics of the people.3

The end of the 50s - the beginning of the 80s of the 20th century is a new stage in the development of Chechen literature. Young authors, whose work later had a strong influence on the spiritual atmosphere of the modern Chechen society, appeared at that time along with the older generation of writers S.-B. Arsanov, M. Mamakayev, H. Oshayev.

S.-B. Arsanov in the novel ,,When Friendship is Cognized” describes life in Chechnya at the crossroads of epochs, relationships within Chechen society, its relations with the tsarist administration, and the fate of individuals. The writer shows the great events of the revolutionary time through the life of his main character, through his experiences and reflections. Times change, society changes and the main character comes to the idea of the need for an active, constructive position in life, the need to protect his own human and national dignity.

In this novel, Arsanov appears as a mature writer, a master of words, who creates vivid pictures of the life of Chechens, the spiritual and socio-political atmosphere of turbulent events at the turn of the century.

A notable event in the cultural life of Chechen society was Khalid Oshayev’s novel Fiery Years. Due to the fact that the author was an eyewitness and participant in the revolutionary events, he met N. Gikalo, A. Sheripov and other revolutionaries, knew the background of many events in the Caucasus, he manages to create a realistic, almost documentary, picture of the fiery years of

3 A. M. Khusikhanov, Genre originality of Okuev's dilogy ,,Red flowers in the snow”, Grozny, 1986, p. 109.


507

revolution. A novel by another Chechen literature classic by Magomet Mamakayev

,,Murid Revolution” is dedicated to the same era. The writer tells about the bright and tragic fate of Aslanbek Sheripov, the commander of the Chechen Red Army, the leader of the revolutionary movement in Chechnya. Aslanbek, an educated and courageous man, saw in the revolution the only opportunity for his people to become free and build a new life, get rid of royal oppression, poverty, outdated traditions and obscurantism. He firmly believed in the ideals of the revolution and gave his life for it.

The next novel, Zelimkhan (1968), is also devoted to a historical figure - the famous abrek (brigand) Zelimkhan Kharachoevsky, a man who, during his lifetime, became a legend, who terrified royal officials and gendarmes of the North Caucasus for many years.

Zelimkhan of Mamakayev also has all the qualities of a hero, but at the same time, he remains an ordinary person who dreams of a quiet and peaceful life. The writer shows how Zelimkhan, because of the arbitrariness and stupidity of the tsarist officials, is forced to choose the path of the abrek (brigand) and to protect himself and all the dispossessed. However, his every victory turns into brutal repression against his relatives, friends, ordinary people who helped and sympathized with him. Faced with a huge and ruthless state machine, Zelimkhan understands the doom of his struggle, but he has no way back.

The novel touches upon such problems of oppression of Chechens by tsarist officials. In Zelimkhan’s face, the writer shows us the Abrek as a people's avenger and a fighter against social injustice.

,,Zelimkhan” is not just a novel that glorifies the exploits of the main character, Abrek Zelimkhan, but also the personification of the pain and helplessness of the Chechen people in the face of power.

The story takes its origin from the Maiden Spit spring, where the beautiful Zezag, taking water into a copper jug, met Soltamurad, Zelimkhan's brother. Their love will cause a very unexpected turn of events, without which both the patriotism of our heroes and their courage would cover oblivion.

,,Is she to blame if the time has come and the desire to love and be loved by a person worthy of her has awakened in her soul?”.4 However, this love led to the death of innocent people and marked the beginning of feats in the history of the Chechens. In her deep reflections, Zezag attributed the blame for the terrible events to the meeting place with Soltamurad.

4 M. Mamakayev, Zelimkhan. Grozny, Chechen-Ingush book publishing house, 1981, p. 2.


508

,,Maiden Spit” is not the only name of the spring, but it is also called ,,Spit of unhappy girl”. The legend tells about a girl who intended to flee with her beloved from her father's house, but an angry father threw a dagger at them, which was stuck in the back of his daughter. Having scattered a long braid over the stones, she fell on a hillock, over which the silver spring ran the next morning, resembling the poor maiden's scythe. So the people called him "Spit of unhappy girl."

The happy lovers were not destined to stay together, because not only Soltamurad but also the son of the foreman of the Vedeno district fell in love with the daughter of Khushulla. Having enlisted the consent of the police officer Chernov, they took her away from Soltamurad, accusing him of forcibly abducting the girl, and placed her in the house of Kharachoevsky elder Adoda. There was no one to rescue her from this captivity, even the old father only muttered that this was the will of Allah. Zezag could not reconcile with his bitter fate, but she could only obey the desires above it. ,,Her parents brought her up like this-obedient to the ancient customs of the mountains, accustomed to conceal their desires and thoughts, accustomed to obeying the will of the strong”.5 This story marked the beginning of the struggle of the main character with the power and his victory over them. His life and death were proof of the inexorable fervor of the true sons of his people, who, even after his death, will continue this struggle in the name of the Motherland and of their nation.

Before the outbreak of events, Zelimkhan was a family man and did not even think about the fate of the abrek. When he set out to marry Sotamurad’s younger brother, this attempt led to a sudden conflict: the relatives of Zezag gave her away for another. There was a clash between young people, during which a relative of Zelimkhan was killed. In response, a person from a hostile family was punished. Later they concluded a truce, but the authorities began to make inquiries. The head of the precinct, who received a bribe for a false accusation, pointed to Zelimkhan, his father and two brothers. Thus, a legal justification was found for the arrest of Zelimkhan and his relatives.

,,Soltamurad was not killed or imprisoned, but left lonely in the wild, so people would laugh at him... Yes, so they would laugh at him. Is it possible to come up with a more severe punishment for a man?”.6 This book reveals the customs and traditions of the Chechen people. The above quotation is evidence of the extraordinary manners of this extraordinary people. Not educated, living in poverty, they have not lost their true values and are ready to fight for

5 Ibidem. 6 Ibidem, p. 3.


509

them at the cost of their own lives. Words of honor and dignity are not empty sounds for them, it is the air with which they live-if they are deprived of it, then life will lose its meaning. Zelimkhan, finding like-minded people interested in escaping from prison, can escape from there. This is the beginning of his hectic life, full of hardships, wanderings and struggles.

,,Zelimkhan did not become an Abrek from an easy life. The tsarist regime’s breakdown of national traditions, vital principles, injustice overwhelmed patience”-they write in the newspaper after the death of the abrek.

,,The law of the ancestors can ensure order and restore justice”.7 Subjecting to this rule, he administered the trial of the oppressors and gave the poor what was rightfully theirs. He was a problem for the authorities, from which it was necessary to get rid of, but the people called him ,,the defender of the disadvantaged”. He was a hero and protector of the people, a symbol of the struggle for justice and freedom.

,,All people are divided into two parts: some are rich and strong, others are weak and poor. The rich and powerful rob and offend the weak and the poor. I don’t rob, just take the loot from the rich and return this wealth to its owners-the poor”.8 Zelimkhan says so to his mother. The conviction of the correctness of his decisions and the whole nation that rebelled with him supported his spirit in this difficult struggle. He lost his father, brothers, friends, but did not put weapons, and fought even harder. Abreks had massive support among the mountaineers and reflected popular discontent with colonial oppression. The people looked at the Abreks as their defenders and defended them, sheltering from the royal authorities. The opposition of the Abreks to the authorities was widely reflected in the folklore of the Chechens and other peoples of the Caucasus. Without this support, Zelimkhan could not fight. There was this battle of the whole nation.

The proverb says that "one man in the field is no warrior." However, the abrek showed that one in the field can not only be a warrior, but also a winner. After the revolution, the Bolsheviks declared him a national hero of the Caucasus, wrote in books and magazines that Zelimkhan was not just an abrek, but an abrek revolutionary. The Ossetian writer Dzaho Gatuyev, to whom Magomet Mamakayev devotes his work ,,Zelimkhan” as a teacher and mentor, published the biographical book about Zelimkhan.

The article by A. Makeyev ,,The Hero Killed” appeared in the newspaper ,,Responses of the Caucasus” dated October 8, 1913 after the death of Zelimkhan. The author wrote: ,,I cannot believe that Zelimkhan was killed. We see a hero in him. He refused to go to the ministers of the Persian Shah, saying: "I do not want to

7 Ibidem, p. 106. 8 Ibidem, p. 113.


510

fight against some people." He loved freedom, was brave, noble. He went to his wife and children when he was killed. Those who caught him are black people. They will remain unknown. No tales will be told about them, no songs will be sung. A poem will be composed about Zelimkhan, maybe an opera. Pushkin and Lermontov admired such highlanders. I don’t want to believe in Zelimkhan’s death!”. A film about Zelimkhan was shot, poems are composed, a book was written, and the other ,,black people” have sunk into oblivion of the darkness of time. ,,I have erected a sign of immortality for myself”-these words of the Russian poet and physicist Lomonosov can also be attributed to Abrek Zelimkhan. Zelimkhan fought for the truth and died for it, like a true man and a highlander. After his death, the Chechens lost their support and their powerful force, but the struggle will continue, as this people is a holder of a free spirit who will not submit to anyone. ,,They can disfigure my body, break my bones and even kill me. Then they will have only my corpse, but not my submission”,9 said Zelimkhan during his lifetime and did not retreat from his words.

Three love live in the hearts of the mountaineers until their last heartbeat: to the fatherland, their people, Freedom! Mamakayev does not consider his struggle vain and useless. Zelimkhan showed that one must fight for one’s human dignity and freedom. He gave hope to ordinary people for the possibility of justice in this world, that even evil, no matter how omnipotent, can be punished. Abrek inspired such fear to the enemies that they were afraid of him even the dead.

Along with the image of Zelimkhan, the writer creates realistic and lively, psychologically authentic characters of his companions, relatives, royal officials, details of the life of the Chechens, the atmosphere of the life of the society of the beginning of the XX century.

Roman Abuzar Aidamirov ,,Long Nights” is dedicated to historical events of the second half of the XIX century in Chechnya. This work had a strong influence on the spiritual and moral state of Chechen society. The point is not in the artistic merit of the novel, but in the philosophy of Chechen history, in the new assessment of the role of famous historical figures in the fate of Chechnya, first of all Imam Shamil. A. Aydamirov shows Shamil as an intelligent, educated person, a subtle politician, and a good commander. However, the interests of the Chechen people are completely alien to him. The Imam uses the love of freedom, courage, and militancy of the Chechens to achieve their goals - the creation of a hereditary theocratic monarchy. Nevertheless, being sure that these same qualities of Chechens can prevent him from establishing unlimited personal power in the Imamate, he destroys their traditional culture, free spirit and independence, ethnic identity, self-esteem under the pretext of strengthening Islam.

According to A. Aydamirov, spiritual death, the loss of national dignity, ethnic identity is much worse than the burned houses and arable land, cut down forests for the people in their consequences. The novel ,,Long Nights” was a

9 Ibidem, p. 114.


511

warning to modern generations of Chechens, but, unfortunately, no one heard him.10

Roman "The Republic of the Four Rulers" of Shima Okuev is a wide epic canvas, with a large geographic coverage and event and time layers. The writer appears in it as the established master of the word, a great connoisseur of the native language, oral folk art. The novel came out after the writer's death, but became a real literary event for the Chechen society.

In the 1950s – 1980s, along with prose, Chechen dramaturgy also developed, especially the comedy genre. New names appear in it (Abdul Khamidov, Bilal Saidov, Lecha Yakhyayev, Ruslan Khakishev, Said-Khamzat Nunuev).

A. Khamidov’s play ,,The Fall of God Ali” became popular. It was a comedy with a rich, aphoristic language. Although its characters were caricatured, they were alive, recognizable, as if snatched from real life. The realism, domestic and psychological authenticity of the characters that made this comedy legendary. Many quotes from the play have become sayings.

If Chechen prose is dominated by interest in the past, in history, in historical events and personalities, then Chechen poetry of this period (late 50s - early 80s) is characterized by a special attention to the inner life of a person, to his feelings, philosophical understanding of life, lyricism. This is a feature of the poetic creativity of not only young authors (Magomed Sulaev, Khasmagomed Edilov, Bilal Saidov, Musbek Kibiev, Sheikhi Arsanukaev), but also poets of the older generation (Magomet Mamakayev, Nurdin Muzaev).

In the 1980s, a new generation of Chechen writers and poets appeared, whose work determines the level and condition of Chechen literature today. They are Musa Akhmadov, Musa Beksultanov, Said-Khamzat Nunuev, Apti Bisultanov, Umar Yarichev, Kant Ibragimov, German Sadulayev.

Modern Chechen literature today is represented by a huge number of genres and writers, some of which have already become classics (Musa Akhmadov, Musa Beksultanov, Umar Yarichev), others have received the recognition of critics and readers (Kant Ibragimov, German Sadulayev).

10 Kh. V. Turkaev, In the family of fraternal literatures, Grozniy, 1983, p. 101.


512


513

SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION IN THE CONTEXT OF TEMPORAL REFERENCES

Vitaly V. Popov, Oksana A. Muzika, Vladimir V. Podberezny,

Aleksander M. Chervony, Margarita V. Krevcun, Oksana A. Holina

Rostov State Economic University (RINH), Taganrog, Russian Federation

Abstract: Methodological approaches to modern transforming society are considered;

it is shown that modern society should be viewed in a dynamic aspect as a society of social transformations; the problem of the need for a correct and adequate display of significant issues of social development within the philosophy of science and social philosophy in the system of the semantic apparatus; demonstrated the existence of different levels of application of the conceptual and semantic apparatus when considering social transformations at the level of complex social systems; revealed that it is advisable to conduct a discourse that social synergetics allows modeling moments relating to the creative, active, practical activity of the most knowledgeable social subject when studying social transformations within the framework of a transitive society; features of the development of social transformations in nonlinear development of society; the situation has been investigated whereby a social subject, using some tool, will determine and choose a specific variant of the corresponding system of development, functioning, modernization, transformation of society; it is postulated that the social subject constructs a number of images of social transformations that reflect perception not only of a complex of real events but also mainly focus on the idea of how social processes will develop in the future; it is shown that in such situations, the priority role is indicated not only by those factors that stem from the essence of different versions of social being, that is, in this case, and those factors that each researcher connects with objective factors and which assume the trajectory of historical and social processes on the time scale, directed from some present time to the future.

Keywords: Methodology, Social transformations, Transitional states, Social subject, Periods of transition, Alternative, Evaluation, Time, Instability, Temporal referents.

Topicality. The study of the role of temporality and transitivity in

socio-historical development has a long philosophical tradition: ideas by Aristotle,1 G. V. F. Hegel2 etc. The socio-philosophical specificity of the consideration of the concept of transitivity has basically indicated the direction of formation of an adequate conceptual apparatus for the study of social transformations. However, intensive studies of transitional periods and periods of transition in the context of self-organizing

1 Aristotle, Works: in 4 vols, volume 1, Moscow, Thought, 1978-1983. 2 G. V. F. Hegel, Philosophy of history. Composition in 14 vols, volume 8, Moscow, Publishing house of socio-economic literature, 1929-1958.


514

systems have not led to systemic generalizations of both content and conceptual nature at present. Limitations of theoretical and methodological tools of system analysis have determined the local character of representation of a transitive society in the sphere of studying social dynamics. In post-neo-classical science, the problems of a transitional or transitive society are being actively discussed.3

The application of the temporality factor to the study of social transformations is effective as it expands the subject sphere of science, contributes to a holistic comprehension of modern global social transformations as well as to identification of the role of the social subject in similar processes in correlation with priority areas of society stabilization. The modern stage of development of the society is marked by the fact that there is a great variety of methodological approaches that are actively used in the context of various research programs. Of course, it’s not just about finding theoretical grounds, methodological approaches to examining, for example, the internal structure of development of a modern transforming society, but such problems as the ontology of social and philosophical knowledge, become priority in any case. And in connection thereof, of course, we cannot fail to note the problem of modeling, which is now taking into account the development of new approaches and methods to a transforming society, has received considerable activity in a number of sources. It should be noted that considerable attention is being paid to the analysis of issues related to the fact that modern society should be viewed in a dynamic aspect as a society of social transformations, furthermore it is really subject to certain changes, transformations and upgrades.4

The purpose of the article is to reflect the specifics of social transformations in the context of temporal referents.

Methods Were used general philosophical methods and principles of

research, i.e. historicism, consistency, systematicity, comprehensiveness,

3 G. G. Gadamer, Truth and method: Fundamentals of philosophical hermeneutics, Moscow, Progress, 1988; T. I. Zaslavskaya, Modern Russian society: the social mechanism transformation, Moscow, The Case, 2004; C. Booth, Strategic Procurement: Organizing Suppliers and Supply Chains for Competitive Advantage, London, Kogan Page, 2014. 4 G. V. F. Hegel, Philosophy of history, volume 8; A. S. Akhiezer, ,,Philosophical foundations of social cultural theory and Methodology”, in Issues of Philosophy, 9, 2000, 12-19; I. V. Bestuzhev-Lada, ,,Retroalternativistics in the philosophy of history”, in Questions of philosophy, 8, 1997, pp. 14-23.


515

unity of concrete and abstract, logical and historical in social cognition as well as such social and philosophical methods as analogy, modeling, comparative-historical and historical-retrospective ones.

Results

-The subject is presented as an initiative one, an active subject, not

only initiating social development alternatives in social transformations, but directly paying attention to the search character itself with respect to those alternatives that can be scheduled in transition periods. This gives the opportunity to address problems relating to modeling of social transformations and precisely such constructions of historical and social processes that are typical for a modern developing society.

-It is appropriate to conduct a discourse that the social subject is concerned with the completeness of certain alternatives in the framework of social development, and this completeness gives the opportunity to reason that a particular alternative is correctly chosen within the framework of social transformation. It is initially correct, rationally and analytically built.

-Modeling social transformations is primarily connected to adoption of initially defined prerequisites, which finds implementation within the framework of specific local solutions. Such decisions involve construction of models that correlate not simply with certain results of the social entity’s activity, but are aimed at the expected utility in the context of activity of the social subject itself with respect to the complex of social events within social transformation.

-Inspecting social transformations, crisis periods, crises of unclarity, uncertainty and instability in transition periods of the development of the society, the researcher must take into account the fact that various problems and questions arise as to how a social subject studies such a social process.

Discussion

In the literature there are many approaches to social

transformations, starting from sociocultural and sociological approaches entering the sphere of political and legal transitology. The designation of such directions in the study of social transformations is quite useful, but sometimes the philosophical part of the problematics was directly secondary. At the same time, the main emphasis in such local discussions was shifted to interdisciplinary problems and priority could be given to


516

both political and sociological aspects. Therefore, the study of characteristics and features of social transformations has sometimes taken a fragmentary character. Within the framework of intensive dynamics of the society development, it has become significant and relevant not only for a holistic consideration of social transformations, but also for its representation from the n-level position connected with studying the development mechanism, internal structure, the specifics of formation and functioning. Concepts of preference, temporality, general validity, reliability, etc. became actively used in the integrated consideration of social transformations.5

In the modern socio-philosophical literature, the study of social transformation implies the use of such terms and concepts as: evaluation, time, structure, without denying the individual psychological parameters of a social subject studying the existing approaches to social transformation. These problems were drew upon by such renowned Russian scientists as: I. V. Bestuzhev-Lada (1997), E. M. Sergeichik (2002), V. S. Stepin (2000), who were widely developing a concept of post-nonclassical theory and post-nonclassical rationality, emphasizing the active position of the subject in alternatives of the transforming society. Therefore, the theory of alternative trends becomes relevant in relation to the periods of transit, in situations where at the different levels really existing versions of social existence are studied. In this regard, it is important to note the conceptual-semantic side of the "possible worlds" theory, associated with highest priority with the name of J. Hintikka (1980). In Russian science this concept has a lot of followers, for example-Yu. M. Lotman (1996).6

To various aspects of correspondence between the social transformations and the contents and structure of social processes their work dedicated A. S. Akhiezer (2000), Yu. M. Lotman (1996), A. Yu. Melvil (2002),7 M. N. Rutkevich (2004), etc. Methodological aspects are reflected in the research of T.I. Zaslavskaya (2004), A. S. Akhiezer (2000) and others.

In the modern socio-philosophical literature there is the discourse on the understanding of the correlation of social transformation with the

5 G. G. Gadamer, Truth and method: Fundamentals of philosophical hermeneutics. 6 Yu. M. Lotman, Inside the thinking worlds, Moscow, Languages of Russian Culture, 1996. 7 A. Yu. Melville, ,,The methodology of the "funnel of causality" as intermediate synthesis of "structure and agent" in the analysis of democratic transits”, in Polis, 5, 2002, pp. 54-59.


517

structure of social processes and the temporality factor.8 This is quite serious, interesting problem though, in this case, the original real-world research goal, aimed at a reflection of historical and social processes in the context of the alternativeness of the social and historical development, transformed into another context, namely that, to a greater extent aimed at identifying the source attitudes and goals of the subject. In this case, the discourse will focus on those situations, when the social subject by using any of the tools will identify and select the specific version of the corresponding system of society development, operation, modernization and transformation. Moreover, in this case, it naturally will deal with some dynamical system.9

In this dynamic system it is necessary not only to build up the chain of subordinate and coordination relationships between concepts and categories, but also to introduce them properly to the study from the point of view of sequence, importance and specific issues resolution. This situation is very significant point through the alternative paths introduction and the determination of the trends and possibilities of the socio-historical process as a whole, that directly will affect the formation of the peculiar spectrum of relevant social events in the segment of future time.10

It should be noted that the very activity of the subject often involves such research purposes, when a priority position is get by the integrated approach to the conceptual system with which the social subject is going to work. As for active search activities, then, as usual, a rational activity, it, in this case, can be not a major but complementary, although, of course, do not forget about the fact that we have a classic example of the dialectical relationships between different human activities.11

8 Ibidem; see, also: M. N. Rutkevich, ,,Transformation of the social structure of the Russian society”, in Socis, 12, 2004, pp. 41-45; E. M. Sergeichik, Philosophy of history, St. Petersburg, Lan, 2002. 9 V. S. Stepin, Theoretical knowledge, Moscow, Progress-Tradition, 2000; J. Hintikka, Logico-epistemological studies. Moscow, Progress, 1980; V. V. Popov, O. A. Muzika, S. I. Maksimova, ,,Alternativistics in the context of social development”, in Eurasian Law Journal, 4 (107), 2017, pp. 373-375. 10 V. V. Popov, O. A. Muzika, S. A. Kiselev, ,,The concept of transitivity and transformation of society”, in International journal of applied and fundamental research, 1-2, 2017, pp. 365-368; V. V. Popov, O. A. Muzika, V. A. Timofeenko, ,,Social conflict in the context of nonlinear processes”, in International journal of applied and fundamental research, 1-2, 2017, pp. 361-364. 11 G. Simon, ,,Rationality as a process and product of thinking”, in Thesis, 3, 1993, pp. 16-38.


518

Of course, in such cases, the subject appears as the initiative subject, the active subject, not only initiating in social transformations the variants of social development alternatives, but directly drawing attention to the search character itself regarding those alternatives that may be identified in the transitional states. This gives him the opportunity to raise issues relating to the modeling of social transformations and such constructions of historical and social processes that that characterize a modern developing society. Moreover, they will not only function in this society, but they having the dynamic aspect will pass through this society and, consequently, will be implemented in the future segment. Considering the neopositivistic position on this situation, then we can now say that in this case the social subject enjoys such categories: the confidence and the general significance.12

In this case, it is just very useful and effective from the standpoint of determining the range of different events in relation, for example, to one or another segment of more or less distant future. Methodologically important in this situation are the principles of the general significance and of the social transformations significance itself, as a researcher, in fact, goes on quite an interesting and complex problem that is associated with the presence of competition amidst the alternativeness within the ways of social development. In this case, the complexity of the situation largely was that the social subject must make a choice and this choice is very difficult, because it concerns one of several competing alternatives, and as soon as, the choice of local alternatives will actually represent the real position of the knowing subject in relation to the corresponding social transformation.13

Moreover, such processes affect some evaluating factors that usually allow to use them also in terms of interpretation of complex events in social transformation, which a social subject is currently working at and the set of those events with which it will work within the future reality. In this situation the assessment factor is important also from this point of view, that actually allows to return to quite complex and required original problems associated with the primordial understanding of the social transformation, transition periods and

12 V. G. Fedotova, Changing sociality: new forms of modernization and progress, Moscow, IFRAN, 2010; V. V. Popov, ,,Social transformation in the context of social processes”, in Eurasian Law Journal. Philosophical sciences, 9 (100), 2016, pp. 364-367. 13 V. V. Popov, O. A. Muzyka, ,,Transitive concept in the context of the transformation of society. Context and reflection”, in The philosophy of the world and man, 5, 2016, pp. 121-130; N. Slack, A. Brandon-Jones, R. Johnston, Operations Management, New York, Pearson Education, 2016.


519

evaluation of any given processes that allow us not only to say that in these transition periods the certain trends and possibilities were conceived and formed, but also to consider the different versions of existence, which allow social subjects to build particular scenarios of social transformations in the future.14

That picture of the future time or the scenario that a social subject will build through some models and designs, of course, will imply a certain set of tendencies and alternatives that appear to us as historically and socially defined. Thus, again, the priority roles will be given to the methodological features of social transformation and transitive periods, i.e. correspondingly to those various comprehensive schemes for the development of historical social processes which the social subject produces as part of his research. In this case, the discourse will focus on those contiguous situations, when the social subject by using any of the tools will identify and select the specific version of the corresponding system of society development, operation, modernization and transformation.15

We emphasize that such ideas, of course, affect the overall process of social development and suggest that social subject constructs a series of images of social transformations that somehow reflect its perception of not only the complex of these events, but are mainly aimed at the idea of how social processes will develop in the future. Certainly, in such situations, the priority is indicated not only with the factors that arise from the essence of the different versions of social life, i.e. in this case, but also with the factors that each researcher associate with objective factors that suppose the trajectory of historical and social processes on the time scale, directed from certain present time to a future time.

In the present case, notice that such significant, but enough little-researched questions, of course, involve the recognition of the existence of some reasonable actions and reasonable decisions on the interpretation of social transformation. Even if the actual result associated with the need to combine and represent into a single social transformation of various alternatively within the areas of social development is not achieved. First of all, in this situation, one may refer to some practicality of the social subject’s action in representation of development alternativeness from solving research problems

14 V. V. Popov, ,,Methodological features of social contradictions”, in Humanities and Social Sciences in Europe: Achievements and Perspectives, Vienna, 2014, pp. 215-219. 15 Idem, ,,Social rationality and global evolutionism”, in European Applied Sciences, 7, 2013, pp. 71-73.


520

perspectives. This is what happens in the selected interval period of transit.

Idealization will be related to the fact that the researcher himself will be within the period of this transit and, consequently, will manage the transformations that will take place. In scientific literature there is a dispute regarding the fact that in such situations, one should use the structure of the events forming the historical process and already in the framework of this structure to distinguish local substructures.16

In this case, the discourse, in our opinion, deals with not only different levels of complex learning of a dynamic character of social transformations in the context of social development. It also deals with the fact that the diversity of issues concerning the instability of social transformations within social development implies making its way to the main roles exactly in these cases of dynamic concepts and categories. Modern literature gave a pretty good rise to research in this field within the research of so-called situational semantics which has considerable methodological characteristics regarding different semantic rows of dynamic constructs.

Certain basis has been laid concerning the development of research tasks aimed at establishing certain relations between dynamic notions that are significant when deciding on some aspects regarding the description of social transformations of different types. For example, it is impossible not to mention such important problem as the problem connected with the correlation of different temporal structures. The aforementioned scientists have put a considerable amount of effort into the efficiency of such correlation; particularly, one of the main branches of their research is the achievement of the time of transition of interval and momentum structures of time.

Scientific results have allowed the researchers to turn to the mixed two-sorted ontology within the philosophy of time, and the leading role was given to the problem of choice of a temporal construct when conducting a certain research regarding social transformations. This means that social transformation received a rather firm foundation in the developed mixed temporal reference. On the other hand, the certain conceptual semantic confusion that emerged in a number of similar and related studies also became less relevant, since it is necessary to arrange into a system such terms as interval, period, section etc.

16 E. Elizbarashvili, ,,The Attempt to Overcome Time Dynamic Theory in the Concept of Eternal Return”, in European Researcher, 74 (5-1), 2014, pp. 837-841.


521

The discourse also deals with how correctly, adequately and accurately it is possible to establish conceptual apparatus necessary to conduct such research regarding social transformations, periods of transit which in this case are taken as not only some structural elements of the general theory in the processes within historical development; those are periods that possess different tendencies, alternatives which, to some extent, gives an opportunity to talk about them as such period in which different scenarios of future could be formed.

Furthermore, in this case, we should not forget about the fact that a certain role will be played by the conceptual apparatus of social synergetics. Note that a simple look at the option of instability of the periods in the context of social transformation leads to the necessity to conduct a research which happens in it; in this case, we can already talk about a certain number of concrete processes which contradict themselves. At the same time, an important place will be also taken by the search for structures of time which would reflect the processes that the researcher observes not only in the period of transit but also in the visible social space where the researcher works within the general analysis of a historical process.

A rather significant aspect of the general problem is associated with the fact that it is necessary to imagine correctly whether the transit period implied as a period of a transitive crisis state correlate with the time structure that, in this case, will be in priority; for example, in this case, we believe that interval period time structures would be the most efficient ones. Of course, it is possible to assign the research of temporal structures to a different sphere, i.e. the sphere of complementarity of a periodic structure and interval structure of time. It is even possible that a mixed periodic interval structure will attract some interest.

Such structure will reflect existing processes which happen during contradictory and crisis moments in the context of social transformations. The question under examination can also have deeper points; in this case, it is worth saying that when looking at crisis situations within transit periods and involving such researches into the research field of the historical process itself, it is worth pointing out that, in such way, the researcher will also deal with a multitude of social events.17

However, there emerges a certain field of search of correct alternative directions of not only being and moving of tendencies

17 S. Shah, A. Ahmed, N. Ahmad, ,,Role of Packaging in Consumer Buying Behavior”, in International Review of Basic and Applied Sciences, 1 (2), 2013, pp. 35-41.


522

through periods of transit but also, in necessary cases, through the sphere of a continuous present; yet a more serious problem emerges-such alternatives can go through intervals of time in which it is rather difficult to interpret or assess them. From the viewpoint of social synergetics, this will be the states of uncertainty which are formed within the instability of transit periods. Such cases should be treated from the viewpoint that if at any separate interval within the transit period, it was impossible to get an assessment of tendencies at some time interval, the social process itself, having traits of alteration of definite and indefinite transit intervals will virtually correspondently come to such interval when we can get this assessment or interpretation after some time, and not just get but also, based on it, extrapolate our own existing knowledge on the scenarios of future that the social subject assumes within the general research.18

It is, of course, impossible, to deny that sometimes the social subject can easily ignore this case, and this most often happens within the rational analytical approach to looking at alternativeness going on in the social transformation. That is why it is worthwhile suggesting that in such cases, leading roles are given to different narratives, including motivational narratives. Their main role is to make a positive influence on the behavior of the social subjects themselves from the viewpoint of the rationality they adhere to in respect to the assessment of a complex of social. The discourse will transition to the topic associated with a more detailed study of events that correlate with the social processes that the social subject can expose to some rational interpretation.

So let us note that when the subject rather consciously presents a certain vector of development of a complex of events, this gives the subject a possibility not only to determine the formation of a new reality, the future social medium, but also, from the viewpoint of a certain social situation, to study available periods of time correlated with historical and social processes; which will be a certain rationalistic reflection of the social subject’s vision of the process of the reconstruction of social transformations itself though.

The subject accepting local rational decisions accomplishes a parallel reconstruction of historical development periods in such a way that the subject correlates them with the periods that possibly take place in the social medium where the social subject acts as a researcher. Of course, in this case, the social subject will unlikely settle upon the role of

18 C. Erven, ,,Experimental three-photon quantum nonlocality under strict locality conditions”, in Nature Photonics, 8, 2014, pp. 292-296.


523

a half-passive observer of such processes and it is natural that the foreground of such reconstruction will be given to not only understanding of the social transformation but also making certain changes from the viewpoint of what a human subjectivity can bring to it.

It is especially important to emphasize that, at the same time, we are witnessing a significant reinterpretation of the whole complex of opinions and decisions which the social subject has determined in relation to their contemporary state of modern society, since in this case, an appeal to social transformations takes place; and they, in turn, are directly connected with fundamental characteristics of transit periods and crisis situations caused by an unstable development. In other words, we are looking at sociosynergetic ideas concerning the change of the worldview paradigm itself which appears when the researcher finds discovers certain problems regarding the construct of instability-better said-the philosophy of instability itself.

Main conclusions -retrospective historical approach to interpretation of social

transformations has been analyzed; -conceptual semantic aspects of social transformations have been

introduced; -characteristic differences of an alternative development of social

transformations have been studied taking into account temporal referent; -social transformations in a non-linear development have been

introduced. It is necessary to apply analytical approach only in relation to

available local chronologies taking place in the context of social transformation establishment. First place belongs to a comprehensive analysis of transit periods which take place within a sequence of historical facts or social events, which eventually leads to complex research of a local transit period within social transformations. At the same time, a leading spot is again given to not only different levels of social being that exists within this period but, mainly, we are talking about those interpretations and assessments of this levels since, in this case, a philosophical worldview intertwines with a synergetic one.

Acknowledgments: The research has been conducted with

financial support of Russian Foundation for Humanities as part of the research and development project: Transformation of Strategies for Social Reality Dynamics Research, No. 16-33-00003.


524


525

THE STUDY OF THE MARKET OF MUTUAL INVESTMENT FUNDS IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Alexander S. Kokin, Seyfullakh A. Ramasanov, Marina V. Ogorodova, Larisa V. Lavrenteva, Zhanna V. Smirnova,

Anna I. Orlova Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, Nizhni

Novgorod, Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University n. a. R. E. Alekseev

(NNSTU), Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, Nizhny

Novgorod, Russian Federation Medical University of Nizhny Novgorod branch of Engineering

and Economic University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation

Abstract: In the work, studies were carried out on the efficiency of the work of mutual open and interval investment funds (PIFs) using the methods proposed by domestic and foreign authors. Based on these methods, performance indicators of the most popular mutual funds for investors, such as Sberbank Consumer Sector, Uralsib-First, Uralsib-Perspective Investments, High Technologies, and Alfa Capital Technologies, have been calculated. Based on the results of calculations, conclusions were drawn about the most attractive mutual funds for investing in these mutual funds by investors.

Keywords: mutual funds, mutual fund performance indicators, mutual fund performance, financial market, net asset value.

The financial market offers a wide range of possibilities for investing, but not every investor has a fundamental knowledge of how the financial market is structured and is functioning. For example, investing in equity securities requires specific knowledge, investor experience and large initial investments. At the moment, parallel to independent investment funds, there are also collective ones.

One example is mutual investment funds. In the international practice mutual investment funds are the most popular ones among investors. With their help Western countries solve some of their problems, such as financial security of enterprises, management of pension savings portfolios, etc. In Russia these processes develop more slowly. It can be said that mutual funds do not inspire a sufficient level of trust. Of course, the determining factor is the fact that people are unwilling to take risks. After all, in the light of the recent events and the current crisis, investments in Russian issuers are truly risky investments. Instead of taking risks the Russians prefer more reliable investments, where the level of profit is not very high.


526

The relevance of the work is that even with the earlier described problems the collective form of investing in Russia has the highest level of development. In many respects, it is due to the significant dependence of enterprises on the borrowed sources of financing, on the one hand, and reduction of the costs of investors for the management of their funds, on the other.


The Federal Law “On Investment Funds” No. 156-FZ of November 29.11.20011 defines a mutual investment fund as the property complex which is in property of joint-stock company or in common ownership of physical persons and legal entities, use and the order which are performed by managing company only for the benefit of shareholders of this joint-stock company or founders of trust management.2

The purpose of this work is to study the efficiency of the mutual investment funds operating in Russia.

In assessing the effectiveness of mutual funds domestic and foreign sources of information were used.3

1 The Federal Law, "On Investment Funds" №156-FZ (edition of July 3, 2016). Article 10. Concept of the investment fund, 2001. www.consultant.ru, accessed on 13.03.2018. 2 The Order of the RSFSR of the Russian Federation №06-125/pz-n , "On the minimum value of property that makes up a unit investment fund, upon the achievement of which a unit investment fund is formed, 2006. www.consultant.ru, accessed on 14.03.2018. 3 R. Brayley, Principles of Corporate Finance, Moscow, Olimp-Business, 2009; A. N. Burenin, Management of a portfolio of securities, Moscow, Scientific and Technical Society named after academician S. I. Vavilov, 2016; A. A. Vershinina, A. V. Trofimovskaya, M. V. Fomin, Investment fund on the stock market of Russia: Monograph, Moscow, MESI, 2015; B. Graham, D. Zweig, Reasonable investor, Moscow, Williams, 2009; M. Capitan, D. Baranovsky, Share Funds: A Modern Approach to Money Management, St.-Peterburg, Peter, 2016; J. K. van Horn, J. M. Vahovich, Jr., Fundamentals of Financial Management. Moscow, OOO "I.D. Williams, 2007; N. I. Yashina, E. V. Poyushcheva, M. V. Ogorodova, L. V. Lavrenteva, E. A. Semakhin, O. I. Kuryleva, “Theory and practice of human capital assesment in the context of innovative economy development”, in Man in India, 97 (9), (2017), pp. 43-52; N. I. Yashina, E. V. Poyushcheva, M. V. Ogorodova, Z. V. Smirnova, S. N. Kuznetsova, Z. V. Chaykina, “Methods of estimation of bank system development in Volga federal district”, in Academy of Accounting and Financial Studies Journal, 21 (3), (2017), www.abacademies.org, accessed on 13.03.2018; S. N. Yashin, N. I. Yashina, M. V. Ogorodova, Z. V. Smirnova, S. N. Kuznetsova, I. N. Paradeeva, “On the methodology for integrated assessment of insurance companies' financial status”, in Man in India, 97 (9), (2017), pp. 37-42.

http://www.consultant.ru/

http://www.consultant.ru/

http://www.abacademies.org/


527

The criteria for assessing profitability are, first of all, the actual earnings, which characterize the effectiveness of the asset in the past up to the present moment of time as well as other indicators, which are given below.

The calculation of the actual earnings is based on the statistical data of formula 1:

r = , where (1)

r – profitability; P1 – estimated share value of investment fund at the end of the

reviewed period; P0 - estimated share value of investment fund at the beginning of

the reviewed period. The second criterion of assessment is the expected profitability. In

practice, in most cases, in calculating the expected profitability a simple average method is used. In this case, the formula for calculating the expected profitability will be the following:

= , where (2)

rti – the actual profitability of the i-th asset at time t; n – the number of values of the actual profitability. The conversion of the expected monthly profitability into the

annual equivalent is carried out according to the following formula:

= × 12 (3)

Then the variance is calculated – this is the average value of the

square of deviations of the actual values of profitability of investments into the investment fund (ri) of the average value of profitability of

investments into the shares of investment fund ( ).

The variance is calculated with formula 4:

= , where (4)

rti – indicator of the return on investments into mutual funds for the i-th time interval;

ri – indicator of the average return on investment into mutual fund over the period of time (t);

n- the number of the i-th intervals in the period of time t.


528

Variance as a measure of risk was introduced into the theory of portfolio of securities by the founder of the modern portfolio theory G. Markovits. A certain disadvantage of this measure of risk is that it equally takes into account the deviations in the profitability of the asset from its average profitability both in the direction of its increase and reduction. At the same time, the investor, who invested his funds in the share, is concerned about the reduction of its profitability. In fact, for him the growth of profitability is not a risk as such. Therefore, later G. Markovitz proposed as a measure of risk the indicator of poly-variance. Selective poly-variance is determined with formula 5:

Poly-variance = (5)

The standard deviation is calculated. The standard deviation is

defined as a square root of the variance (formula 6):

σ = (6)

The conversion of the standard deviation into the annual

equivalent is carried out according to formula 7:

= × (7)

The growth of the share is calculated with the following formula 8:

Growth = ×100% (8)

Pc – the cost of investment share of the investment fund at the end of the reviewed period;

P0 – the cost of investment share of the investment fund at the beginning of the reviewed period.

The drawdown of the share is determined with formula 9. The drawdown means the maximum reduction in the value of the share during the reviewed period. It is equal to the maximum loss that could be obtained by buying the shares at their "peak" and paying them off "at the bottom".

Drawdown = ×100% (9)


529

The covariance in the yields of shares of the mutual fund and the base index measures the degree of synchronism of changes in the indicators of the relative change in the estimated value of shares of the investment fund and the base index.

The drawback of covariance as well as variance is that this indicator is not standardized. Its value can range from + ∞ to -∞.

By calculating the covariance for a particular mutual fund one can understand only by the signs "+" or "-" whether the estimated value of the share has changed in one direction or in different directions with relative changes in the base index.

The covariance is determined with formula 10:

cov (r,ind) = , where (10)

ri – indicator of the return on investments in the mutual fund for the i-th time interval;

Ri – indicator of the return on investments in the base index for the i-th time interval;

r – indicator of the average return on investments in the mutual fund over a period of time (t);

R – indicator of the average return on investments in the index for a period of time (t);

n- the number of the i-th intervals in the period of time t. The correlation coefficient is determined with formula 11:

β = , where (11)

covariance (r, R) is the covariance of the return on investments into the shares of the mutual fund (r) and the base index (R); σr is the standard deviation of the mutual fund yield; σR is the standard deviation of the base index yield.

Beta coefficient as a measure of the market (systematic) risk of investing into the shares of mutual funds is determined with formula 12. The coefficient shows the degree of influence of the index portfolio market on the yield of investment funds’ shares.

Beta coefficient varies in the range from + ∞ to -∞. The closer the value of the β-coefficient to "0", the less the yield of the mutual fund depends on the market situation.

The coefficient higher than 1 means that the yield of the mutual fund grows or falls faster than the return on the index portfolio. The coefficient smaller than one means that the yield of mutual funds grows or falls slower than the market.


530

If beta is negative - the profitability of the mutual fund changes in the opposite direction to the profitability of the index portfolio:

β = , where (12)

covariance (r, R) is the covariance of the return on investments

into the shares of the mutual fund (r) and the base index (R); - variance (variation) of profitability of the base index.

The coefficient alpha (α) is calculated with formula 13. Alpha coefficient is a measure of the non-market component of investment fund profitability, that is, the deviation of the actual profitability of the mutual fund from the profitability, which with a given beta coefficient would have been received by the fund under the current dynamics of the stock index.

Alpha coefficient is traditionally regarded as a coefficient characterizing the effectiveness of the active portfolio management strategy of the investment fund. The coefficient shows whether the fund managed to exceed the yield that it could rely on based on the existing level of coefficient β and the index’s profitability.

The positive value of the alpha coefficient indicates a positive contribution of the portfolio manager to the mutual fund’s profitability. If alpha has a negative value, it is a sign of poor efficiency of portfolio management.

α = β× , where (13)

r – indicator of an average return on investments into mutual fund over a period of time (t);

- indicator of an average return on investments in the index for

the period of time (t); β – beta coefficient. The profitability/risk coefficient is calculated with formula 14. This coefficient is a ratio of the difference between the profitability

of the mutual investment fund and profitability of the risk-free asset to the standard deviation of the mutual investment fund’s profitability.

The profitability/risk coefficient = , where (14)

r – indicator of an average annual return on investments in the mutual fund over a period of time (36 months);

σ – standard deviation of the annual profitability of the mutual investment fund.


531

The Sharpe ratio is calculated with formula 15. This coefficient is a ratio of the difference between the profitability of the mutual investment fund and the profitability of the risk-free asset to the standard deviation of profitability of the mutual investment fund.

K Sharpe = , where (15)

r – indicator of an average return on investments into the mutual investment fund for the i-the time interval;

rf – indicator of the average profitability of federal loans for the i-the time interval;

σ – standard deviation in profitability of the mutual investment fund for the period of time t.

The Sortino ratio is calculated with formula 16. Unlike the Sharpe ratio, the Sortino ratio takes into account only negative fluctuations in profitability.

The semi-variance indicator in the denominator ignores positive changes in profitability, which are not supposed to create any risk of losses for the shareholders. The higher this ratio, the more effectively the mutual investment fund is managed in terms of profitability and risk.

The formula for calculating the Sortino ratio is similar to the formula for the Sharpe ratio, except that the denominator uses a semi-variance indicator of negative fluctuations in the monthly profitability of the mutual fund.

K Sortino = , where (16)

r – indicator of the average profitability of investments into the mutual fund for the i-the time interval;

rf – indicator of the average profitability of federal loans for the i-the time interval;

σ (semi-variance) – standard deviation in profitability of the mutual fund calculated taking into account the negative deviations of

profitability ri from . The Traynor coefficient is calculated with formula 17. It is a ratio of the difference between the mutual fund’s

profitability and profitability of the risk-free asset according to the beta coefficient.

K Traynor = , whеre (17)


532

– indicator of the average profitability of investments into the mutual fund for the i-the time interval;

rf – indicator of the average profitability of federal loans (OFZ) for the i-the time interval;

β - beta coefficient. The monotonicity index is determined with formula 18. The values

of the monotonicity index lie in the range from -1 to + 1. This ratio is calculated as a ratio of the difference in the value of the share at the end and at the beginning of the period to the sum of the modules of daily changes in the value of the shares.

Monotonicity = , where (18)

P1 – the value of the share at the end of the reviewed period; P0 - the value of the share at the beginning of the reviewed period.

and - the value of the share for each month during the reviewed period.

The more the share’s value fluctuated over the period, the more unstable the mutual fund’s management was – the closer the indicator was to zero.

The main factors that are used to analyze the efficiency of the mutual fund’s operations and to compare them among themselves are as follows:

1) actual profitability; expected profitability; 2) standard deviation; 3) covariance; correlation; 4) the Sharpe ratio; the Sortino rate; the Traynor rate.


The practical analysis of the indicators of profitability and risk of the analyzed mutual funds: “Sberbank Consumer Sector”, “Uralsib-First”, “Uralsib-Perspective Investments”, “High Technologies”, “Alfa Capital Technologies” was carried out on the basis of the information base of these mutual funds, which is reflected in the relevant sources.4

In performing the practical part of this work mutual funds of the open and interval types were investigated, since the initial data (the value

4 Investment Tools. www.investfunds.ru, accessed on 13.03.2018; Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange. www.moex.com, accessed on 13.03.2018; Official site of the Bank of Russia. www.cbr.ru, accessed on 13.03.2018.

http://www.moex.com/

http://www.cbr.ru/


533

of shares) for the selected study period were available only for these types of mutual funds.

Table 1 presents the rating of the analyzed open and interval mutual investment funds as of 01.11.2016 according to the value of net assets, in which the object of investment is shares.

Table 1: The rating of mutual investment funds

according to the value of net assets

Number Type of fund

Name of the fund Management company

Category The value of net assets, rubles.

1 Open Sberbank Consumer Sector

Sberbank Asset Management

Shares 2767625557,61

2 Open Uralsib-First Uralsib Shares 2656453890,00

3 Interval Uralsib-Perspective Investments

Uralsib Shares 2494018154,00

4 Interval High Technologies Capital Shares 652866414,91

5 Open Alfa Capital Technologies

Alfa Capital Shares 589015916,43

As can be seen from Table 1, the open mutual fund "Sberbank -

Consumer Sector" had the maximum value of net assets as of November 1, 2016. The minimum value of net assets in the amount of 589015916,43 rubles was observed for the open investment fund "Alfa Capital-Technologies".

In the analysis of investments into securities of investment funds the biggest attention is paid to profitability and risks.

The fullest algorithm for calculating investment characteristics is given for “Sberbank Consumer Sector”.

Table 2 shows the values of shares of Sberbank - Consumer Sector (the category - shares) managed by Sberbank Asset Management on the last business day of each month from December 2013 to November 2016.

The following basic assumptions will be used in calculations: the minimum time interval for measuring the actual profitability of a share is 1 month: this indicator is analyzed for a period of 36 months or three years.

Based on the monthly values of the share shown in Table 2 it is possible to calculate its actual monthly profitability by using formula 1.

r January 2014 = (1120,61 – 1213,66)/(1213,66)×100%= - 7,6669 % r February 2014 = (1153,64 – 1120,61)/(1120,61)×100%= 2,9475 %

… r October 2014 = (2219,38 – 2251,89)/(2251,89)×100%= - 1,4437 %


534

Table 2: The value of assets of the mutual fund

“Sberbank - Consumer Sector”

Period Estimated value of the share

December 2013 1213,66

January 2014 1120,61

February 2014 1153,64

March 2014 1055,27

April 2014 1040,61

May 2014 1162,71

June 2014 1180,6

July 2014 1190,23

August 2014 1198,84

September 2014 1252,34

October 2014. 1339,68

November 2014 1405,65

December 2014 1307,1

January 2015 1499,03

February 2015 1566,62

March 2015 1604,62

April 2015 1649,17

May 2015 1611,06

June 2015 1595,97

July 2015 1735,79

August 2015 1802,45


October 2015 1857,86

November 2015 2014,35

December 2015 2094,46

January 2016 2088,72

February 2016 2095,01

March 2016 2057,58

April 2016 2012,63

May 2016 2028,36

June 2016 1998,99

July 2016 2182,17

August 2016 2298,82


535


November 2016 2252,56

r February 2016 =(2252,56 – 2219,38)/(2219,38)×100%= 1,4950 %

The minimum (the maximum negative) value of the actual

profitability was observed in March 2014 and was 8,5269%, which means that the investor received losses in March 2014 as a result of reduction in the value of the share during this month.

The maximum value of the actual profitability was observed in January 2015 and amounted to 14,6837%, that is, by buying a share in December 2014 and selling it in January 2015 the investor received slightly more than 14 cents per ruble of the invested funds.

Based on the actual monthly returns for 36 months it is possible to calculate the monthly expected profitability of the share (as of December 2016) by using the following formula:

That is, for a ruble of the invested funds the investor can get on average about 2 kopecks a month.

The expected annual profitability is calculated with formula 3:

That is, annually for one ruble of the funds invested in the purchase of a share, on average, the investor expects to receive slightly more than 22 kopecks of income.

The variance of profitability of the share of the mutual investment fund “Sberbank - Consumer Sector” is calculated by using formula (4):

The standard deviation of the share’s monthly profitability is calculated with formula 6:

σ = ≈ 5,021%


536

The annual standard deviation according to formula 7 makes:

= 5,021 × =17,395%

The growth of the share was calculated by using formula 8:

Growth = ×100% = 85,60%

The value of actual profitability of the share for 3 years was obtained (with the purchase of a share in December 2013 and its sale in November 2016 the investor received a profit of 85 cents per ruble of funds invested in the acquisition of the share).

To calculate the drawdown of a share it is advisable to construct a schedule of changes in the monthly value of a share.

The schedule of changes in the monthly value of a share of the mutual investment fund "Sberbank - Consumer Sector" from December 2013 to November 2016 is shown in Figure 1.

It can be seen from the schedule that the maximum value of the share is observed in August 2016 - 2298, 82 rubles. The following minimal cost is observed in October 2016 - 2219, 38 rubles.

The drawdown of the share is calculated with formula 9:

Drawdown = ×100% = 3,455 %

Then the maximum amount in percentage that an investor might lose when buying a share at the peak of its value and then selling it at the maximum decline (loss) is 3,455%

The calculated values of the MOEX Russia Index, its profitability and standard deviation are given in Table 3.

The covariance of profitability of the share of the mutual investment fund and the MOEX index is calculated according to formula 10:

cov(r, ind) =

=17,958 %2

Indicator 17,96 is positive indicating that relative changes in the

estimated value of share of the mutual fund “Sibbank-Consumer Sector” and the MOEX base index occurred in one direction rather than in different directions.


537

Figure 1: The schedule of changes in the monthly value of a share

of the mutual investment fund "Sberbank - Consumer Sector" from December 2013 to November 2016

Table 3: The values of the MOEX Russia Index at the end of the

month from December 2013 to November 2016

Date CLOSE The actual monthly yields of the MOEX index

R index

(месс.)

30.12.2013 1504,08 -

31.01.2014 1454,45 -3,300% 1,092%

28.02.2014 1444,71 -0,670%

31.03.2014 1369,29 -5,220%

30.04.2014 1306,01 -4,621%

30.05.2014 1432,03 9,649%

30.06.2014 1476,38 3,097%

31.07.2014 1379,61 -6,555%

29.08.2014 1400,71 1,529%

30.09.2014 1411,07 0,740%

31.10.2014 1488,47 5,485%

28.11.2014 1533,68 3,037%

30.12.2014 1396,61 -8,937%

30.01.2015 1647,69 17,978%

27.02.2015 1758,97 6,754%

31.03.2015 1626,18 -7,549%

30.04.2015 1688,34 3,822%


538

29.05.2015 1609,19 -4,688%

30.06.2015 1654,55 2,819%

31.07.2015 1669 0,873%

31.08.2015 1733,17 3,845%

30.09.2015 1642,97 -5,204%

30.10.2015 1711,53 4,173%

30.11.2015 1771,05 3,478%

30.12.2015 1761,36 -0,547%

29.01.2016 1784,92 1,338%

29.02.2016 1840,17 3,095%

31.03.2016 1871,15 1,684%

29.04.2016 1953,05 4,377%

31.05.2016 1899,01 -2,767%

30.06.2016 1891,09 -0,417%

29.07.2016 1944,62 2,831%

31.08.2016 1971,59 1,387%

30.09.2016 1978 0,325%

31.10.2016 1989,64 0,588%

30.11.2016 2104,91 5,794%

That is, the monthly profitability of mutual funds and the monthly

profitability of the MOEX Index changed in one direction. The correlation of the monthly profitability of the share and the

monthly profitability of the MOEX Index is determined with formula 11:

β = = 0,6999

The correlation coefficient of profitability of the mutual fund

“Sberbank - Consumer Sector” and the MOEX base index is 0,69, which is close to the maximum value of the correlation coefficient 1. This indicates a high level of synchronism in the changes of the two indicators.

Beta coefficient was calculated with formula 12:

β = = 0,6878

If the coefficient is less than one - the profitability of the mutual

fund grows or falls slower than the market (MOEX Index).


539

Alpha coefficient was calculated with formula 13:

α =22,8687 – 0,6878×13,10 = 13,8556%

A positive value of the alpha coefficient indicates a positive

contribution of the portfolio manager to the profitability of the mutual fund.

The profitability/risk coefficient is calculated with formula 14: The profitability/risk coefficient = 22,8687/17,395 = 1,3146 The Sharpe ratio is calculated with formula 15:

К Sharpe = = 0,7601

This ratio shows the size of profitability of the share of the

investment fund "Sberbank - Consumer Sector" to the profitability of a zero-coupon bond with a maturity of up to 1 year per risk unit.

The Sortino ratio is calculated with formula 16:

= × = 16%

K Sortino = = 0,826

The Traynor ratio is calculated with formula 17:

К Traynor = = 19,223%

The monotonicity index is calculated with formula 18:

Monotonicity = = 0,4752

Therefore, for the calculation of profitability and risk indicators

with analytical coefficients of mutual funds we chose a period from December 2013 to November 2016.

The final indicators of efficiency for all open and interval types of mutual funds are presented in Table 4.


540

Table 4: The final indicators of efficiency for all open and interval types of mutual funds Uralsib-First”, “Uralsib-Perspective

Investments”, “High Technologies”, “Alfa Capital Technologies”

Mutual fund Indicator

Sberbank Consumer

Sector

Uralsib-First

Uralsib-Perspective Investments

High Technologies

Alfa Capital Technologies

month 1,91% 0,26% 2,50% 1,07% 1.3677%

year 22,87% 3,14% 30,01% 12,85% 16,41%

Σ 5,02% 4,76% 5,33% 2.934% 5,82%

σ year 17,40% 16,50% 18,45% 10,16% 20,15%

Growth 85,60% 5,34% 126,22% 43,14% 51.983%

Drawdown 3,46% 9,83% 4,04% 0,32% 4,17%

сov (r, ind) 17,958%2 21,743%2 18,615%2 11.962%2 9,643%2

ρ 0,6999 0,89 0,68 0,797 0,324

Β 0,6878 0,8327 0,7129 0,4581 0,369

α 13.8556% -7,77% 20,67% 6,85% 11,57%

Profitability/Risk 1,31 0,1902 1,626 1.264 0,814

К Sharpe 0,7601 -0,3944 1,1035 0,3155 0,3357

К Sortino 0,826 -0,545 1,196 0,419 0,376

К Traynor 19,22% -7,82% 28,56% 7,00% 18,32%

Monotonicity 0,4752 0,0453 0,63 0,54 0,23

Conclusions about the results of the study of the mutual

investment funds: 1) The highest growth for 3 years was demonstrated by the mutual

investment fund "URALSIB Perspective Investments". 2) The biggest dependence of the profitability of a share on the

profitability of the MOEX index is observed in the case of the mutual investment fund “URALSIB First”. However, it should be noted that all the examined mutual funds were changing uni-directionally with the changes of the MOEX index.

3) The closest connection with the MOEX index according to the value of correlation was demonstrated by the mutual investment fund “URALSIB First”.

4) According to the Sharpe ratio, the most attractive is the mutual investment fund "URALSIB Perspective Investments" as in this case profitability to a great extent compensates risks.

5) According to the alpha coefficient, the most attractive is “URALSIB Perspective Investments”, since this fund is characterized by better management. The negative value of this coefficient in the case of “URALSIB First” indicates low management efficiency (the average profitability is lower than profitability of the benchmark portfolio).


541

6) According to the Sortino ratio, the mutual fund "URALSIB Perspective Investments" has the highest value (its portfolio proved to be better in relation to the concomitant risk).

7) According to the profit/risk ratio, the value of the mutual fund "URALSIB Perspective Investments" is optimal.

8) According to the Traynor coefficient, this mutual fund is also preferable.

9) Of all the examined mutual funds an investor should buy a share of the interval mutual fund "URALSIB Perspective Investments". The final indicators of the effectiveness of this fund are optimal for investors. The main indicator of the fund’s efficiency is the profit/risk ratio, which is one of the highest (1,26), Table 4.

However, if the investor believes that the funds that he invested to purchase a share may be needed by him on any day, it is more expedient to choose an open mutual fund "Sberbank-Consumer Sector". This is one of the conditions of the fund’s management.


542


543

Recenzii/Book reviews


544


545

Jeffrey T. Zalar, Reading and Rebellion in Catholic Germany, 1770-1914, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018, 398 p.:

Segmented into 8 chapters and accompanied by a rich bibliographical list which valorises the most important title of the topic (pp. 369-376) and an index (pp. 37-397) that makes it to be prepared according to all the contemporary standards, the book of Jeffrey T. Zalar entitled: Reading and Rebellion in Catholic Germany, 1770-1914, is for sure, a very interesting approach that will be enjoyed by the readers interested in religious history of Germany from the 18th and 19th centuries and the beginning of the 20th one.

Known for his preview publications (like: ,,Knowledge is power: the Borromausverein and Catholic Reading Habits in imperial Germany”, in Catholic Historical Review, year LXXXVI, no. 1, 2000, pp. 20-46; ,,The Process of Confessional Inculturation. Catholic Reading in the Long Nintenth Century”, in Helmut Walser Smith (ed.), Protestants, Catholics and Jews in Germany, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 121-152), Jeffrey T. Zalar who is Associate Professor of History and the inaugural holder of the Ruth J. and Robert A. Conway Endowed Chair in Catholic Studies at the University of Cincinnati and works on the cultural and intellectual history of Roman Catholicism, the history of modern German religion, and the history of modern knowledge, offers this time an interesting approach on the way how religion generated rebellions and conflicts in German space between 1770 and 1914.

His book not only does it present the religious history of the investigated space in the period studied, but also emphasizes the social, cultural and economic evolution of the country, showing in the same time, how it influenced the evolution of religious sphere. For being much clear in his presentation and helping the reader to understand the context of some problems, he uses even some key words, formed by concepts meant to guide the reader and to make him to get closer with the context of the research. One of them, presented inthe introductory part is ,,Sonderweg”. He underlines about it the fact that: ,,In the historiography of modern Germany, the analytical structure in which this Sonderweg reading comes down is the spatial metaphor of the ,,Catholic confessional milieu”. In accord with social scientific imperatives to cut and sort, and reinforced by postmodern assumptions about the communal locations of meaning and identity, the milieu idea


546

frames the interpretive environment. Its empirical facts assemble in a master narrative of historical development. This narrative argues that in response to the challenges presented by German modernity, Catholics found unity and mutual succor in an insular subculture, whose boundaries were policed by an authoritarian clergy” (pp. 6-7).

The introductory part (pp. 1-17) is then followed by a chapter entitled: ,,At the Origins of Germany’s Book Wars, 1770-1815” (pp. 18-51), where the author presents the origins of the important theological debates between Catholics and protestants from this space and the context how they appeared and developed as a community and also makes a critical evaluation of their literature. The second one entitled ,,Gall and Honey in the Catholic Theology of Cultural Taste” (pp. 52-96), although is a more specifically one, is very interesting and offers a real overview of the particularities of theological discourse in German space. Richer in historical data, is the 3rd chapter, entitled: ,,Reading Run Amok in Prussia Triumphant, 1815-1845” (pp. 97-147), a very documented thematic unity which offers an overview of the way how the history of the country came in contact with religion. The other four ones, namely: ,,Book Mischief in the Papal Monarchy, 1845–1880” (pp. 140-184), ,,Catholics and Their Deficit in Education” (pp. 184-184-224), ,,The Tail Wags the Dog: The Lay Rebellion against Catholic Libraries after 1880” (pp. 225-270) and ,,Brave New World: Lay Reading in the Libraries They Want” (pp. 270-209), are either conceived as book reviews or reviews of literature, or starting from a book and trying to investigate the literary phenomenon generated by a book or which can be observed as being behind it. From the huge amount of bibliographic information, the author extracts the most important one and offers to the reader an overview on the way how spirituality has been expressed through the culture and generated debates and ,,wars in the books” in pamphlets or apologetically works in a space so filled with culture, philosophy and literature.

The last chapter entitled: ,,An Appetite for Pleasure: Private Reading in Germania Profana” (pp. 310-359), is also a well-documented incursion in the cultural history of the Church from German space, and instead of conclusions, the author prefers an epilogue (pp. 360-368) which summarizes the main ideas and offers a general landscape of the entire problematic investigated and its evolution.

Written in a pleasant way, full of information which are presented in a very accessible way, the book of Jeffrey T. Zalar entitled: Reading and Rebellion in Catholic Germany, 1770-1914, published in Cambridge University Press in 2018 offers an interesting contribution in the


547

understanding of the cultural confessional history from the investigated space in a period marked by the national emancipation and the development of a phenomenon later known as secularisation.

Iuliu-Marius MORARIU

Rãzvan Mihai Neagu, Formarea intelectualitãţii din Turda: studenţi din Turda la marile universitãţi europene 1377-1918, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega, 2015, 273 p.:

Rãzvan Mihai Neagu s-a nãscut în Turda, judeţul Cluj, la 10 mai 1983. A urmat cursurile Facultãţii de Istorie şi Filosofie a Universitãţii ,,Babeş-Bolyai” din Cluj-Napoca, absolvind ciclul licenţã în anul 2006, pentru ca în anul 2013 sã obţinã titlul de doctor, sub coordonarea prof. univ. dr. Nicolae Edroiu. De-a lungul timpului, a participat la numeroase sesiuni ştiinţifice din întreaga ţarã, fiind de asemenea autor sau coautor a mai multor lucrãri istorice, precum: Episcopi şi episcopii în estul Ungariei medievale: tipologii episcopale în diecezele de Transilvania, Oradea şi Cenad în Evul Mediu: studii; Momente din istoria oraşului Turda: personalitãţi, evenimente, instituţii (secolele XV-XX) sau Evul Mediu Românesc. Dicţionar biografic. În prezent, Rãzvan Mihai Neagu este cadru didactic titular la Colegiul Tehnic din Turda.

În anul 2015, Rãzvan Mihai Neagu punea în atenţia publicului interesat o lucrare de istorie localã, intitulatã Formarea intelectualitãţii din Turda: studenţi din Turda la marile universitãţi europene 1377-1918, publicatã la Editura Mega din Cluj-Napoca. Dincolo de a fi o carte de suflet, aşa cum autorul prefeţei, conf. univ. dr. Şerban Turcuş o numeşte, lucrarea sus-menţionatã este rezultatul unei necesitãţi resimţite la nivelul întregii societãţi româneşti în perioada actualã: aceea a identificãrii elitelor comunitãţilor locale, dar şi naţionale. De altfel, în introducerea pe care o realizeazã autorul vorbeşte despre rolul important al intelectualilor, aceştia fiind ,,gardienii valorilor într-o societate”. Lucrarea lui Rãzvan Mihai Neagu este structuratã în opt capitole, segmentate în funcţie de ordinea cronologicã, dar şi de locurile în care tinerii turdeni au studiat. Cel dintâi capitol al lucrãrii realizeazã o incursiune istoriograficã în subiectul tratat. Autorul observã o mai mare abundenţã a istoricilor maghiari preocupaţi


548

de subiect, mai timide fiind lucrãrile istoricilor români. Abia recent au apãrut lucrãri centrate pe tratatrea subiectului în anumite oraşe transilvane, aşa cum Rãzvan Mihai Neagu o face în cercetarea de faţã. Originalitatea lucrãrii este argumentatã, printre altele, şi de încadrarea ei în aceastã categorie.

Urmãtoarele şase capitole trateazã problema studenţior turdeni din diferite epoci istorice şi la diferite universitãţi europene. Ca o regulã generalã privind structura fiecãruia dintre capitole, acestea debuteazã mereu cu o descriere generalã a contextului în care se încadreazã informaţiile prezentate, finalizându-se cu un paragraf dedicat ,,consideraţiilor finale”. Pe parcursul tuturor capitolelor, autorul încearcã sã identifice condiţia socialã a familiilor din care studenţii provin, vârstele în care se încadreazã, etnia, confesiunea lor şi chiar şi carierele ulterioare finalizãrii studiilor. Astfel, cel de-al doilea capitol al lucrãrii, intitulat ,,Studenţi din Turda la marile universitãţi europene în Evul Mediu şi în epoca premodernã”, începe cu descrierea generalã a sistemului de învãţãmânt universitar medieval. În perioada cuprinsã între anii 1377-1539 autorul identificã un numãr de 44 de studenţi turdeni la universitãţile europene. Seria lor este deschisã de Michael de Torenperg, student la Universitatea din Viena. Un subcapitol se referã la studenţii turdeni din perioada Principatului, în numãr de unsprezece, autorul considerând aceastã scãdere ca fiind cauzatã de evenimentele zbuciumate traversate de întreaga Transilvanie în perioada avutã în vedere. În finalul capitolului, în încercarea de a determina etnia şi religia studenţilor turdeni, realizeazã o incursiune antroponimicã, în urma cãreia constatã cã majoritatea studenţilor au fost creştini de etnie maghiarã şi germanã.

Al treilea capitol al lucrãrii, ,,Formarea intelectualitãţii din Turda în epoca modernã. Studenţi din Turda la marile universitãţi europene în epoca modernã (1700-1849)”, dupã descrierea generalã a climatului politic şi cultural al Transilvaniei în secolele XVIII-XIX, identificã un numãr de 36 de studenţi turdeni la universitãţile europene, cei mai mulţi alegând drept destinaţie Viena. Considerãm demn de apreciat faptul cã autorul extrage, pe baza informaţiilor referitoare la subiectul lucrãrii şi o serie de concluzii aparţinând altor teme de cercetare. Printre acestea, Rãzvan Mihai Neagu remarcã faptul cã alegerea studenţilor de a studia teologia, în cele mai multe dintre cazuri, demonstreazã o ,,oarecare rezistenţã la noutãţile epocii” în rândul tinerilor turdeni. Capitolul oferã informaţii şi despre cariera ulterioarã studenţiei a românului Baziliu Raţiu sau despre confesiunea studenţilor turdeni în aceastã perioadã. Al patrulea capitol se referã la studenţii din Turda la universitãţile din Ungaria pânã în anul 1848, doisprezece în perioada 1765-1844. Pentru


549

prima datã, situaţia socialã a familiilor din care studenţii turdeni provin este mai diversificatã, existând nu doar studenţi din familii înstãrite, ci şi unii cu situaţii materiale precare. Identificând faptul cã doi dintre studenţii turdeni cunoşteau atât limba maghiarã, cât şi limba românã, Rãzvan Mihai Neagu argumenteazã opinia potrivit cãreia Turda a fost mereu un oraş multietnic şi multiconfesional, în care contactele dintre români şi maghiari au fost frecvente.

Urmãtoarele trei capitole ale lucrãrii deplaseazã atenţia în direcţia studenţilor turdeni din a doua jumãtate a secolului al XIX-lea, în trei spaţii diferite: austriac, german şi maghiar (la universitãţile din Cluj şi Budapesta). În ceea ce priveşte studenţii din Turda la Universitatea din Viena, autorul alege tratarea lor în trei perioade, jalonate de evenimente cruciale în istoria Transilvaniei: 1848-1867, 1867-1890, 1890-1918. Dintre numele de studenţi prezente de-a lungul capitolului, le-am identificat pe cele ale lui Ioan Raţiu sau ale membrilor familiei Velits. În finalul capitolului, Rãzvan Mihai Neagu remarcã o mai mare disponibilitate în aceastã perioadã pentru aşa-numita peregrinatio academica. Al şaselea capitol al lucrãrii se referã la studenţii turdeni din mediul universitar german. În opinia autorului, faptul cã la universitãţile germane au studiat în exclusivitate tineri maghiari argumenteazã ideea potrivit cãreia starea materialã a comunitãţii maghiare din Turda era una foarte bunã. Al şaptelea capitol deplaseazã atenţia cititorului cãtre studenţii turdeni români la universitãţile din Cluj şi Budapesta în acelaşi interval cronologic, oferind inclusiv o prezentare a reformelor sistemului educaţional, dar şi a Universitãţii din Cluj. În acest capitol, declaraţia autorului potrivit cãreia Turda a fost în aceastã perioadã capitala mişcãrii naţionale a românilor transilvãneni ni se pare puţin hazardatã, deşi rolul important al personalitãţilor din acest oraş nu poate fi negat. Studenţi români la universitãţile din Cluj şi Budapesta au fost Constantin Bariţiu, Liviu Cigãreanu, Mihai Moldovan etc.

Cel din urmã capitol al lucrãrii lui Rãzvan Mihai Neagu este dedicat descrierii bursierilor Fundaţiei Gojdu din Comitatul Turda-Arieş în perioada 1870-1918. Puţini au fost studenţii bursieri ai acestei fundaţii din Turda şi mulţi cei din localitãţile montane ale comitatului, ca urmare a prezenţei mai numeroase a românilor ortodocşi în aceste zone. Dintre cei 21 de tineri identificaţi, zece au finalizat studiile cu obţinerea doctoratului. În cele din urmã, câteva rânduri sunt dedicate concluziilor generale, autorul afirmând cã încã mai existã numeroase lacune privind viaţa acestor studenţi, cel mai bine cunoscuţi fiind cei reveniţi în Transilvania, care s-au remarcat prin activitãţile lor de modernizare a


550

societãţii. Concluziilor le urmeazã anexele lucrãrii, trei abstracte în limbile englezã, francezã şi românã, bibliografia, graficele şi indicele.

În concluzie, lucrarea lui Rãzvan Mihai Neagu, Formarea intelectualitãţii din Turda: studenţi din Turda la marile universitãţi europene 1377-1918, este nu doar una de istorie localã, cãci în multe dintre paginile sale, ea realizeazã o descriere a mediului cultural şi educaţional european. De-a lungul cercetãrii sale, autorul pune un accent deosebit pe conturarea contextului de desfãşurare a tuturor evenimentelor, racordând mereu spaţiul transilvãnean şi inclusiv turdean, la cultura europeanã. De asemenea, se poate remarca de-a lungul lucrãrii apelul constant la izvoarele documentare în scopul argumentãrii opiniilor formulate de cãtre autor, interesat de conturarea unei imagini veridice a intelectualitãţii turdene, devenitã cu timpul intelectualitate transilvãneanã şi chiar maghiarã, respectiv româneascã. Considerãm informaţiile oferite de lucrarea de faţã ca fiind temeinic documentate, uşor de asimilat, putând constitui veritabile surse ale unor cercetãri viitoare privind intelectualitãţile locale, regionale şi chiar naţionale.

Florina SAS Sebeşul şi Marea Unire: memorii, acte şi documente, ediţie, studii introductive, note şi indici de Mihai-Octavian Groza, Iuliu-Marius Morariu, Gabriela-Margareta Nisipeanu, Claudia Fechete, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Argonaut, 2018, 374 p.:

Gândit ca o formã de reconstituire documentarã, dedicat unor oameni care au avut un rol important în cadrul evenimentelor privitoare la Marea Unire, volumul Sebeşul şi Marea Unire: memorii, acte şi documente, apãrut în cadrul colecţiei ,,Istorie. Documente. Mãrturii” a editurii clujene Argonaut, se constituie într-o frumoasã operã cu valoare literarã şi istoricã.

Cititorii se pot întâlni aici cu pasajele privitoare la Primul Rãzboi Mondial şi Marea Unire ce se regãsesc în memoriile unor oameni precum filosoful Lucian Blaga, inginerul Dorin Pavel, cãpitanul Ilie Stricatu, locotenentul Ioan Guţia sau preotul Sebastian Stanca, unul dintre cei care au cunoscut greutatea experienţelor


551

de lagãr, dar şi cu documente precum credenţionalul sebeşean al unirii sau alte informaţii arhivistice importante.

Ca cercetãtori ce s-au preocupat deja cu o mare parte din aspectele menţionate sau altele similare acestora şi anterior (de exemplu, Mihai-Octavian Groza, Gabriela Margareta Nisipeanu şi Iuliu-Marius Morariu au dedicat deja câte un volum atât lui Ilie Stricatu, cât şi lui Sebastian Stanca, iar Mihai-Octavian Groza a dedicat deja un text locotenentului Guţia într-un volum aniversar dedicat doamnei profesoare Ana Filip, apãrut în anul 2018), autorii cunosc bine atât elementele specifice contextului local, cât şi biografiile celor în cauzã. Acest lucru explicã atât studiile introductive bine întocmite ce însoţesc volumul de documente, în cadrul cãrora cititorii gãsesc atât aspecte privitoare la contextul anumitor evenimente, cât şi chestiuni privitoare la relaţia dintre biografiile şi textele prezentate. De asemenea, demne de remarcat sunt notele subsidiare abundente, care îl direcţioneazã pe cititor spre anumite informaţii suplimentare cu privire la subiectele abordate sau îl fac sã înţeleagã anumite regionalisme sau informaţii valoroase de specific local.

Apoi, pentru a favoriza o mai bunã receptare la nivel internaţional, editorii au considerat potrivitã adãugarea, la finalul volumului, a unor abstracte ample şi bine întocmite, în limbi de circulaţie internaţionalã (englezã, francezã, germanã, italianã şi maghiarã). În mod cert, prezenţa lor acolo va stârni cel puţin interesul unor cititori care provin din alte spaţii geografice şi care, în lipsa lor, nu ar fi beneficiat de o privire panoramicã asupra conţinutului.

Munca editorialã nu se remarcã, însã, doar prin antologizarea unor fragmente de memorialisticã, altminteri rãspândite în paginile mai multor lucrãri, dintre care multe sunt inaccesibile astãzi publicului larg din cauza tirajului mic şi a lipsei reeditãrilor, prin studiile introductive ample, ce plaseazã în contextul istoriografic întregul demers şi oferã informaţii interesante cu privire la conţinutul sãu, actualizarea limbajului, devenit în unele dintre texte impregnat cu arhaisme, cu scopul de a facilita lectura şi de a o face mai atractivã, sau opulenţa notelor de subsol, fie ele bibliografice, explicative sau informative şi prezenţa abstractelor în mai multe limbi. Editorii realizeazã şi un indice de nume, deosebit de util unui cititor grãbit care nu are rãgazul unei lecturi integrale, cu zãbavã asupra notelor şi are nevoie de o informaţie dedicatã unui anume personaj sau vrea sã afle dacã una dintre rudeniile sale a contribuit la acest eveniment.

Bine întocmit, conform normelor metodologice în vigoare, amplu şi dens din perspectiva conţinutului, volumul Sebeşul şi Marea Unire: memorii, acte şi documente se constituie într-o valoroasã contribuţie


552

istoriograficã care-l ajutã pe cititor sã afle mai multe cu privire la contribuţia sebeşenilor la realizarea evenimentului Marii Uniri, introducându-l, de asemenea, într-o lume aparte, ce are în centru uneori universul mioritic blagian, iar alteori lumea liceului Kuhn din Deva, unde viitorul inginer Dorin Pavel, pãrintele hidroenergeticii româneşti, era elev atunci sau frontul de la Rovereto, unde locotenentul Guţia îşi va gãsi sfârşitul

Ana-Maria Iulia MORARIU Ioan Lupaş, Prãbuşirea monarhiei austro-ungare şi importanţa istoricã a zilei de 1 Decembrie 1918, ediţie, studiu introductiv, note şi indice de Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan, Cluj-Napoca, Academia Românã, Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2018, 127 p.:

Sãrbãtorirea unui secol scurs de la Marea Unire din anul 1918, i-a determinat pe istoricii de toate vârstele, dar mai cu seamã, pe cei tineri sã-şi concentreze cercetãrile pe evenimentul epocal, din deceniul doi al secolului trecut. Printre aceşti istorici care s-au preocupat de istoria Primului Rãzboi Mondial şi a Unirii Transilvaniei cu Regatul României este şi Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan, care în toamna anului trecut ne-a surprins plãcut prin lucrarea Ioan Lupaş, Prãbuşirea monarhiei austro-ungare şi importanţa istoricã a zilei de 1 Decembrie 1918, apãrutã la prestigioasa editurã a Academiei Române, Centrul de Studii Transilvane.

Lucrarea Prãbuşirea monarhiei austro-ungare şi importanţa istoricã a zilei de 1 Decembrie 1918, pe care ne propunem sã o recenzãm în continuare este alcãtuitã dintr-un studiu introductiv bine documentat, realizat de tânãrul istoric clujean Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan şi 8 articole despre prãbuşirea monarhiei austro-ungare şi Unirea Transilvaniei din anul 1918, publicate de istoricul Ioan Lupaş, în diferite periodice sau volume colective, în perioada interbelicã.

Studiul introductiv debuteazã cu o scurtã introducere, în care istoricul Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan realizeazã o prezentare istoriograficã a vieţii şi activitãţii istoricului Ioan Lupaş şi anunţã, de asemenea, motivaţia care a stat la baza realizãrii acestei ediţii. În continuarea acestui


553

studiu introductiv, tânãrul cercetãtor a fãcut un medalion biografic al istoricului şi academicianului Ioan Lupaş, evidenţiind lupta sa continuã pentru desãvârşirea idealului naţional. În subcapitolul „Protopopul Ioan Lupaş fãuritor al Unirii Transilvaniei cu România”, istoricul clujean a prezentat atât suferinţele protopopului Sãliştei, în timpul Primului Rãzboi Mondial, cât şi contribuţia pe care a avut-o la organizarea actului de la 1 decembrie 1918, de la Alba-Iulia. În ultima parte a acestui studiu introductiv, Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan a analizat cele 8 scrieri ale pãrintelui protopop Ioan Lupaş privitoare la Marea Unire, evidenţiind importanţa lor atât pentru cunoaşterea gândurilor, trãirilor şi ideilor celor care au fãurit România Mare, cât şi contribuţia acestora, la modernizarea ei.

În continuarea acestui volum restitutiv, istoricul Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan a cuprins cele 8 studii scrise de istoricul şi academicianul Ioan Lupaş, despre Prãbuşirea Monarhiei Austro-Ungariei şi importanţa zilei de 1 Decembrie 1918 şi care au fost publicate în paginile unor ziare, reviste şi volume colective, din perioada interbelicã. Astfel, titlurile acestor studii sunt: Note istorice; Prãbuşirea Monarhiei Austro-Ungare şi Republica Cehoslovacã; Dezagregarea Monarhiei Austro-Ungare şi Adunarea de la Alba-Iulia; Dezagregarea Monarhiei Austro-Ungare şi eliberarea Transilvaniei; Toţi împreunã: 1 Decembrie 1919; Scriitorii şi adunarea de la Alba Iulia; Proclamaţiunea de la Alba-Iulia; Importanţa istoricã a zilei de 1 Decembrie 1918.

Redate dupã ediţiile princeps, cele 8 studii publicate de Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan au beneficiat şi de o serie de note explicative, elaborate cu menirea de a uşura lectura cititorului şi de a crea o imagine mai clarã asupra unui eveniment istoric sau asupra unui personaj amintit în text.

La finalul acestei cãrţi, istoricul clujean Mircea-Gheorghe Abrudan a realizat un indice de nume, ce are ca şi scop facilitarea lecturii, pentru un cititor grãbit, care este interesat doar de viaţa şi activitatea unui anumit personaj amintit de Ioan Lupaş, ce a contribuit la realizarea Marii Unirii.

Lucrarea se încheie cu o interesantã anexã fotograficã, în mare parte ineditã, datoritã faptului cã provine din colecţia familiei Lupaş.

În concluzie, lucrarea Prãbuşirea Monarhiei Austro-Ungare şi importanţa istoricã a zilei de 1 Decembrie 1918 aduce o importantã contribuţie la cunoaşterea vieţii şi activitãţii istoricului şi protopopului Ioan Lupaş, dar şi la cunoaşterea unor evenimente din timpul Primului Rãzboi Mondial şi de la 1 Decembrie 1918. În încheiere, menţionãm faptul cã lucrarea Prãbuşirea Monarhiei Austro-Ungare şi importanţa istoricã a zilei de 1 Decembrie 1918, apãrutã în condiţii grafice extraordinare la editura Centrului de


554

Studii Transilvane poate fi cititã atât de istoricii avizaţi, cât şi de pasionaţi de istorie, interesaţi de viaţa şi activitatea academicianului Ioan Lupaş şi de actul de la 1 Decembrie 1918.

Nicolae DUMBRÃVESCU Yazid Said, Lejla Demiri (eds.), The Future of Interfaith Dialogue. Muslim-Christian Encounters through A Common Word, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018, 288 p.:

One decade after the release of the

document A Common Word between You and Us (13 October 2007; www.acommonword.com, accessed 25.08.2018), a group of researchers from different geographical spaces, belonging both to the Christian or Muslim religious background, come now to investigate the content of the document and emphasize the way how it contributed to the development of the dialogue between the two important religions of the world inside of a book published under the auspices of Cambridge University Press in 2018.

The eighteenth chapters, segmented at their turn into five parts, are presenting the main historical aspects of the relationships between the two important religions, trying to identify the main points of dialogue and to fundament it using the scriptures for highlighting them, but also to present case-studies or to show examples of implementation of this dialogue. While the two coordinators are coming from Liverpool Hope University (Yazid Said) or Tübingen one (Lejla Demiri), the other authors are coming both from American, European, Asian or African space.

As all the authors show the basis of the peace and stability of the world is the dialogue. In religious space, this means, a lot. Therefore, as Peter Admirand from School of Theology, Philosophy and Music of Dublin City University notes in his research: ,,In dialogue, participants serve as witnesses to their faiths, entering such a dialogue with various identifiable markers, such as Buddhist or Jewish, and testifying to such belonging through their words and actions. However, the ultimate aim of interfaith dialogue is not to convince ,,Other” or one’s so called superior dialogue. Its aims are transformation, purification and clarity-


555

even such clarity involves murkier notions of truths, paths and salvations, and spurs on more questions than answers” (p. 145).

Starting from this assumption, but also from other similar ones, the readers are invited to see how the leaders of Muslims and Christians have come from the intra-religious to interreligious dialogue (pp. 31-47), to became familiar with the relationship between a common word and the common Good, in the conception of Rowan Williams (pp. 61-89), or to question their selves about the way how they answer to God’s Word (pp. 90-112). Moreover, difficult questions like the way how the love of neighbour can be achieved in the context of religious trauma (pp. 113-122), are also addressed there. Therefore, Reuven Firestone from Hebrew-Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in Los Angeles is dealing with this topic. In the beginning, the author marks the fact that: ,,Love of God is the epicentre of the document. The command to love God is a difficult and complex notion, and a broad range of understanding have historically been proffered. One can understand love of God as a feeling or an action expressed through meditation or prayer, or feeding the hungry and caring for the environment-preserving and protecting God’s creation in innumerable ways. Many, or most, or perhaps any way to act out one’s love of God will not challenge this foundational command at the heart of the document. Our scriptures and traditions are quite clear about the divine expectation of love of God among all God’s sentient creatures. That does not apply, however, for the second half of the dual command, love of neighbour” (p. 114).

Later, using quotations from the fundamental documents of the two religions, but also a big amount of examples, he presents the way how this love can be practiced in spite of all difficulties. Same professional use of fundamental documents, but this time from the Christian space, can be seen also in the research of Clare Amos (pp. 204-215), while Pim Valkenberg presents the two representative Qur’anic approaches of Christian-Muslim Dialogue (pp. 192-203).

The last two parts of the book are later dedicated both to something that could be defined as interdisciplinarity or contextual theology. Therefore, while some authors are investigating the way how the aforementioned document has been reflected in different cultural spaces in the articles published in different languages (pp. 217-238), other speak about the way how it has been reflected in Germany (pp. 249-258), about its potential musical use (pp. 259-272), or even about the way how it could be seen and valorised as a pillar of contextual theology (pp. 273-288).

For the huge amount of information, the deep analyses hosted inside of the articles, the accents on interdisciplinary aspects, contemporary ones, practical outcomes of the document and on the


556

effects of it, but also for its doctrinal, biblical or moral valences, but also for its missionary potential outcomes, the book entitled The Future of Interfaith Dialogue. Muslim-Christian Encounters through A Common Word, coordinated by Yazid Said and Lejla Demiri and published at Cambridge University Press in 2018 it is, as we have also tried to emphasize, an important and useful research, that will constitute for sure, an useful tool for future similar investigations.


Kenneth A. Gould, Tammy L. Lewis (eds.), Ten Lessons in introductory sociology, 2nd edition, Oxford/New York, Oxford University Press, 2018, 356 p.:

Professors of Sociology in Brooklyn College of the City State University of New York, and authors of previous work on their research field like: Thirty Readings in Introductory Sociology, Oxford and Ney York, Oxford University Press, 2016, Kenneth A. Gould and Tammy L. Lewis, come now in front of the students and in front of all other interested readers with the second edition of: Ten Lessons in introductory sociology, Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press, 2018, coordinated by them, after the warmly received first one, released in 2014. They are accompanied by researchers from other centres, like: Stella M. Capek, Naomi Braine, Janine Kay Given Chi, Brian K. Obach, Nancy A. Naples, Jason Konefal or Michael Burawoy.

The new enriched edition starts in a very attractive way, with an ,,Annotated table of contents” (pp. IX-XV), which presents shortly the aim and the structure of each chapter, making it very attractive and useful for a reader who has no time to read it entirely and for whom the general index from its end (pp. 339-356) it is not the tool helpful enough to find an information.

It must also be mentioned from the very beginning that, in comparison with other normal books prepared to be used by the students in the process of preparation of their exams, this is not only a very attractive conceived one, having a lot of illustrations, recommended extra-lectures and even fragments from representative texts inserted at


557

the end of each chapter or inside it as a kind of ,,case studies” (see, for example: p. 49, p. 93, pp. 221-222, pp. 229-230), but also ,,lessons take-aways” (see for example: p. 239), questions to be researched by students (p. 93) or a bibliographical extended list or siteography for each thematic unity (see: pp. 56-57; pp. 93-94; pp. 123-125; pp. 165-170; pp. 206-208; pp. 240-244; pp. 281-283; p. 314; p. 337).

The topics approached there are also interesting and very actual. Therefore, Kenneth A. Gould and Tammy L. Lewis speaks in the first part of the first chapter about ,,the social imagination” (pp. 5-32), while in its second part, the last one presents the aspects linked with ,,theory and methods” (pp. 33-56). Not only do they define their topics, but speak in a very direct way about topics that are fundamental for the research and connected with every-day life. Therefore, for example, speaking about the aspects that affect a person and the way how they can be seen in sociological research, they show that: ,,Sociology is a way of looking at the world. Looking at the world, with your sociological imagination turned on allows you to see the people, institutions, and events around you in a new way. It allows to contextualize how a particular person, in this moment, by larger social forces and historical trends. Looking at the world, your life, your family, your community and your country in this way is a little weird. It’s not how must people experience things. In some respect, the sociological imagination makes you a bit of an outsider in that you are not only in the moment but also observing the moment, analysing the moment and reflecting on the moment through a sociological lens” (p. 11).

After presenting the main aspects that define the sociological research, Stella M. Capek makes an interesting presentation of the way how sociology as a science and the sociological approaches are influenced by culture (pp. 63-96) and Naomi Braine speaks about the ,,social institutions” and their role in different sectors of society (pp. 97-123). Later, in the 3rd part (pp. 147-240), the authors discuss about the aspects that can divide people in certain circumstances, namely the race (Janine Kay Gwen Chi, pp. 131-172), class (pp. 173-210), or gender, sexuality and the perceptions linked with this (pp. 211-240). The last part (pp. 247-338) is dedicated to the changes of society, the factors that determinate these changes and the way how they can be understood or used. Therefore, Jason Konefal offers an interesting presentation of the ,,forces of social change” (pp. 246-281), Kenneth A. Gould about the ,,global dynamics” (pp. 287-314) and Michael Burawoy about ,,the task and the promise” of public sociology (pp. 317-336), touching topics like ,,the public sociologist as organic intellectual” (pp. 320-325), ,,public sociologist of a traditional stirpe” (pp. 325-331), ,,the professional sociologist” (pp. 331-332) or ,,public sociology live” (pp. 333-336).


558

Written in a very attractive way, accompanied by illustrations, examples, reflections, a rich bibliography and topics think about, the book coordinated by Kenneth A. Gould and Tammy L. Lewis and entitled: Ten Lessons in introductory sociology, which was prepared as handbook is a very interesting contribution in the understanding of contemporary sociology, its main topics and challenges, but also the fundamental aspects of investigation of the domain. It is in the same time a very useful tool both for the students who will be interested in having an introductory class in sociology, but also for the researchers and professors who will want to see a different perspective on this topic and an attractive presentation of its main ones.


Gerald O’Collins, Catholicism. A Very Short Introduction, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017, 168 p.:

In the series of ,,very short introductions”, edited by Oxford University Press, in the last years there can be found together with books dedicated to ,,abolitionism” of Richard S. Newman (2018), ,,native american literature” of Sean Teuton (2018), David A. Bell’s Napoleon small presentation (2018), entrepreneurship of Paul Westhead and Mike Wright (2013), ,,dementia” of Kathleen Taylor (2019), a synthesis of Foucault’s work written by Garry Gutting which has in 2019 a second edition, a re-evaluation of aristocracy by William Doyle (2010), an approach to Hinduism by Kim Knott (2016), one to the humanism by Stephen Law (2011), atheism of Julian Baggini (2003) and many other titles, one dedicated to Catholicism.

The work is signed by Gerald O’Collins who is adjunct professor to the Australian Catholic University and Research Fellow, University of Divinity from Melbourne and Emeritus Professor of Gregorian Pontifical University from Rome, where, according to his biography, served 33 years and was for a long time dean of Faculty of Theology. As it can be expected, the author of such a synthesis that tries to emphasizes in a small book the Catholicism and to underline its main characteristics


559

must be a scholar that already has the experience of writing. Fr. Gerald O’Collins is indeed one of the well known authors because of the 67th books that he published until today.

The work is segmented in 7 big chapters and accompanied by a list of recommendation for future readings, a timeline, a preface and the index. In his presentation, the author follows the diachronically evolution of the events, using classical periodization in order to make the lecture more clear, he presents inside the first chapter the birth of the Church and its evolution up to the moment of the discover of Americs. There not only does he speak about the first centuries of the Church underlining its main historical points but in the same time he shows how, during the time, different events that influenced the Church. Later, in the second one, he presents the main aspects of Church history from the aforementioned moment up to 2016. After referring to the historical landmarks of Church history, he presents the way how his confessional space perceives today the human condition in the light of the Bible and Father’s teachings, in the 3rd chapter. In the 4th one, he speaks about the sacraments and their role in the life of the Christian, while in the 5th about the moral theology and life, emphasizing the way how the two ones are related in the daily life and showing that moral is not only an amount of theoretical concepts, but also something deeply lined with practical life.

The last two chapters are also interesting and useful, both because of their theological content, but also because of their structure. In the 6th one, he speaks about the characteristics of Catholicism, synthetizing some of the main aspects already presented. He underlines in a pleasant and systematic way the main aspects that define the doctrine of the Church, its social teaching or its directions of action, while in the 7th one he tries to speak about the future of Catholicism, analysing the main challenges that can be already seen or predicted and offers solutions for overcoming some of the most important of them.

Written in a scientific way, but without making excess of the language of speciality of theological space, the very short introduction of Fr. Gerald O’Collins published in 2017 to Oxford University Press is not only a very interesting book, but also an useful tool for theologians and historians that want to find more about Catholicism and its evolution, for students who can have access to a synthesis of such a dense history and a pleasant lecture for every reader who wants to find more about this topic.



560

Zenovie Cârlugea, Lucian Blaga şi lumea Banatului, Iaşi, Editura Tipo Moldova, 2018, 208 p.:

Cunoscut şi apreciat de comunitatea ştiinţificã, istoricul şi criticul literar Zenovie Cârlugea ne propune, de data aceasta, un volum monografic dedicat relaţiilor întreţinute de Lucian Blaga cu intelectualitatea bãnãţeanã, relaţii cultivate începând atât cu intrarea sa în ilustra familie a Bredicenilor, cât şi cu şederea sa, temporarã, în intervalul 1924-1926, la Lugoj. Volumul este cu atât mai valoros cu cât este publicat în anul centenarului Marii Uniri, evocând o serie de personalitãţi implicate activ în mişcarea naţionalã din Transilvania şi Banat şi în evenimentele care au culminat cu actul de la 1 Decembrie 1918.

Zenovie Cârlugea este unul dintre cei mai apreciaţi istorici şi critici literari contemporani, membru al Uniunii Scriitorilor din România-filiala Craiova, membru şi preşedinte (1990-2018) al Societãţii de Ştiinţe Filologice din România-filiala Târgu-Jiu, fondator şi coordonator al revistei „Portal-Mãiastra”, colaborator al unor publicaţii ştiinţifice şi culturale („Familia”, „Ramuri”, „Orizont”, „Meridian”, „Columna”, „România literarã”, „Arca”, „Reflex” etc.). Dupã un strãlucit doctorat dedicat dinamicii antinomiilor imaginare din opera blagianã, susţinut în cadrul Universitãţii „Lucian Blaga” din Sibiu, sub îndrumarea profesorului Mircea Tomuş, Zenovie Cârlugea a publicat o serie de lucrãri dedicate vieţii, activitãţii şi operei poetului şi filosofului nãscut la Lancrãm, dintre care amintim: Lucian Blaga: solstiţiul sânzienelor (2010), Lucian Blaga-între amintire şi actualitate (2011), Lucian Blaga-sfârşit de secol, început de mileniu (2012), Lucian Blaga. Dicţionar esenţial-volum I şi II (2017, 2018). La toate acestea se poate adãuga şi faptul cã Zenovie Cârlugea este un apropiat al Festivalului Internaţional ,,Lucian Blaga” de la Sebeş, al publicaţiilor acestuia („Caietele Blaga” şi „Paşii Profetului”) şi al Casei Memoriale „Lucian Blaga” Lancrãm (cãreia i-a donat o serie de manuscrise blagiene sau obiecte care au aparţinut istoricului Ovidiu Drimba, ucenicul lui Lucian Blaga).

Din punct de vedere structural, volumul Lucian Blaga şi lumea Banatului este împãrţit în trei mari capitole („Lucian Blaga şi lumea Banatului”, „Portrete de familie”, „Lucian Blaga în relaţie cu scriitori şi oameni de culturã bãnãţeni”), precedate de o micã introducere şi urmate de o addenda şi lista lucrãrilor consultate.


561

Primul capitol, „Lucian Blaga şi lumea Banatului” (pp. 9-69), debuteazã cu un scurt istoric al urbei care, pentru doi ani de zile, a servit drept reşedinţã familiei Lucian şi Cornelia Blaga: Lugojul. Reşedinţã de comitat (Caraş-Severin), sediu episcopal (Episcopia Greco-Catolicã de Lugoj), leagãn al convieţuirii populaţiei româneşti, germane, maghiare şi sârbeşti, Lugojul a servit atât ca un refugiu, cât şi ca un punct de relansare în cariera poetului şi filosofului Lucian Blaga. Respins, iniţial, de familia Bredicenilor (care îşi doreau pentru fiica lor un pretendent pe mãsura statutului ei social), acceptat şi adoptat în cele din urmã, Lucian Blaga a resimţit o puternicã atracţie faţã de oamenii, istoria, tradiţiile şi obiceiurile Banatului, care l-au inspirat şi ajutat în „saltul decisiv” al vieţii sale, dupã cum avea sã mãrturiseascã în schimbul epistolar cu soţia sa. În anul 1926, cu sprijinul familiei Octavian şi Veturia Goga, Lucian Blaga a reuşit sã obţinã postul de ataşat de presã la Varşovia, moment care a marcat sfârşitul celei mai prolifice perioade atât din punct de vedere creator, cât şi interrelaţional. Cel de-al doilea capitol, „Portrete de familie” (pp. 73-112), ne înfãţişeazã, prin intermediul biografiei, parcursul unei familii cu adânci rãdãcini în zona Gorjului, strãmutatã la Lugoj în timpul domniei împãrãtesei Maria Terezia (1740-1780). Astfel, autorul ne prezintã parcursul avocatului şi omului politic Coriolan Brediceanu (1849-1909), Corneliei Brediceanu, nãscutã Rãdulescu (1856-1951), avocatului, diplomatului şi omului politic Caius Brediceanu (1879-1953), traducãtoarei Olga Brediceanu-Fruma (1914-2013), compozitorului şi folcloristului Tiberiu Brediceanu (1877-1968), muzicianului Mihai Brediceanu (1920-2005), Semproniei Brediceanu (1887-?) şi, evident, Corneliei Brediceanu (1897-1983), toate acestea însoţite, într-o manierã fericitã, de fotografii de epocã (parte cunoscute, parte mai puţin cunoscute). Ultimul capitol, „Lucian Blaga în relaţie cu scriitori şi oameni de culturã bãnãţeni (pp. 115-179)”, ne prezintã diferitele contacte, prietenii, legãturi cãrturãreşti, contractate de Lucian Blaga cu oamenii de culturã şi artã din zona Banatului, legãturi care au dãinuit şi dupã pãrãsirea Lugojului: Ion Grigore (1887-1951), Laura Vlad (1877-1956), Georges Fernand Dionne (1898-1974), Romulus Ladea (1901-1970), Aura Buzescu (1894-1992), Nichifor Mihuţã (1927-1982), Filaret Barbu (1903-1984), Constantin Daicoviciu (1898-1973), Ivan Deneş (1928-2011), Andreas Alois Lillin (1915-1985), Constantin Ursulescu (1906-1988), Deliu Petroiu (1922-2008), Eugen Todoran (1918-1997), Traian Liviu Birãescu (1924-1998), Alexandru Jebeleanu (1923-1996), Anişoara Odeanu (1912-1972), Pavel P. Bellu (1920-1988), Toma George Maiorescu (1928).


562

În completarea celor prezentate, sub forma unei addenda, autorul reproduce trei fragmente din opera blagianã dedicate Banatului şi oamenilor sãi: „Barocul etnografiei româneşti” (publicat în paginile revistei „Banatul”/1926), „Aurel C. Popovici” (publicat în paginile revistei „Banatul”/1926) şi „Pãpuşi etnografice” (publicat în paginile revistei „Cuvântul”/1924).

În mod absolut firesc, ne-am fi aşteptat ca cele trei capitole ale lucrãrii sã fie însoţite de câteva reflecţii finale, rezumative, autorul vãduvindu-ne de aceste rânduri (cel mai probabil din dorinţa de a-i lãsa lectorului acest privilegiu). De asemenea, remarcãm aparatul critic greoi, de mult abandonat de comunitatea ştiinţificã, precum şi lipsa indicilor de nume şi localitãţi, instrumente de lucru absolut necesare unei astfel de lucrãri de specialitate.

Fãcând abstracţie de aceste mici observaţii, lucrarea Lucian Blaga şi lumea Banatului reprezintã o veritabilã contribuţie atât în domeniul istoriei (prin abordãrile prosopografice ale intelectualitãţii bãnãţene), cât şi în domeniul istoriei şi criticii literare, ce meritã a fi recomandatã publicului cititor, îndeosebi tinerilor elevi şi studenţi pentru care „experienţa bãnãţeanã” a lui Lucian Blaga ar putea reprezenta un posibil model de urmat.

Mihai-Octavian GROZA Tatiana Niculescu, Tãierea fecioarelor, Bucureşti, Editura Humanitas, 2018, 230 p.:

Volumul de faţã apare sub egida editurii Humanitas şi reprezintã o revizuire a romanului În Ţara lui Dumnezeu, pe care autoarea l-a publicat în anul 2012. Cele patruzeci şi una de bucãţi mãrunte, precum piesele unui puzzle, poartã, pe rând, numele personajelor, alcãtuind un întreg, un roman despre fete, care graviteazã în jurul micuţei Hani. Povestea femeilor de pe tãrâmul african, este asemenea unui cãlãu, a cãrui osândã o resimţi pe tot parcursul lecturii. Avem de-a face cu o reconstituire, deoarece aceastã scriere, este produsul cãlãtoriei autoarei în Africa, ceea ce conferã veridicitate textului.


563

Romanul debuteazã prezentându-ne personajul principal, o fetiţã cu şlapi frumoşi şi coloraţi, care purta pãrul împletit în codiţe. Putem spune cã este vorba despre o paralelã între familia afarului Humed (în care tradiţiile strãbune se pãstrau cu sfinţenie) şi cea a francezului Laurent Beauregard (mai permisivã şi mai deschisã emancipãrii). Toate întâmplãrile la care vom asista se desfãşoarã într-un timp scurt, pe parcursul unei vacanţe, pe care André, fiul consilierului Beauregard, o petrece pe pãmântul african. De mai bine de zece ani, consilierul conducea centre culturale în diferite ţãri, era pasionat de studierea doctrinei comuniste şi cãlãtorise prin ţãrile blocului sovietic. Se afla în cea de-a noua, cu care se familiarizase prin intermediul lui Humed, personaj-cãlãuzã, om important, cunoscut, şcolit în Franţa, angajat la guvern.

Firul poveştii se intercaleazã cu pasajele în care ni se prezintã situaţia politicã a ţãrii şi trecutul istoric al acesteia. Prin ochii lui André, aflãm detalii despre aspectul mediului înconjurãtor: ,,Nu ştiu dacã ãsta o fi oraş sau sat. Nu seamãnã cu nimic. Dupã palmieri şi clãdirile mai mari, coşcovite, pare un oraş în ruine, dupã drumurile prãfoase, barãcile prãpãdite şi tarabele unde se vinde suc, pare un sat” (p. 38).

Romanul capãtã uşoare nuanţe infantile, prin naivitatea celor doi copii. André era pasionat de tot ce însemna nave, piraţi somalezi, pistoale, vase de luptã şi armatã, pe când Hani, era fascinatã de interiorul casei lui Beauregard, unde descoperã pe furiş, pianul, patul larg şi perdelele cu pãsãri albastre, un lux pe care nu-l mai întâlnise pânã acum. Nu vãzuse niciodatã ,,cãrţi aşezate aşa frumos, carte lângã carte, ca o cãptuşealã a casei” (p. 42), un decor care eclipseazã traiul simplu şi sãrãcãcios al afarilor.

Subiectul principal al cãrţii este adus în discuţie cu ajutorul doctorului Bertrand (francez, catolic; el întruchipeazã tipul aristocratului care-şi scoate pãlãria şi sãrutã mâna femeilor), personaj preocupat de situaţia fetelor din baruri (care veneau aici datoritã numãrului mare de militari şi datoritã situaţiei precare de acasã, care le obliga sã-şi vândã trupul) şi de bolile cu care acestea erau contaminate. Odatã cu cea de-a douãsprezecea parte a romanului, lectura înfioarã şi provoacã durere. Punctul culminant este atins în momentul în care doctorul ne familiarizeazã cu problema mutilãrii genitale feminine. Prin ochii medicului, fetele erau percepute ca ,,nişte antilope gingaşe şi mute aceste femei rãstignite pe altarul spaimelor şi al sãlbãticiei masculine” (p. 72).

Cu aceastã problemã a mutilãrii genitale feminine se confruntã în special femeile şi fetele din Africa şi Orientul Mijlociu. Medicul duce o adevãratã misiune printre afari, şi anume, aceea de a-i face sã renunţe la


564

acest obicei arhaic, care are consecinţe grave: sângerãri severe, probleme urinare, chisturi, infecţii, infertilitate la naştere sau chiar decesul femeilor sau al pruncilor. Hani reprezintã, în aceastã prozã, cobaiul pe care se va aplica procedeul tãierii (aşa cum era numit de cãtre Kadiga, bunica ei).

Tãierea era fãcutã de cãtre Moaşa-de-Neam, personaj cu trãsãturi fantastice: ,,Are nişte puteri cu care alungã duhurile rele, ştie ierburi secrete, de leac, citeşte viitorul şi destinul […] are ochii sticloşi care se aprind ori de câte ori simte vreo vietate prin apropiere […] Uneori, apare şi prin sate, dar numai câinii o recunosc şi n-o latrã nici unul. Le face vrãji, îi moleşeşte ca sã nu dea alarma, apoi se furişeazã în colibe, când dorm toţi, numãrã fetele şi le cerceteazã trupurile. Face socoteala: cam câte ar fi de dus la piatrã în anul respectiv şi câtã fãinã, cât orez şi câte piei de capre ar primi de la triburi pentru meşteşugul ei” (p. 77).

Despre acest ritual al mutilãrii şi al sacrificiului, Hani aude multe poveşti, dar este stãpânitã şi neînfricatã, gândindu-se cã toate acestea se fac pentru Allah care, la urma urmei, meritã totul. Elementele cu ajutorul cãrora se putea realiza acest masacru, ţin şi ele de domeniul rudimentarului: un cuţitaş cu mâner de lemn, lame, un soi de ac încovoiat la vârf şi spini de acacia. Hani se maturizase fãrã voia ei, gândindu-se mereu la ziua în care va deveni fatã mare. Caracterul ei zburdalnic era în opoziţie cu cel al bãiatului cu pãrul blond ca mãtasea de porumb. Pe cei doi nu-i aduceau laolaltã decât jocurile copilãriei.

André aflã despre acest obicei al tãierii prin intermediul şoferului Kamil, care-i spune cã femeile nu aveau voie sã se împreuneze cu bãrbaţii înainte de cãsãtorie, de aceea se recurgea la metoda coaserii. Personajele acestui roman s-ar putea împãrţi cu uşurinţã în douã categorii: cei care militau pentru drepturile femeilor şi pentru excluderea acestui ritual (Marie, doctorul Bertrand, consilierul Beauregard) şi cei care credeau în acest ceremonial al fecioriei (familia lui Humed, Arafa, Kamil). Deşi femeile par lipsite de putere şi supuse, ele deţin controlul suprem în interiorul familiei şi în ceea ce priveşte educaţia şi destinul fetelor, iar bãrbaţii sunt luptãtori doar în exteriorul familiei. Femeile afare aveau doar douã opţiuni: fie acceptau sã fie tãiate şi cusute (pe o piatrã mare şi lustruitã, între doi palmieri uriaşi) şi considerate fecioare la mãritiş, fie fugeau de acest ritual şi erau percepute ca femei necurate.

Tatiana Niculescu ne pune în faţã un studiu, o sumã de investigaţii, reuşind sã scrie o naraţiune prin fraze limpezi, strãvezii care trateazã un subiect controversat, interzis pe plan internaţional. Latura eroticã a cãrţii se atinge foarte slab, prin relaţia Laurent-Marie (douã nume legate pe veşnicie de moartea pruncului lor) şi prin sãrutul naiv dintre André şi Hani. Întreaga prozã nu este decât visul acestei copile de a deveni fatã mare şi de a-şi purta cu mândrie badunul. Romanul devine tensionat, în


565

final, când Laurent încearcã sã o salveze pe Hani oferindu-i o bursã în Franţa. Nu este descrisã tãierea fetei, ci doar perioada premergãtoare acesteia, când bunica o pregãteşte împletindu-i codiţe şi dându-i sã bea ceai iute-amar îndulcit cu miere.

Aceastã lucrare este utilã şi pentru folclorişti, prin conţinutul de informaţii despre tradiţiile poporului african (ritualul salutului, sãrutul mâinii, consumul de ,,kat”, simbolistica gazelei, tradiţia Dagu, rugãciunea, chemãrile muezinului) şi despre portul popular specific afarilor (,,tunicã şi pantaloni albi, brâu negru cu roşu, inele la mâini şi la picioare, cu şiraguri de mici cochilii din aur la gât [...], iar în pãr, perle înşirate puzderie, din alea mici, cu paiete, şi un fel de clopoţei de aur” p. 94).

Raluca-Nicoleta UILEAN


566


567

CONTRIBUTORS Ulzharkyn M. ABDIGAPBAROVA, PhD., Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty Branch of JSC ,,NCPD Orleu Institute for Professional Development of Almaty region”, Almaty, Kazahstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Amina Sh. ABDULLINA, PhD. Professor, Birsk branch of Bashkir State University, Birsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Gulfira R. ABDULLINA, PhD. Professor, Birsk branch of Bashkir State University, Birsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Elena AGRIKOVA, PhD., Samara University, Samara, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Elmira A. AITENOVA, PhD., Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty Branch of JSC ,,NCPD Orleu Institute for Professional Development of Almaty region”, Almaty, Kazahstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Tamusa H. AKHMADOVA, PhD., Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. T. K. AKHMADOVA, PhD., Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Aktoty T. AKZHOLOVA, PhD., Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty Branch of JSC ,,NCPD Orleu Institute for Professional Development of Almaty region”, Almaty, Kazahstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Irina Viktorovna ALFEROVA, PhD., Bryansk State University, Bryansk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].



568

Daniel Aron ALIC, PhD. Lecturer, ,,Eftimie Murgu” University, Reşiţa, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Igor Yu. ANIKIN, PhD. Associate Professor, ,,Tyumen Industrial University”, Branch of the Tyumen Industrial University in Noyabrsk, Noyabrsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. M. P. ASUKHANOVA, PhD., Ingush State University, Magas, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Raushangul AVAKOVA, PhD., Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Inna B. BACHALOVA, PhD., Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Dmytro A. BEGEKA, PhD. Associate Professor, National Pedagogical University named after M. P. Drahomanov, Kiev, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Valery Fedorovich BLOKHIN, PhD., Bryansk State University, Bryansk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Vitalii BOCHELIUK, PhD., Zaporozhye National Technical University, Zaporizhzhia Municipal Institution of Higher Education, Zaporizhia, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Florin I. BOJOR, PhD. Candidate, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Irina N. BUKHTIYAROVA, PhD., Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].




569

Bashir B. BULATOV, PhD., Federal State Budget Educational Institution of Higher Education Dagestan State University, Dagestan, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Еlena A. BURCEVA, PhD., Birsk branch of Bashkir State University, Birsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Alexander V. CHEREMISIN, Kherson State Agrarian University, Kherson, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Victor CHERNYSHEV, PhD., Federal State Budgetary Institution of Higher Education ,,Pacific State University”, Khabarovsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Aleksander M. CHERVONY, PhD., Rostov State Economic University (RINH), Taganrog, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Ioan CHIRILÃ, PhD. Professor, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Mihai CROITOR, PhD. Lecturer, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Sanda CROITOR, PhD., ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. E. H. DALIEVA, PhD., Ingush State University, Magas, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Anna DMITRIEVA, PhD., South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].





570

Nicolae DUMBRÃVESCU, PhD. Candidate, ,,1st of December 1918” University, Alba-Iulia, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Ainur DZHUMAGALIEVA, PhD., L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan; S. Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University, Astana, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Galina A. EPANCHINTSEVA, PhD., Orenburg State University, Orenburg, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Magripa ESKEEVA, PhD., Eurasian National State University named after L. Gumilev, Astana, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Ekaterina Sergeevna FISHER, PhD., Bryansk State University, Bryansk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Marina A. GASANOVA, PhD., Dagestan State Department, Center for the Study of Native Languages, Dagestan, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Mihai-Octavian GROZA, PhD. Candidate, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Alena Yu. GURA, PhD., Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Oksana A. HOLINA, PhD., Rostov State Economic University (RINH), Taganrog, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Kulyan IBRAYEVA, PhD., L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan; S. Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University, Astana, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected].






571

Rastko JOVIĆ, PhD. Associated Professor, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; e-mail: [email protected]. Aigul A. KARAMOVA, PhD. Professor, Birsk branch of Bashkir State University, Birsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Dmitrii M. KARAVAEV, PhD., Perm National Research Polytechnic University, Perm, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Elena KASHINA, PhD., Samara University, Samara, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Vladimir P. KAZAKOV, PhD., Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Rishat F. KHASANOV, PhD. Professor, Birsk branch of Bashkir State University, Birsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Sholpan KHUDIAROVA, PhD., Foreign Languages and Professional Career University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Petimat Kh. KHUNARIKOVA, PhD., Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. A. M. KHUSIKHANOV, PhD., Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Alexander S. KOKIN, PhD. Professor, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, Nizhni Novgorod, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].






572

Elena KONOVALOVA, PhD., Naberezhnye Chelny State Pedagogical University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Sanim KOZHAYEVA, PhD., L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan; S. Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University, Astana, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Anatoliy V. KOZLOV, Professor, ,,Tyumen Industrial University”, Branch of the Tyumen Industrial University in Noyabrsk, Noyabrsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Margarita V. KREVCUN, PhD., Rostov State Economic University (RINH), Taganrog, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Svetlana V. LAPTEVA, PhD. Associate Professor, ,,Tyumen Industrial University”, Branch of the Tyumen Industrial University in Noyabrsk, Noyabrsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Larisa V. LAVRENTEVA, PhD., Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Victoria LEVCHENKO, PhD., Samara University, Samara, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Victoriya LING, PhD., Federal State Budget Educational Institution of Higher Education ,,Industrial University of Tyumen”, Tyumen, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Olga V. LYSOVA, PhD. Professor, Birsk branch of Bashkir State University, Birsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].






573

Zhanil K. MADALIEVA, PhD., Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty Branch of JSC ,,NCPD Orleu Institute for Professional Development of Almaty region”, Almaty, Kazahstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Vladimir G. MARALOV, PhD. Professor, Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Adrian MÃRINCEAN, Student, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Ana-Maria Iulia MORARIU, Student, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Iuliu-Marius MORARIU, PhD. Candidate, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Tetiana MOROZ, PhD., Mykolaiv V. O. Sukhomlynsky National University, Mykolaiv, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Gulzhan MURATOVA, PhD., L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan; S. Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University, Astana, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Irina MUSHKINA, PhD., Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education ,,Sochi State University”, Sochi, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Oksana A. MUZIKA, PhD., Rostov State Economic University (RINH), Taganrog, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].




574

Valentyna NECHYPORENKO, PhD., Khortytsia National Educational Rehabilitation Academy of Zaporizhzhia Regional Council, Zaporizhzhia, Zaporizhia, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Svetlana NOVIKOVA, PhD., Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education ,,Sochi State University”, Sochi, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Marina V. OGORODOVA, PhD., Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Saule ORAZBAУ, PhD., University named after the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan-Elbasy, Astana, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Anna I. ORLOVA, PhD. Associate Professor, Medical University of Nizhny Novgorod branch of Engineering and Economic University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Mykyta PANOV, PhD., Khortytsia National Educational Rehabilitation Academy of Zaporizhzhia Regional Council, Zaporizhzhia, Zaporizhia, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Maria Alexandra PANTEA, PhD., ,,Vasile Goldiş” West University, Arad, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Stelian PAŞCA-TUŞA, PhD. Lecturer, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Anastassia PETROVA, PhD., St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].



575

Vladimir V. PODBEREZNY, PhD., Rostov State Economic University (RINH), Taganrog, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Ioan POPA-BOTA, PhD. Research Assistant, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania e-mail: [email protected]. Vitaly V. POPOV, PhD., Rostov State Economic University (RINH), Taganrog, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Ellina POZDNIAKOVA-KYRBIATIEVA, PhD., Khortytsia National Educational Rehabilitation Academy of Zaporizhzhia Regional Council, Zaporizhzhia, Zaporizhia, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Yana PROSIANNIKOVA, PhD., Kherson State University, Kherson, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Maira RAKHIMZHANOVA, PhD., L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan; S. Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical University, Astana, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Seyfullakh A. RAMASANOV, PhD. Professor, Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University n. a. R. E. Alekseev (NNSTU), Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Galina ROMANOVA, PhD., Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education ,,Sochi State University”, Sochi, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Maryam Kh. SADULAEVA, PhD., Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].




576

Florina SAS, MA Candidate, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Ruslan I. SEFERBEKOV, PhD., Federal State Budgetary Institution of Science, Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Dagestan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Dagestan, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Elena SHMELEVA, PhD., Education Center ,,Sirius”, Sochi, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Gaziza SHOYBEKOVA, PhD., Kazakh State Women’s Teacher Training University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Alua A. SMANOVA, PhD., Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty Branch of JSC ,,NCPD Orleu Institute for Professional Development of Almaty region”, Almaty, Kazahstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Zhanna V. SMIRNOVA, PhD., Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Pavlo SMOLIAK, PhD. Associate Professor, Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, Ternopil, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Oleg SMOLIAK, PhD. Professor, Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, Ternopil, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Anzhelika SOLODKA, PhD., Mykolaiv V. O. Sukhomlynsky National University, Mykolaiv, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Marzhan U. SULEIBANOVA, PhD., Chechen State University, Grozny, Russian Federation;



577

e-mail: [email protected]. Inocent-Mária V. SZANISZLÓ OP, PhD. Professor, Angelicum Pontifical University, Rome, Italy; e-mail: [email protected]. Bogdan-Lucian ŞOPTEREAN, MA Candidate, ,,Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Olga S. TAMER, PhD. Associate Professor, ,,Tyumen Industrial University”, Branch of the Tyumen Industrial University in Noyabrsk, Noyabrsk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Radik Dzh. TATLYEV, PhD., Surgut Institute of Oil and Gas branch of TIU in Surgut, Surgut, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Almash T. TURALBAYEVA, PhD., Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Almaty Branch of JSC ,,NCPD Orleu Institute for Professional Development of Almaty region”, Almaty, Kazahstan; e-mail: [email protected]. Raluca-Nicoleta UILEAN, PhD. Candidate, ,,Petru Maior” University, Târgu-Mureş, Romania; e-mail: [email protected]. Irina UKRAINTSEVA, PhD., Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education ,,Sochi State University”, Sochi, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Irina USHATIKOVA, PhD., Elabuga Institute (branch) of Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Elabuga, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Julia Nikolaevna USTINOVA, PhD., Bryansk State University, Bryansk, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].




578

Marina VORONINA, PhD., Samara University, Samara, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Tetiana YEFYMENKO, PhD., Mykolaiv V. O. Sukhomlynsky National University, Mykolaiv, Ukraine; e-mail: [email protected]. Olga S. ZAVJALOVA, PhD., Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected]. Elmira M. G. ZULPUKAROVA, PhD., Federal State Budget Educational Institution of Higher Education Dagestan State University, Dagestan, Russian Federation; e-mail: [email protected].



579

ISSN 2393-4727

ISSN-L 2344-1887