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2 The Oceanic Environment
Notes for Marine Biology: Function, Biodiversity,
EcologyBy Jeffrey S. Levinton
©Jeffrey S. Levinton 2001
The Ocean
Geography and Bottom Features
©Jeffrey S. Levinton 2001
©Jeffrey S. Levinton 2001
The Ocean and Marginal Seas
• The worlds oceans: oceans and marginal seas
• Oceans cover 71% of earth’s surface• Southern hemisphere 80%, Northern
hemisphere 61%• 84% deeper than 2000m• Greatest depth ~ 11,000 m in Marianas
Trench
Marginal Seas
• Examples: Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea• Affected strongly by 1. regional climate, 2. precipitation-evaporation balance, 3. river input of fresh water and dissolved solids, 4. limited exchange with the open ocean (e.g., sill
partially cutting Mediterranean from Atlantic)
Marginal Seas 2
• Often have recent history of major change
• Mediterranean: completely dry a few million years ago
• Baltic Sea: less than 11,000 years old
Marginal Seas 3
• Marginal Seas (Gulf of Mexico, Baltic Sea):• influenced more by drainage and local climate:• 1. River input (Baltic Sea) • 2. Precipitation - evaporation balance
(Mediterranean)• 3. Restricted circulation (Black Sea,
Mediterranean)• 4. Geological history (Baltic)
Ocean as a Receptacle
• Particulate mineral matter• Dissolved salts• Particulate organic matter (POM)• Dissolved organic matter (DOM)• Atmospheric precipitation• Volcanic sources• Water
Water Relationships in the Ocean
Topographic Features
• Continental shelf (1° slope)• Continental slope (2.9° slope)• Continental Rise• Abyssal Plain• Submarine Canyons• Oceanic Ridge Systems
Topographic Features 2
Coa
stal
pla
in
She
lf
Slo
pe
Co n
t in e
ntal
ris
e
Aby
ssal
pla
in
Sea
mou
nt
Mid
-oce
an r
idge
Aby
ssal
pla
in
Tre
nchVol
cani
c is
land
Mar
gina
l sea
Depth (m
iles)Dep
th (
km)
Earth’s surface is divided into plates: borders are ridge systems, faults
American
Eurasian
Pacific
Philippine
Cocos
American
Antarctic
African
Eurasian
Arabian
Nazca
Caribbean
The Oceanic Crust: Crust is formed at ridges, moved laterally, and destroyed by subduction,
which forms trenches
Intermediate, deep-focus earthquakes
Continentalcrust Inactive fault
Oceaniccrust
Ridge Fault
Continent
ContinentalCrust
Mantle
Trench
The Ocean
Seawater Properties
©Jeffrey S. Levinton 2001
Water molecule
• Asymmetry of charge distribution on water molecule - increases ability to form bonds with ions - makes water excellent solvent
Water properties
• High heat capacity (0.9)• High heat of evaporation (590 cal/g)• High dissolving power• High transparency (absorbs
infrared, ultraviolet)
Latitudinal Gradient of Sea Water Temperature
Vertical Temperature Gradient: Open Tropical Ocean
Vertical Temperature Gradient: Shallow Temperate Ocean
• In shallow shelf regions with strong seasonal temperature change - get seasonal thermocline. Example: coastal NE United States - thermocline found in summer continental shelf, with surface warmer wind-mixed layer, deeper cooler water
• Winter: vertical temperature distribution much more uniform and cold, from surface to bottom. No strong thermocline
Salinity
• Definition: g of dissolved salts per 100g of seawater; units are o/oo or ppt
• Controlled by:+ evaporation, sea-ice formation- precipitation, river runoff
Salinity in open ocean is 32-38 o/oo
Important elements in seawater
• Chlorine (19,000 mg/l)• Sodium (10,500• Magnesium (1,300)• Sulfur (900)• Calcium (400)• Potassium (380)• Bromine (65)• Carbon (28 - variable)
Principle of Constant Element Ratios
• Ratios between many major elements are constant all over the ocean, even though salinity varies
Principle of Constant Element Ratios 2
• Why? Because residence time of elements is much greater than time to mix them evenly throughout ocean by water currents (ca. 1000 y)
Principle of Constant Element Ratios 3
• Residence time of Na, Cl, Sr is on the order of millions of years
Principle of Constant Element Ratios 4
• Principle does not apply to elements that cycle rapidly, especially under influence of biological processes (e.g., sulfur, phosphorous)
Measurement of Salinity
• Chlorinity: g of chlorine per 1000 ml of seawater
• Salinity = 1.81 x chlorinity• Measured by chemical titration
Measurement of Salinity 2
• Conductivity - increases with increasing salinity, has to be corrected for temperature
Measurement of Salinity 3
• Optical refraction - more salt, more refraction of light, uses refractometer
Temperature
• Oceanic range (1.9 - 40 °C) less than terrestrial range (-68.5-58 °C)
• Deep ocean is cold (2 - 4) degrees
Heat Changes in the Ocean
Additions Losses
Latitudinal gradient of solar heating
Back radiation of surface
Geothermal heating Convection of heat to atmosphere
Internal Friction Evaporation
Water Vapor Condensation
Seawater density (mass/volume)
• Influenced by salt, no maximum density at 4 °C (unlike freshwater)
• Density measure of seawater at temperature t
t= (density - 1) x 1000
t increases with increasing salinity
t increases with decreasing temperatureSpecial significance: vertical density
gradients
Latitudinal salinity gradient
Excess of evaporation over ppt in mid-latitudesExcess of ppt over evaporation at equator
The Ocean
Circulation in the Ocean
©Jeffrey S. Levinton 2001
Coriolis Effect - Earth’s RotationLatitude Eastward Velocity
(km/h)
Equator 1670
30° N. latitude 1440
60° N. latitude 830
Coriolis Effect - Movement of fluids, in relation to earth beneath, results in deflections
Coriolis Effect and Deflection
• Surface winds move over water• Coriolis effect causes movement of water at an
angle to the wind (to right in northern hemisphere)
• Water movement drags water beneath, and to right of water above
• Result: Shifting of water movement - Ekman Spiral (actually friction binds water together and all water moves at a right angle to wind (right of wind in n. hemisphere)
Coriolis Effect and Deflection 2
• Surface winds move over water• Coriolis effect causes movement of water at an
angle to the wind (to right in northern hemisphere)
• Water movement drags water beneath, and to right of water above
• Result: Shifting of water movement - Ekman Spiral (actually friction binds water together and all water moves at a right angle to wind (right of wind in n. hemisphere)
Coriolis Effect and Deflection 3
• Surface winds move over water• Coriolis effect causes movement of water at an
angle to the wind (to right in northern hemisphere)
• Water movement drags water beneath, and to right of water above
• Result: Shifting of water movement - Ekman Spiral (actually friction binds water together and all water moves at a right angle to wind (right of wind in n. hemisphere)
Coriolis Effect and Deflection 4
• Surface winds move over water• Coriolis effect causes movement of water at an
angle to the wind (to right in northern hemisphere)
• Water movement drags water beneath, and to right of water above
• Result: Shifting of water movement - Ekman Spiral (actually friction binds water together and all water moves at a right angle to wind (right of wind in n. hemisphere)
Coastal Winds + Coriolis Effect = Upwelling
Southern hemisphere: water moves to the left of wind
Oceanic Circulation
• Wind-driven surface circulation• Density-driven thermohaline
circulation
Wind-driven Circulation
• Driven by heating of air near equator, which rises, moves to higher latitude, falls, creating circulation cells that are affected by Earth’s rotation. Air moves surface water
• Prevailing westerlies (40°N & S latitude)• Trade winds (toward the west)
Wind-driven Circulation 2
• Combination of wind systems and shapes of ocean basins create cyclonic flow known as gyres
• Rotation of earth tends to concentrate boundary currents on west sides of ocean - creates concentrated currents such as Gulf Stream
Wind-driven Circulation 3Wind systems Surface currents
Westerlies
NE TradewindsDoldrums
SE Tradewinds
Westerlies
Subpolargyre
Subtropicalgyre
Subtropicalgyre
West wind drift
Thermohaline Circulation
• Water in the ocean can be divided into water masses, identified by distinct temperature, salinity, and other physico-chemical characteristics
Thermohaline Circulation 2
• Thermohaline circulation is movement of ocean water controlled mainly by density characteristics
• Controlled by (1) Location of formation of water, (2) density, (3) Coriolis effect to a degree
Thermohaline Circulation 3
• Water masses formed in high latitude surface waters - water is cold, often high salinity because of ice formation
• Waters sink, move at depth towards lower latitude
• Water masses each have a characteristic depth, because of their density, which is largely a function of their high latitude surface origin
Thermohaline Circulation 4
AABW=Antarctic Bottom Water; AAIW = Antarctic IntermediateWater; NADW = North Atlantic Deep Water
Circulation Recap
• Coriolis effect - rotation of Earth, prop. to sine of latitude, Right deflection in N. hemisphere, Left deflection in S. hemisphere - upwelling, deflection of currents
Circulation Recap 2
• Surface circulation - driven by planetary winds, which are controlled by heating, convection, Coriolis effect - gyres, eastern boundary currents
Circulation Recap 3
• Thermohaline Circulation - driven by density, sinking, surface water brought to deep sea - water masses determined by density
El Niño - Global Phenomenon
• Periodic - every few years• Warm water moves easterward across
Pacific Ocean• Eastern tropical and subtropical Pacific
becomes warm, thermocline deepens• Causes mortality of clams, fishes, from heat
shock• Strongly affects weather in eastern Pacific,
storms increase; droughts in western Pacific
The Ocean
Coastal Processes
©Jeffrey S. Levinton 2001
Waves
• Dimensions
Wave Length LAmplitude HVelocity V
Waves
• When depth < L/2: waves “feel bottom”• When H/L > 1/7: wave is unstable and
collapses (breaks)
Beaches
• Many beaches exposed to direct wave and erosive action
• Some sandy beaches are more protected, especially some that are very broad and dissipate wave energy at the low tide mark and only for a few meters from waterline
Beaches 2
• Profile more gentle in summer; fall and winter storms cause erosion and a steeper profile
Beaches 3
• Longshore currents, riptides are common features, causing erosion and transport of sand
Wave Refraction
Tides 1
• Gravitational attraction between ocean and moon + sun (moon has 6x the effect of the sun)
Tides 2
• Water on earth facing moon has net gravitational attraction, water facing away from earth has less attraction - centrifugal force causes high tides here
Tides 3
• Water on earth surface at right angles to moon is pulled either away or toward moon - results in low tides here
Tides 4
• Spring tides - greatest tidal range, highest high and lowest low - happens when earth, moon and sun are in line
• Neap tides - least tidal range - happens when earth, moon, and sun form approximate right angle
Tides 5
Sun
Sun
E
E
SpringTide
NeapTide
E = Earth
mm
m
m
m = Moon
Tides 6
• Tides differ in different areas; function of basin shape, basin size, latitude
• Results in strong regional differences in the amplitude of tides, the evenness of the expected two high and two low tides per lunar day (e.g., in Pacific NW, there is only one strong low tide per day, while the other “low” tide is nearly as high as the high tides
Tides 7
Connecticut - even tides Washington State - uneven
Estuaries 1
• Body of water where freshwater source from land mixes with seawater
• Often results in strong salinity gradient from river to ocean
• Salinity may be higher at bottom and lower at top, owing to source of river water that comes to lay on top of sea water below, or mixes with the sea water to some degree
Estuaries 2
Chesapeake Baywith summer surfacesalinity. Dark blueareas: tributaries have salinity< 10 o/oo
Estuaries - types 3
10
10
20
20 30
Sea water
Fresh water layer
Highly stratified estuary
Moderately stratified estuary (wind, tide mixing)
Vertically homogeneous estuary
Circulation in a coastal fjord
• Reduced exchange of fjord’s bottom waters, combined with density stratification and respiration results in low oxygen in bottom waters
Ocean Restricted circulation
Sill
The End