· 2018-04-16 · 3 ghf;Bhpah vnyf;l;uhd Ez;Nzhf;fp fz;lwpe;jth; - vh;d];l; u];fh kw;Wk; khf;] ehy; ghf;Bhpahtpidg; gw;wpa mwptpay gphpT - ghf;Bhpahy[p ghf;Bhpahy[papd; je;ij Mz;ld

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jhtutpay;(OUTLINE OF BOTANY)

T.VENKATESH KUMAR., M.Sc., M.Phil., M.Ed., PGDMLT., PGDBI.Asst. Head Master,P.G Teacher in Botany / NCC Officer.,

Troop No. 104 TN/BN/NCC(AW),V.M.GOVT.HR.SEC.SCHOOL (BOYS)., PERIYAKULAM – 625 601 -THENI DIST.

MOBIL NO. 9894925571 /9894925581e.mail: [email protected]

web: tvkbiology.blogspot.in

1. Ez; caphpay; (Microbiology)

fz;fSf;F Gyg;glhj Ez;Nzhf;fpapd; %yk; fhzf;$ba kpfr;rpwpa Ez; caphpfisg; gw;wp

gbg;gjw;F Ez; caphpay; vd;W ngah;. Ez; caphpfshtd

1. itu]; (capUs;s nry;ypy; kl;Lk; tsuf;$baJ) 2. ghf;Bhpah

itu];

itu]pid fz;lwpe;jth; bkpl;hp ItNdh];fp (1892)

itu]; fhg;rpl; vd;Dk; Guj ciwapid nfhz;Ls;sJ.

Gifapiy nkhirf; itu]; vdg; ngahpl;lth; (TMV) bkpl;hp ItNdh];fp

ghf;Bhpahtpid tpl itu];fs; rpwpait

itu];fis gbfkhf;f KbAk;

itu]pid gbfg;gLj;jpath; - W.M. ];lhd;yp – Gifapiyj; jhtuk;

itu]pidg; gw;wpa mwptpay; Jiw – ituhy[p (Virology) vd;W miof;fg;gLk;

itu]; vd;why; er;R (Poison) vd;W nghUs;gLk;.

kpfr;rpwpa itu]; - rhl;biyl; itu];

kpfg;nghpa itu]; - TMV (Gifapiy nkhirf; itu];)> cUisf;fpoq;F itu];.

itu]pd; mikg;G:

fhg;rpl; (capsid) vd;Dk; Guj ciwapid nfhz;Ls;sJ.

fhg;rpl;bDs; kuGg;nghUs; b.vd;.V. (or) Mh;.vd;.V. fhzg;gLk;.

jhtu itu]; epa+f;spf; mkpyk; ngUk;ghYk; Mh;.vd;.Vtpidr; rhh;e;Js;sJ.

itu]pdhy; jhf;fg;gLk; jhtuk; “Xk;Gaph; jhtuk;” vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.

itu]pd; tbtk;:

ePs; cUis tbt itu]; : Gifapiy nkhirf; itu];

Nfhs tbt itu]; : HIV itu];> ,d;GSad;]h itu];

gygf;f itu]; : NghypNah itu];

jiygpul;il tbtk; : T4 ghf;BhpNah Ng[;

nrq;fy; tbtk; : mk;ik itu];

tPhpahd;:

Xk;Gaphpapy; Neha; cz;lhf;Fk; jpwd;ngw;w itu]; Jfs;. (Virion)

itu]pd; caph; gz;Gfs;:

1. ngUf;fkiljy; 2. ghuk;ghpaj;jd;ik 3. jpOh; khw;wk; miljy;

nghpak;ik Neha; - vl;th;L n[d;dh;

HIV itu]; - uhgh;l; NfNyh kw;Wk; FOtpdh;

AIDS - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

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HIV kuGg;nghUs; - hpth;]; buhd;]; fphpg;Nl]; nehjp (R.N.A.)

HIV - Human Immuno Virus.,

HIV - nul;bNuh itu]; tifapid rhh;e;jJ.

ghf;BhpNahNg[;: - ghf;Bhpaq;fisf; nfhy;Yk; itu];.

ghf;BhpNah Ng[; - Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jth; bthh;l;bn`nuy;Ny.

AIDS Nehapid fz;lwpag;gLk; Nrhjid - ELISA Nrhjid [ Enzyme Linked Immuno

Sorbent Assay]

AIDS cWjpg;gLj;Jk; Nrhjid - nt];lh;d; gpshl; Nrhjid (Western Blot)

AIDS - %yf;fhuzp HIV itu];

HIV itu]; nts;isaZf;fspd; Guj ciwfis fpopj;J cs; Eioe;J> ,dg;ngUf;fk;

nra;J mtw;iw mopj;J Neha;fis Vw;gLj;Jk;.

mwpFwpfs;: njhlh;e;J fha;r;ry;> twl;L ,Uky;> vil Fiwjy;> Njhy; RUq;Fjy;>

jiytyp> njhz;ilGz;> kaf;fk;.

ikf;Nfhgpsh];kh vd;gJ itu];> ghf;Bhpahtpw;F ,ilg;gl;l caphp.

raNdhNg[; - ePyg;gr;ir ghrpapid jhf;Fk; itu];.

ikf;NfhNg[;: g+Q;irapid jhf;Fk; itu];

itu];fspd; tifg;ghL:

itu];

jhtu itu]; (RNA) tpyq;F itu]; (DNA) ghf;Bhpah (DNA) itu];

(v.fh.) TMV Neha;> NghypNah itu];> T4 ghf;Bhpahf; nfhy;yp

cUis - ,iyr;RUs; Neha;> Nfhkhhp Neha;

thio - cr;rpf; nfhj;J Neha;

itu]pdhy; cz;lhFk; Neha;fs;:

jhtuk;:

Gifapiy - nkhirf; itu];

thio - cr;rpf; nfhj;J Neha;

cUis - ,iyr; RUs; Neha;

gPl;&l; - kQ;rs; Neha;

tpyq;F:

Nfhop - mk;ik Neha;

khL - Nfhkhhp Neha;

kdpjh;fSf;F:

gd;wpf;fha;r;ry;> H1 N1 itu];> AIDS> nlq;F> gwitf;fha;r;ry;> kQ;rs; fhkhiy>

,d;GSad;]h> rpd;dk;ik> nghpak;ik> Nugp]; (ntwpeha;f;fb)> rsp> nghd;Df;F tPq;fp>

rhh;]; Neha; (SARS) (Severe Accute Respiratory Syndrome), NghypNah Neha;> G@ fha;r;ry;>

rpf;fd;Fdpah

hpth;]; buhd;]; fphpg;Nl]pd; Ntiy - RNA it DNA thf khw;Wk;

va;l;]; Neha;f;fhd kUe;J - AZT (mrpl;Nlhijkpbd;)

fq;if ePhpd; Gdpjj;jd;ikf;F fhuzk; - ghf;BhpNahNg[; vd;Dk; itu];



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3

ghf;Bhpah

vnyf;l;uhd; Ez;Nzhf;fp fz;lwpe;jth; - vh;d];l; u];fh kw;Wk; khf;]; ehy;

ghf;Bhpahtpidg; gw;wpa mwptpay; gphpT - ghf;Bhpahy[p

ghf;Bhpahy[papd; je;ij Mz;ld; thd; ypa+td; `hf;

cyfpy; Kjd;Kjypy; Njhd;wpa caphpdk;

ghf;Bhpahtpd; nry;Rth; nghUs; ngg;bNlh – fpisf;fhd; (m) kpa+hpd;

Nfg;#y; - ghf;Bhpahtpd; nry;Rthpidr; Rw;wpa jbj;j ciw

jw;fhy tifg;ghl;by; nkhdpuh tFg;gpy; Nrh;f;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

tbtk;:

I. cUz;il tbtk;: fhf;f]; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.

1. khNdh fhf;f]; - jdpj;j fhf;f];

2. bg;Nsh fhf;f]; - ,uz;L ,uz;lhf

3. ];nligNsh fhf;f]; - nfhj;jhf (jpuhl;ir Nghd;W)

4. ];l;nug;nlh fhf;f]; - rq;fpypj; njhlh; Nghd;W

II. Nfhy;tbtk; - Ngrpy;y];

III. jpUFtbtk; ; - ];ighpy;yk;

IV. fkh tbtk; ( , ) - tpg;hpNah

V. ,io tbtk; - raNdhghf;Bhpak;

firapioapd; mbg;gilapy; tifg;ghL:

firapiofis ngw;W fhzg;gLk; ghf;Bhpak; biuf]; vdg;gLk;.

1. firapio mw;w ghf;Bhpak; - Vbiuf;fh];

2. xUKidapy; firapiofs; xU fw;iwahf mike;jpUe;jhy; mJ –

NyhNghbiuf;f]; vdg;gLk;.

3. ,UKidapy; firapiofs; fw;iwahf mike;J ,Ug;gpd; mJ – Mk;gpbiuf;f];

vdg;gLk;.

4. firapiofs; clyj;jpid Rw;wp fhzg;gl;lhy; mJ nghpbiuf;fh];

Cl;lKiw tifg;ghL:

ghf;Bhpak;

jw;rhh;G Cl;lKiw (gr;irak; cs;sit) gpw Cl;lKiw (gr;irak; mw;wit)

xl;Lz;zp (v.fh) bg;Nsh fhf;f]; xspr;Nrh;f;if ghf;Bhpak; Ntjpr;Nrh;f;if ghf;Bhpak; (fe;jf ghf;Bhpah) (,Uk;G ghf;Bhpah) kl;Fz;zp (v.fh) Ngrpy;y]; $l;Laphp (v.fh) iuNrhgpak;

Rthr Kiw tifg;ghL ghf;Bhpak;

fhw;Wr;Rthrpfs; fhw;wpy;yh Rthrpfs; (O2 Njit) (O2 Njitapy;iy)

(v.fh) tpg;hpNahfhyNu (v.fh) fpsh];bhpbak;

nehjpj;jy; Kiw – kJghdk; jahhpj;jy;



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ghf;Bhpahtpd; ed;ikfs;:

ghiyj; japuhf;FfpwJ - Nyf;Nlh Ngrpy;y];

,l;yp> Njhir khtpid Gspf;fr; nra;fpwJ - Yf;Nfh eh];lhf;

caphp cukhf gad;gLfpwJ - iuNrhgpak;

ngl;Nuhypa vz;nza; frpTfis rpijf;Fk; ghf;Bhpah - r+NlhNkhdh];

ghy;gz;iz njhopw;rhiyfspy; gad;gLk; ghf;Bhpak; - Nyf;Nlhfhf;f]; yhf;b];

Nyf;Nlh Ngrpy;y];

Ya+f;Nfh eh];lhf; fphpNkhr];

jPikfs;:

ghiy nflr; nra;Ak; ghf;Bhpah - vd;bNuhghf;lh;

cztpid er;rhf;Fk; ghf;Bhpak; - fpsh];bhpbak;

1. ghf;Bhpahtpdhy; cz;lhFk; kdpj Neha;fs;:

fhyuh - tpg;hpNah fhyNu

ilgha;L - rhy;Nkhndy;yh ilgp%hp

vYk;GUf;fp - ikf;NfhNuhghf;Ohpak; oa{gh;Fnyhrp!;

njhONeha; - ikf;NfhNuhghf;Ohpak; byg;hpna

gpNsf; - vypapd; %yk; gut[fpwJ - vh;rPdpah ng];b]; (F[uhj; -1994)

2. ghf;Bhpahtpdhy; cz;lhFk; jhtu Neha;fs;:

vYkpr;ir - Nfd;rh; Neha;

cUis - tisa mOfy; Neha;

jf;fhsp - thly; Neha;

Mg;gps; - jP ntg;G Neha;

3. fhy;eilfspy; - Me;jpuhf;]; Nehapid Vw;gLj;Jk; - Ngrpy;y]; Md;j;uhrp];

bg;jPhpah> gNahhpah (gy; NfhshW) fhuzk; - ghf;Bhpah

Ez;Zaphpid nfhy;Yk; Kiw – gh];bAiuNr\d;

Kjd;Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jth; - Yhapgh];bah;

gh];bAiuNr\d; vd;gJ ghiy 650 ntg;gepiyapy; 30 epkplq;fs; r+Nlw;wp cldbahf

Fsph;tpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

2. jhtu tifg;ghl;bay;

jhtuk; - g;Nshuh tsk; igl;lh - jhtuk;

jhtu cyfk;

I fphpg;NlhNfk;fs; (g+thj;jhutk;) II ngdpNuhNfk;fs; (g+f;Fk; jhtuk;)

1. jhNyhigl;lh 2. gpiuNahigl;lh 3. nlhpNlhigl;lh 1. [pk;Ndh];ngh;k; 2. MQ;rpNah];ngh;k;

ghrp g+Q;ir hpf;]pah nguzpfs; irf]; ePl;lk;

,Utpj;jpiy xUtpj;jpiy

fpshkpNlhNkhd]; fhshd; jhtuk;

jhtuk;

(khkuk;> Gspakuk;) (ney;> fUk;G> thio)



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I. fphpg;NlhNfk;fs;:

g+thj; jhtuk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

,tw;wpy; %d;W gphpTfs; cs;sd

1. jhNyhigl;lh

2. gpiuNahigl;lh

3. nlhpNlhigl;lh

jhNyhigl;lh:

vspa cly; mikg;gpidf; nfhz;lJ

jpR NtWghL ,Ug;gJ ,y;iy

rpy jhNyhigl;Lfspy; gr;irak; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

mitfs; Ra [Ptpfs; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. (v.fh) ghrpfs;

rpy jhNyhigl;Lfspy; gr;irak; ,Ug;gJ ,y;iy. ,it cztpw;fhf gpw jhtuq;fis

rhh;e;J thOk;. ,itfs; gu [Ptpfs; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;. (v.fh) g+Q;irfs;

ghrpfs; (My;fh)

gr;irak; cs;s jhNyhigl; jhtuk;

,it g+thj;jhtuk; gphptpid Nrh;e;jit.

ghrpfs;/My;fhtpidgw;wpa jhtutpay;gphpT My;fhy[p (m) igf;fhy[p (Phycology)vd;W

ngah;

My;fhtpd; je;ij - M.O.P. Iaq;fhh;

ghrpfspd; Nrkpg;G nghUs; - jurk; (];lhh;r;)> fzpfk;

ePH; epiyfspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

vspa> gr;ir epwghrp caphpay; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jit.

Nth;> jz;L> ,iy NtWghL fpilahJ

clyk; jhy]; vdg;gLk;.

FNshnuy;yh> fpshkpNlhNkhd]; - xUnry; ghrp

thy;thf;]; - fhyzp mikT ghrp

];igNuhifuh - gynry;> ePz;l ,iog;ghrp

cjhuzk; epwk; epwkp Nrkpg;G czTg;nghUs;

];igNuhifuh

fpshkpNlhNkhd];

gr;ir gr;irak;

(FNsuhNuhgpy;)

];lhh;r;

eh];lhf; ePyg;gr;ir ghrp igf;Nfhradpd; raNdhigrpad; ];lhh;r;

rh;fhrk;>

NykpNdhpahpah

gOg;G igf;Nfhrhe;jpd; yhkpNdhpad; ];lhh;r;

ghypirNghdpah

fpuhrpNyhpahpah

rptg;G igf;Nfhvhpj;hpd; /GNshhpbad; ];lhh;r;

fpshkpNlhNkhdh];:

efUk; xU nry; ghrp

,U rkkhd firapiofisf; nfhz;lJ

Nfhg;ig tbt gRq;fzpfk; nfhz;lJ

Guj ikak – ighpdha;L

jhNyhigl;lh gphptpid rhh;e;jJ



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ghypyh ,dg;ngUf;fk; ];Nghh;fs; - r+];Nghh;fs; %yk; eilngWfpwJ

ghy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; NfkPl;Lfs; %yk; eilngWk;.

fpshkpNlhNkhdh]; ];bf;khtpd; NtWngah; fz;Gs;sp.

fpshkpNlhNkhdh]; - ,U rkkhd firapio cs;sJ.

];igNuhifuh:

ePh;gl;L> Fsg;gl;L> Fsf;frL vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

ed;dPhpy; kpje;J thOk; xU gr;irg;ghrp

hpg;gd; tbt gRq;fzpfk; fhzg;gLk;.

];igNuhifuhtpy; ghypyh ,dg;ngUf;fk;

1. Vg;sNdh];Nghh;fs;> VifNdl;Lfs; %yk; eilngWk;.

];igNuhifuhtpd; ghy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; NfkPl;Lfs; %yk; eilngWk;.

1. Vzp ,izT Kiw 2. gf;f ,izT Kiw

My;fhtpd; ,dg;ngUf;fk;:

1. cly ,dg;ngUf;fk;:

1. mikyk; el;rj;jpu Kiw 2. Gy;gpy;fs; 3. GNuhl;Nlhdpkh Kiw

2. ghypyh ,dg;ngUf;fk;:

1. r+];Nghh;fs; 2. VgpsNdh];Nghh;fs; 3. VifNdl;Lfs;

3. ghy; ,dg;ngUf;fk;:

NfkPl;Lfs; %yk; eilngWk;.

fy;ghrpfs;: [Stoneworts]

fhuh fy;ghrpfs; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

Nth;fs; iurha;Lfs; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ

fhuhtpd; cly ,dg;ngUf;fj;jpw;F Gy;gpy;fs; vd;W ngah;

ghypdg; ngUf;fk; CNfk]; Kiwapy; eilngWk;.

fhuhtpd; Mz;ghy; cWg;G – FNshg;a+y; (Me;jhPbak;)

fhuhtpd; ngz;ghy; cWg;G - epa+f;a+y; (CNfhdpak;)

raNdhigl;lh gphpitr; Nrh;e;j My;fh (ePyg;gRk;ghrp) raNdhghf;Bhpah vd;Wk;

miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. (v.fh) eh];lhf;> mdgPdh

eh];lhf;fpd; clyk; - biuf;Nfhk; vd;W ngah;

ghrpfspd; gw;W cWg;G – gw;W nry; vdg;gLk;.

nghUshjhu Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:

caphp cukhf gad;gLtJ - eh];lhf;> mdgPdh

jdpnry; Guj cw;gj;jp (SCP) (Single Cell Protein) - FNshnuy;yh> ];igUypdh

czTg;nghUs; - Nghh;iguh> my;th> vd;bNuhkhh;gh

mfhh; mfhh; jahhpg;G - n[ypbak;> fpuhrpNyhpah> iffhh;bdh

fopTePh; Rj;jpfhpg;G - fpshkpNlhNkhdh];> FNshnuy;yh.

tpz;ntsptPuh;fSf;F O2 Njitia rhpnra;tJ - FNshnuy;yh



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g+Q;irfs;

gr;irak; mw;w jhNyhigl; jhtuk;

g+Q;irfisg; gw;wp gbg;gjw;F ikf;fhy[p (Mycology)

cztpw;fhf gpw caphpdq;fis rhh;e;J fhzg;gLk;.

g+Q;irapd; clyk; ikrPypak; vdg;gLk;.

ikrPypak; - fpisj;j> nky;ypa ,iofshy; MdJ. ,itfSf;F i`ghf;fs; vd;W

ngah;.

v.fh: eha;Fil fhshd;> <];l;

g+Q;irapd; cwpQ;R cWg;G - `h];Nlhhpaq;fs;

Cl;lKiw:

g+Q;ir

kl;Fz;zp (,we;j> mOfpa nghUs;) xl;Lz;zp (capUs;s jhtu tpyq;F)

(v.fh) mfhhpf];> iuNrhg]; (v.fh) Nth;fliy – nrh;Nfh];Nghuh g+Q;ir

,dg;ngUf;fk;:

1. cly ,dg;ngUf;fk; - Jz;lhjy; Kiwapy;

2. ghypyh ,dg;ngUf;fk; - ];Nghh;fs;

3. ghy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; - Nfkpl;Lfs; %yk;

NkhNdh\pa]; (m) N`hNkh jhypf; - Mz;ghy;/ngz;ghy; cWg;Gk; xNu jhy]py;

,Ue;jhy;

ilNa\pa]; (m) n`l;bNuh jhypf; - Mz;ghy;/ngz;ghy; cWg;G ntt;NtW jhy];

,Ue;jhy;

N`hNyhfhh;gpf; - KO clYk; ,dg;ngUf;fj;jpy; <Lgl;lhy;

a+fhh;gpf; - clyj;jpd; xUgFjp kl;Lk; ,dg;ngUf;fj;jpy; <Lgl;lhy;> Vida gFjpfs; cly

nray;fs; <Lgl;lhy;.

g+Q;irfspd; fdp cWg;G:

tFg;G fdp cWg;G tiffs;

M];NfhikrPl;]; M];Nfhfhh;g; 1. fpsp];NlhjPrpak; 2. nghpjPrpak; 3. mNghjPrpak;

ngrpbNahikrPl;]; ngrpbNahfhh;g; ];NghNuhfhh;g; (m) ngrpbNahfhh;g;

ngdprpypak;: (g+Q;ir)

fphpd; Nkhy;L (m) g;SNkhy;L vd;W miof;fg;gLk;

mOfpa mq;ffg; nghUspd; kPJ tsUk; jd;ik cilaJ

kUe;Jfspd; uhzp - ngd;rpypd;

mnyf;rhz;lh; g;sk;kpq; ngd;rpypd; vd;w mw;Gj kUe;jpid ngdprpypak; nehNll;lk;>

ngd;rpypak; f;iuNrh[Pdk; - vd;w g+Q;irapy; ,Ue;J jahhpj;jhh;.

I F

II C

ngdprpypd;fs; vd 4 tifg;gLk;.

III X

IV K



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fhshd;fs;: (g+Q;irfs;)

mfhhpf]; - kl;Fz;zp

Fil Nghd;w tphpe;j gFjp - igypa];

Fil Nghd;w gFjp - ngrpbNahfhh;g;

ghuhig]p]; - tskw;w nry;fs;

fhshd;fspd; clyk; - ikrPypak; vdg;gLk;

gr;irakw;w clyk; - fhshd;fs;. vdNt kw;w caphpdq;fisAk;> mq;ff

nghUs;fisAk; rhh;e;Nj tho;fpd;wd.

eha;Fil fhshd; - mfhhpf];

cz;zf;$ba fhshd; - mfhhpf]; ig];Nghu];

,uhl;rj fhshd; - g/g;ghy;

fpshtpnrg;]; gh;gpa{hpah - fhshd; vh;fhl; kUe;jpypUe;J vLf;fg;LfpwJ - gpurtj;jpd;

NghJ mjpf ,uj;jg; Nghf;fpid jilnra;ag; gad;gLk;

Vwf;Fiwa 80>000 ,dk; cs;sJ.

<];l;: (brf;fnuhikrp!; brhptprpna)

xU nry; g+Q;ir ek; fz;fSf;Fj; njhpahJ

gpire;j nuhl;bia cz;zr; nra;J nghpjhf;FfpwJ. nuhl;b> My;f`hy; jahhpg;gpy;

gad;gLfpwJ.

kpa+f;fh;:

nuhl;bf; fhshd; (m) fUg;Gf;fhshd; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

<ukhd czTg; nghUs;fs;> mOfpa go> fha;fwpfs;> rhdq;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; kPJ

tsh;fpd;wd

igNyhNghy];:

Fjpiuapd; rhzj;jpy; thOk; g+Q;ir

nrg;bf;Nlq;fpy; cs;s fpUkpfis mopj;J Jha;ikg;gLj;JfpwJ.

igNyhgpy;y];: kuf;fl;il g+Q;ir

nfNuhbNdhgpy;y];: Kbapd; kPJ tsUk; g+Q;ir

gil> Nrw;Wg;Gz;> Njky; Nghd;witfis Fzg;gLj;JtJ - fphp]pNahGy;tpd; vd;w

kUe;J – fpiuNrhGy;tk; vd;w g+Q;irapy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gLfpwJ.

g+Q;irfs; kdpjdpy; tz;zhd;gil> Njky; Nehia Vw;gLj;Jk;.

M];gh;[py;y];> iuNrhg]; Mfpait jPik tpistpf;ff; $bait – mhprp> ghyhilf;fl;b>

nuhl;b

g+Q;irfspd; tifg;ghL:

1. kpf;N]hikrPl;]; - g;a+rhhpak;

2. igNfhikrPl;]; - kPa+f;fh;

3. M];NfhikrPl;]; - ngdprpypak;

4. ngrpbNahikrPl;]; - mfhhpf];

5. ba+bNuhikrPl;]; - NfhypbNlhiuf;fk;

(ghypdg;ngUf;fk; mw;w g+Q;ir) (m) (FiwghLila g+Q;ir)



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9

iyf;fd;fs;:

My;fhTk; + g+Q;irAk; Nrh;e;j njhFg;G

$l;Laphp tho;f;ifapy; nghJg; gad;fis ngw;W thOk; g+Q;ir iyf;fd;fs; vdg;gLk;.

kug;gl;ilfspy; fhzg;gLk;.

gpiuNahigl;lh:

th];Fyhh; jpR mw;w fphpg;NlhNfk;fs; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

Vndd;why; flj;Jj;jpR (iryk;> GNshak;) ,tw;wpy; fpilahJ

vspa tif jhtuq;fs; MFk;.

jhtu cyfj;jpd; ,Utho;tpfs;. (ePhpYk;> epyj;jpYk; tho;git. gRikahd jhtuk;)

gpiuNahigl;bd; clyk; jhy]; vdg;gLk;. (v.fh) hpf;]pah> khh;fd;\pah

Nkk;gl;l jhtuq;fspy; jhtu clykhdJ jz;L Nghd;w ,iy mikg;gpid nfhz;Ls;sJ.

(v.fh) kh];fs;

,Utifahd tho;f;if Row;rpapy; re;jjp khw;wk; fhzyhk;.

1. Nfkpl;Nlhigl;(jhy];)-jdpj;J tho;git

2. ];NghNuhigl;-Nfkpl;Nlh igl;bid rhh;e;J thOk;

tifg;ghL:

1. n`g;ghl;bfhg;rplh (<uy; tbt jhy];) - hpf;]pah> khh;fd;\pah

2. Me;NjhnruNlhg;rplh - Me;Njhrpuh];

3. gpiuahg;rplh - g;a+Ndhpah

g;iuNahigl;lhtpy; ghypdg;ngUf;fk;> NfkPl;Lfs; %yk; eilngWfpwJ.

fUTWjy; eilngw ePh; ,d;wpaikahjJ

fUTWjypd; Kbtpy; irNfhl; cz;lhfpwJ

Me;Njhrpuhg;rplhtpd; kpfg;nghpa Nghpdk; Me;j;Nuhrpuh];

NkhNd\pa]; - Me;jhpbak; ( )> Mh;f;fpNfhdpak; ( ) ,Ug;gJ.

Me;jhpabj; Njhw;Wthapy; ,Ue;J Me;jhpbaKk;> Mh;f;fpNfhdpak; jhy]pd; Nky;Gw nry;ypy;

,Ue;J cUthfpwJ.

epoy;tpUk;gpj; jhtuk;

hpf;]pah ypth;nth;l; tifapid rhh;e;j jhtuk;.

ePhpy; kl;Lk; tho;git hpf;]pah GSapl;ld;];

kh];fspy; Nth;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf iurha;L vdg;gLk; ciuNth;fs; cs;sJ.

hpf;]pah - xspr;Nrh;f;if> Nrkpg;G gFjp vd 2 gFjpfs; cs;sd.

ghypbiuf;fk;:

1. gpiuNahigl;lhtpd; Kjy; tifj;jhtuk;

2. kuf;fpisapy; njhw;Wr; nrbahf tsh;git.

3. cly ,dg;ngUf;fk; - ‘n[k;kh’ %yk; eilngWk;.

ghy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; Nfkpl;Lfs; %yk; eilngWk;.

ghypbiuf;fk; MZWg;G Me;jphpbak;> ngz; cWg;G Mh;f;fpNfhdpak; vdg;gLk;.

];Ngf;dk; vDk; gpiuNahigl;lh k];i] tFg;gpidr; rhh;e;jJ.



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10

nlhpNlhigl;lh: (Nkk;ghL mile;j fphpg;NlhNfk;)

th];Fyhh;jpRf;fs; nfhz;l fphpg;Nlhk;fs; (m)tpijfsw;w cz;ikahd th];Fyhh;

jhtuq;fs;

Nth;> jz;L> ,iy vd;w NtWghL cz;L.

];NghNuhigl; Kf;fpaj; jhtuk;

re;jjp khw;wk; fhzg;gLk;.

irNfhl; [,Uka epiy (2n)] ];NghNuhigl; re;jjpapd; Kjy; nry;.

nlhpNlhigl;Lfspy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; ];Nghh;fs;> Nfkpl;Lfs; %yk; eilngWfpwJ.

];Nghh; - Nfkpl;Nlhigl; re;jjpapd; Kjy; nry;

N`hNkh];Nghu]; tif: ];Nghh;fs; msT> tbtk; xNu khjphpahf ,Ug;gJ.

n`l;bNuh];Nghu]; tif: ];Nghh;fs; msT> tbtk; NtWgl;L ,Ug;gJ

jz;lhdJ - iuNrhk; tif - jiuabapy; tho;git.

nlhpNlhigl;lhtpd; Nfkpl;Nlhigl; - ,ja tbt GNuhjhy]; MFk;.

jhtu clyk; - ];NghNuhigl;

nguzp jhtu ,iyfs; - g;uhz;Lfs; vdg;gLk;.

neg;Nuhnyg;gp]py; - ,iy mikT – fbfhur; RUs; Nghd;w ,iy mikT

1. ,jw;F rh;rpNdl; jshpiy mikT vd;W ngah;

2. Nukd;lh vdg;gLk; nrjpy; ,iyfs; fhzg;gLk;.

3. Nrhu];: ];Nghhpiyfspd; fPo;Gwj;jpy; cUthFk; mlh;e;j gOg;G epw mikg;G -

Nrhu];

4. ];Nghhpiy: ];Nghh;fis cUthf;Fk; ,iyfs;.

nlhpNlhigl;lhtpd; tifg;ghL:

tFg;G (v.fh.)

irNyhigl;lh - irNyhl;lk;

iyf;Nfhigl;lh - iyf;NfhNghbak;

fhyNkhigl;lh - <f;Ftprpj;jk;

gpypf;Nfhigl;lh - neg;Nuhnyg;gp];

n]yh[pndy;yh:

,iyapd; Nkw;Gwj;jpy; ehf;L tbt ypf;a+y; fhzg;gLk;.

Kjph;e;j ];nguhQ;rpaj;jpd; tbtk; - rpWePuf tbtk;

mbahe;jk;: kq;ifahpd; $e;jy; nguzp

ngdpNuhNfk;]; (];ngh;kl;Nlhigl;lh)

g+f;Fk; jhtuk;

1. [pk;Ndh];ngh;k; ,UgphpTfs; 2. MQ;rpNah];ngh;k;

[pk;Ndh];ngh;k;:

jpwe;j tpij nfhz;l (m) %lg;glhj tpijj;jhtuk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

tpijfis cila g+thj;jhtuk;

fdp> fdp ciw ,Ug;gJ ,y;iy. mjdhy; tpijfs; %lg;glhky; ntspNa fhzg;gLk;

Fsph;gFjpfspy; cs;s fhLfspy; tsUfpwJ. nrjpy; ,iy

,Utif ,iyfs; gRik khwh xspr;Nrh;f;if ,iy



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11

tifg;ghL:

tFg;G (v.fh.)

1. irf;fNly;]; - irf];

2. NfhdpngNuy;;;]; - igd]; (xU ];NghNuhigl; jhtuk;)

3. [pq;NfhNay;]; - [pq;NfhigNyhgh

4. ePl;Nly;]; - ePl;lk;

muNfhpah:

‘Fuq;fpd; Gjph;’ vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.

jhtu clyk; - bg;sha;L - ];NghNuhigl; MFk;.

,J ilNa\pa]; jhtuk;

igd];:

,J xU ];NghNuhigl; jhtuk;

,dg;ngUf;fk; ikf;Nuh];Nghh;> nkfh];Nghh; %yk; eilngWfpwJ.

‘igd;’ kuf;fl;ilapy; ,Ue;J jukhd kuf;$o; jahhpj;J ,jpypUe;J Kj;jpiuj;jhs;> &gha;

Nehl;Lf;fs; mr;rplg;gLfpd;wd.

igd]; kyhpid cjph;j;J kQ;rs; epwkhf fhzg;gLk; mjid fe;jf kio vd;W

miog;gh;.

,ju [pk;Ndh];ngh;k; jhtuk;: Fg;u];

th];Fyhh; jpRf;fs; (iryk;> GNshak;) cs;sd.

MQ;rpNah];ngh;k; jhtuk; (%ba tpijj;jhtuk;):

tpijfis cila g+f;Fk; jhtuk;

tpijfs; r+yfg; igapDs; cUthFk;.

r+yf ciw – tpij ciwahf khWk;.

Kisf;Fk; NghJ xUtpij ,iyAld; Kisj;J tUgit xUtpij ,iy jhtuk; -

(v.fh) ney;> njd;id> Gy;

Kisf;Fk; NghJ ,UtpijapiyAld; Kisj;J tUgit ,Utpijapiy jhtuk; -

(v.fh) kh> Gspakuk;> gPd;];> Ntk;G

g+f;fs; %yk; ,dg;ngUf;fk; nra;git.

,Utpj;jpiyj; jhtuq;fspy; cs;s Nth; - MzpNth;

xUtpj;jpiyj; jhtuq;fspy; cs;s Nth; - ry;ypNth;

3. jhtug;Gw mikg;gpay;

clyg;Gw mikg;gpay; ,dg;ngUf;f Gw mikg;gpay;

(Nth;> jz;L> ,iy) (kQ;rhp> kyh;> fdp> tpij)

Nth;j;njhFg;G:

Kis NthpypUe;J cUthFk;.

epyg;gug;gpw;F mbapy; fhzg;gLk; jhtu cly gFjp

Nthpd; Kjd;ikg;gzp - Cd;Wjy;> cwpQ;Rjy;> Neh;Gtp ehl;lk;> vjph; xsp ehl;lk;

Nthpd; gFjpfs;:

Nthpd; %bg;gFjp - Nth;Edpapid %bg;ghJfhf;Fk;.

Nth;j;Jhtp gFjp - ePiuAk;> jhJ cg;gpid cwpQ;RtJ.



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12

Kjph;r;rp milAk; gFjp - epyj;jpy; Cd;wp tsu cjTk; gFjp

ePl;rp milAk; gFjp - ePs thf;fpy; tsh;r;rp milgit.

MzpNthpd; khw;WUf;fs;: (fpoq;F Nth;fs;)(Nth;fspy; cztpid Nrkpg;git)

$k;G tbtk; - fhul;

fjph;Nfhy; tbtk; - Ks;sq;fp

Neg;gpghh;k; tbtk; - gPl;&l;

Ntw;wplNthpd; khw;WUf;fs;: (Kis Nth; jtpu gpwgFjpapy; ,Ue;J tsUk; Nth;)

Jhz; Nth; - Mykuk;

njhw;WNth; - thz;lh(fhw;wpy; cs;s <ug;gir cwpQ;Rk; - ntykd; vd;w gQ;R Nghd;w jpR)

Rthr Nth;fs; / nekl;NlhNghh;fs; (cth; epyj;jhtuk;) - mtprpdpah> iuNrhNghuh jhtuk;

gw;wp VWk; Nth;fs; - ntw;wpiy> Nghj;jh]; (fZf;fs; Cd;WjYf;fhf Njhd;Wfpd;wd)

gl;u]; Nth;fs; - ,ytk;gQ;R kuk;. gUj;j Nth;- mbkuj;jpy; ,Ue;J Njhd;Wk; -

jhq;Fjiy mspf;Fk;.

MzpNth; - Mykuk;> murkuk;

ry;ypNth; - fUk;G> %q;fpy;

Nghfh];bkhd; - ,iyNth;fs;

Ntw;wpl Nth;fs; - gpiuNahgpy;yk; (,iy tpspk;G)

,iyfs; %yk; jiutop ,dg;ngUf;fk; nra;fpwJ.

Nfhypa]; (fpisabapy;)

jz;Lj;njhFg;G:

Neh; xsp ehl;lk;> vjph; Gtp ehl;lk;

Kisf;FUj;jpy; ,Ue;J tsh;tJ.

jz;by; Nfhznkhl;L> Edpnkhl;L vd;w ,UgFjpfs; cz;L.

,ay;ghd gzpfs;: 1. jhq;Fjy; 2. flj;Jjy;

jz;bd; tiffs;

jiuNky; jz;L jiunahl;ba jz;L jiufPo;j;jz;L

gpd;Dnfhb – mtiu> XL jz;L(oiulhfl!;) kl;lepyj;jz;L-,Q;rp fUk;G> fPiuj;jz;L jiufPo; XLjz;L(fpiurhe;jpkk;) fe;jk; - Nridf;fpoq;F ];Nlhyd;-(g[jpdh/!;lhbgh;hp jz;Lfpoq;F – cUis Fl;ilahd XLjz;L(Ifhh;dpa+h) Fkpo;jz;L –ntq;fhak; jz;bd; rpwg;Gg;gzp:

jz;bd; gw;Wf;fk;gp - ghrpGNshuh> Klf;F mw;whd;> Md;bNfhdhd;

Ks; ghJfhg;gpw;F - vYkpr;ir

,iyj;njhopy; jz;L (fpshNlhL) -a+Nghh;gpah> rg;ghj;jpfs;sp> (ePuhtpg;Nghf;fpid Fiwg;gjw;fhf Kl;fshf cUkhwpAs;sd)

Gy;gpy; - fw;whio> ntq;fhak; (gy nry;fspy; Md clynkhl;L> ,dg;ngUf;fj;jpw;fhf jz;by; cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ)

kQ;rs;> fUizf;fpoq;F - jz;by; czT Nrkpg;git.

,iy

gRikahd ,iyfs; (gr;irak; cs;sjhy;) jio ,iyfs; vd;W ngah;.

xspr;Nrh;f;if nra;Ak; jz;bd; Gw tshp - ,iy.



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13

,iy mikT: (gpy;Nylhf;rp)

,iy – jz;by; ,iyfs; mike;jpUf;fk; Kiw.

,iyj;jhs;> ,iyf;fhk;G> ,iyab vd;w 3 gFjp cs;sJ.

euk;gikT:

,iyapy; euk;GfSk;> rpW euk;GfSk; mike;jpUf;Fk; Kiw.

,Utpj;jpiy jhtuk; (kh> nfha;ah> Gspakuk;) - tiyg;gpd;dy; euk;gikT

xUtpj;jpiy jhtuk; (ney;> fUk;G> Gy;) - ,idNghf;F euk;gikT.

,iyapd; gzpfs;:

1. xspr;Nrh;f;if 2. Rthrpj;jy; 3. ePuhtpg;Nghf;F 4. thAg;ghpkhw;wk;

,iyapd; khw;WUf;fs;:

,iyj;njhopy; ,iyf;fhk;G (gpy;NyhL) - mNf\pah nkyNdhiryhd;

FLitj;jhtuk; (m) g+r;rpAz;Zk; jhtuk; - neg;ge;j];> bu]Puh ,iygug;G (N2 gw;whf;Fiw rhpnra;a) (r+hpagdpj;Jsp jhtuk;)

g+r;rpfis ftUtJ FLitahf khwpAs;sJ ml;hpFNyhpahf;F – g;shlh; nthh;l; vd;w kWngaUk; cz;L.

,dg;ngUf;f Gw mikg;gpay;

(kQ;rhp> kyh;> fdp> tpij)

gy kyh;fs; $l;lkhf miktJ kQ;rhp

kyh; vd;gJ ,dg;ngUf;fj;jpw;fhd msT FWfpa jz;Lj;njhFg;G

kyhpd; ghfq;fs;:

Gy;yptl;lk; Jiz ghfq;fs; my;yptl;lk;

kfue;j tl;lk; ,d;wpaikahj ghfq;fs; (,dg;ngUf;fj;jpy; <LgLtjhy;) r+yftl;lk;

MQ;rpNah];ngh;k;fs; - g+f;fs; %yk; ,dg;ngUf;fk; nra;git.

Nkw;fz;l 4 ghfq;fSk; (Gy;yp> my;yp> kfue;jk;> r+yfk;) cs;s kyh;fs; KOikahd

kyh;fs; MFk;.

kyhpd; Mz;ghfk; - kfue;j tl;lk; (A) (or) ikf;Nuh];NghNuhgpy;

kyhpd; ngz;ghfk; - r+yftl;lk; (G) (or) nkfh];NghNuhgpy;

kfue;jk;> r+yfk; - ,uz;ilAk; nfhz;l kyh; - ,Ughy; kyh;fs;

kfue;jk;> r+yfk; ,tw;wpy; VjhtJ xd;wpid kl;Lk; nfhz;Ls;s kyh; xUghy;kyh; vd

miof;fg;gLk;.

xU fw;iw kfue;jk; - khy;Ntrp

,Ufw;iw kfue;jk; - NgNg]p

]pd;n[dp\pa]; kfue;jk; - m];jpNu]p

my;yp xl;ba kfue;jk; - &gpNa]p

r+w;ig

r+yfk; - %d;W gFjp r+y;jz;L

r+y;Kb

r+w;igapy; r+y;fs; ,ize;jpUf;Fk; jpR r+y; xl;Lj;jpR

r+y; xl;Lj;jpR mike;jpUf;Fk; Kiw – r+y; xl;LKiw

tpspk;G r+y; xl;LKiw - NgNg]p FLk;gj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;

mr;R r+y; xl;LKiw - khy;Ntrp FLk;gj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;



www.Padasalai.Net

14

Rth;r;r+y; xl;Liw - nts;shp

mbr;r+y; xl;Liw - r+hpafhe;jp

,joikT:

g+nkhl;by; Gy;yp ,jo;> my;yp ,jo; mike;jpUf;Fk; Kiwf;F ,jo; mikT vd;W ngah;.

njhL ,jo; mikT - kNdhuQ;rpjk;

jpUF ,jo; mikT - nrk;gUj;jp my;yp ,jo;

,wq;F jOT ,jo; mikT - (NgNg]p – mtiu ,jo;)

fdp:

fUTw;w tsh;r;rp mile;j r+w;ig fdp

fUTWjYf;Fg;gpd;

1. r+w;ig - fdpahfTk; 2. r+y; - tpij 3. r+Yiw - tpijAiw

fdpfs;

jdpf;fdp jpus;fdp $l;Lf;fdp

rijg;gw;Ws;s fdpfs; cyh;fdpfs; nel;bypq;fk; gyh

(ghypahy;jpah) (NrhNuh]p];)

ngh;hp – jf;fhsp cyh;ntb fdpfs; cyh;ntbahfdp

l;Ug; - kh> Njq;fha; 1. ,UGw ntbfdp 1. fhhpahg;rp];

n`];nghpbak; - rpl;u];

ngg;Ngh – nts;shp gl;lhzp> mtiu ney;

fdp ciw nghpfhh;g; vd miof;fg;gLk;

fdp ntsp ciw vgpfhh;g;

fdp eLciw kPN]hfhh;g;

fdp cs; ciw vz;Nlhfhh;g;

gyhtpy; cz;Zk; gFjp - g+tpjo;

khtpy; cz;Zk; gFjp - kPN]hfhh;;g; (eLg;gFjp)

jf;fhsp - midj;Jg;gFjpAk; cz;zg;gLfpwJ.

fUTwhf; fdpahjy;: (ghh;j;jpNdh fhh;gp)

mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - ehNfyp

fUTWjy; vd;w epfo;r;rpapd;wp fdp cUthjy;

,itfs; tpijfs; mw;wit.

,k;Kiw ghh;j;jpNdh fhh;gp vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. (v.fh) thio> jpuhl;ir> md;dhrp

tpij:

fUTw;w r+y; tpij vdg;gLk;. tpijAiw – r+y; ciwapy; ,Ue;J cUthdJ.

fUthdJ Kisf;FUj;J jz;L> KisNth; - Nth; tpj;jpiyfs; Nghd;w

gFjpfisf; nfhz;lJ.

tpij ntsp ciw nl];lh> tpij cs; ciw nlf;kd;

jiuNky; tpij Kisj;jy; mtiu> Mkzf;F

jiufPo; tpij Kisj;jy; ney;

tpij Kisj;jYf;F Njitahd ntspf;fhuzp: ePh;> Mf;]p[d;> ntg;gepiy

tpij Kisj;jYf;F Njitahd cs; fhuzpfs;: tpij Kisf;Fk; jpwd;>

tsh;tlf;fk;> czT kw;Wk; Mf;]pd;fs;.



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15

4. MQ;rpNah];ngh;k;fspd; tifg;ghl;bay;

jhtu tifg;ghL vd;gJ jhtutpaypd; xU gphpT

Kiwg;ghl;L jhtutpay; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

2>86>000 f;Fk; mjpfkhd jhtu ,dq;fs; fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sd.

tifg;ghl;L Kiwfs;:

1. nraw;if tifg;ghL (m) ,dg;ngUf;f tifg;ghL – fNuhy]; ypd;Nda]; ntspapl;lJ

2. ,aw;if tifg;ghL nge;jk; - `Pf;fh; tifg;ghL

3. ghpzhk mbg;gil tifg;ghL <q;sh; kw;Wk; g;uhz;ly; tifg;ghL

4. mz;ikf; fhy tifg;ghL Mh;jh;f;uhq;f; tp];l;

fNuhy]; ypd;Nda];:

];tPld; ehl;bid rhh;e;jth;

jhtu tifg;ghl;baypd; je;ij vd;W miof;fg;gLgth; (m) etPd jhtutpaypd; je;ij

,Unrhw; ngahpL Kiwapid eilKiwg;gLj;jpath;

];gP\pa]; g;shd;l;lhuk; vd;w Ehypid ntspapl;lth;

tpf;Nlf;fh;:

5 cyf tifg;ghl;bid ntspapl;lth;

tpf;Nlf;fh;

1. nkhdPuh cyfk; 2. GNuhb];lh cyfk; 3. jhtu cyfk;

4. g+Q;irfs; cyfk; 5. tpyq;F cyfk;

jhtu tifg;ghl;bd; fPo; epiyapy; cs;s myF – rpw;wpdk;

jhtu tifg;ghl;by; cs;s xtnthU myFk; FOkk; (m) lhf;]hd; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.

khkuj;jpd; mwptpay; ngah; - khQ;rpnguh ,z;bfh - FLk;gk; : mdfhh;bNarp

ney; mwptpay; ngah; - xiu]h ]l;ilth FLk;gk;: NghNarp

n`h;Nghpak;: (cyh; jhtu njhFg;G)

cyh; jhtu Nrfhpg;G epiyak;

mOj;jp> cyh;j;jg;gl;L> jhs;fspy; xl;lg;gl;l ,dq;fz;lwpag;gl;l> tifg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhtuj;

njhFg;G> n`h;Nghpak; MFk;.

cyh;jhtu njhFg;gpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; g+Q;irf; nfhy;yp – nkh;f;Fhp FNshiuL

cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa n`h;Nghpak; - fpa+ - yz;ld;> ,q;fpyhe;jpy; cs;sJ.

,e;jpahtpy; kpfg;nghpa n`h;Nghpak; - Nfhy;fl;lhtpy; cs;sJ

jkpo;ehl;by; Nfhit> nrd;id> jpUr;rpapy; cs;sJ.

,Utpj;jpiyj;jhtuk; (nghJg;ngah;> gad;gLk; ghfk;> gad;)

1. nrk;gUj;jpf; FLk;gk; - khy;Ntrp:

nrk;gUj;jpapd; mwptpay; ngah; - i`gp];f]; Nuh]h i]ndd;rp];

fly;jPR gUj;jp – fh]pg;gpak; ghh;ngld;]; (ehh; gFjp) (vfpg;J gUj;jp) vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

gzg;gaph; - gUj;jp - (Nkw;gug;G ehh;fs;)

ntz;ilf;fha; - Vngy;kh];f]; v];Fyhd;l]; - (fha;)

g+tuR kuk; - (kuf;fl;il jUk; jhtuk;)

Fl;ilg;gUt gUj;jp - fh]pg;gpak; `ph;r+l;lk;> khy;th rpy;t];l;uk; - ff;Fthd; ,Uky;

2. cUisf;fpoq;F FLk;gk; - nrhyNdrp

cUis – fpoq;F gFjp

fj;jhpf;fha; - Kjph;r;rpailahj fdp



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16

jf;fhsp – Kjph;e;j fdp

JhJtis – rsp> ,Uky; - ,iyfs;> kyh;> fdp

Gifapiy cs;s My;fyha;L – epf;Nfhl;bd;> ehh; epNfhbd;> mdghrpd;

3. Mkzf;F FLk;gk; - a+Nghh;gpNarp

kuts;spf; fpoq;F – Nth; fpoq;F

ney;yp - fdpg;gFjp itl;lkpd; rp. cs;sJ

Mkzf;F - tpijfs; – vz;nza; jahhpg;gpy;

fhl;lhkzf;F - tpijfs; - caphp vz;nza; jahhpg;gpy;

fPohney;yp> fhpryhq;fz;zp - jz;Lj;njhFg;G – kQ;rs; fhkhiy Fzg;gLj;j

ug;gh; - Nyl;lf;]; jputk; - mopg;ghdhf

4. gapW tiff;FLk;gk;: (NgNg]p) gl;lhzpf;FLk;gk;

Jtiu> mtiu> cSe;J> nfhy;Y> fliy - tpijfs; - Gujk; epiwe;jit.

,z;bNfh rhak; - ,d;bNfhnguh bq;f;Nlhhpah (jhtuk; KOJk;)

fhl;Lj;jP - g;a+l;bah g;uhd;Nlh]h

5. r+hpafhe;jp FLk;gk; (m];jpNu]p)

ghyp md; rhr;RNul; nfhOg;G mkpyk; jahhpf;f – fhh;j;jhk]; bq;f;Nlhhpa]; gad;gLfpwJ.

vf;ypg;lh g;uh];l;Nul;lh – Fspay; vz;nza; jahhpg;gpy;

f;iurhe;jpkk; rpdNuhpNghypak; (rhke;jpg;g+) – ‘ighpj;uk;’ – g+r;rpf;nfhy;yp kUe;J (jiykQ;rhp

g+tpid cyu itj;J)

r+hpafhe;jp – tpijfs; - rikay; vz;nza; jahhpg;gpy;

xUtpj;jpiyj; jhtuk; (nghJg;ngah;> gad;gLk; ghfk;> gad;)

kpa+N]]p – thiof;FLk;gk;

thio – kpa+]h ghuB]pahfh – kyh;> fdp> ,iy – cz;Zjy;. thio - ,iy>

,iyab – ehfg;ghk;gpd; er;rpid Kwpf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.

Fl;il thio – fdpfs;

kzpyh ehh; - kpa+]h nlf;];ilyp]; - Jzp jahhpg;gpy;

gadpfspd; gid – uhtndyh klfh];fhhpnad;rp];

nrhh;fj;Jg; gwit - ];nuypl;[pah nu[pNd

ypy;ypNarp – ypy;yp FLk;gk;

my;ypak; rpgh – ntq;fhak; - Fkpok; - cztpw;F

my;yprpd; - fz;zPh; Rug;gpapid Jhz;LtJ

my;ypak; rl;iltk; - g+z;L – Fkpok; - eWkzg;nghUs; - ,jatypf;F rpwe;jJ.

NghNarp – ney;

xiurh rl;ilth – ney; - NghNarp – jhdpak;> fhy;eil czT

IR-8> nghd;dp> fz;zfp> fhNthp> fq;fh – ney; ufk;

nrk;ik ufk; - uh[uh[d; Mapuk; vdg;ngah; khw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ.



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5. jhtu cs;sikg;gpay;

jhtu cs;gFjpapid Ez;Nzhf;fp cjtpAld; gbf;Fk; Kiwf;F jhtu cs;sikg;gpay;

vd;W ngah;.

jpRf;fisg;gw;wp gbg;gjw;F `p];lhy[p vd;W ngah;.

jpR (xNu tpj gzpapid Nkw;nfhs;Sk; nry; njhFg;G)

Mf;Fj;jpR epiyj;jpR

Edp Mf;fj;jpR – jz;L. Nth;Edpfs; vspa jpR $l;Lj;jpR

,il Mf;fj;jpR – fZtpil gFjp> ghud;ifkh ,iyabg;gFjp Nfhyd;ifkh iryk; GNshak;

gf;f Mf;fj;jpR (Rw;wsT / jbkd; ];fpspnud;ifkh mjpfhpg;G)

th];Fyhh;Nfk;gpak; ehh; ];fpspiuLfs;

fhh;f;Nfk;gpak; (m) ngy;Nyh[d;

ghud;ifkh:

nry; ,ilntsp ngw;w ghud;ifkh – Vnud;ifkh

gRq;fzpfj;jpid ngw;w ghud;ifkh – FNshud;ifkh

Nrkpj;jy; gzp> nry;Rth; - nry;YNyh]; MdJ> capUs;s nry;.

Nfhyd;ifkh:

%iyfspy; rkkw;w jbg;G

jz;L> ,iyf;fhk;G> kyh;fhk;gpy; fhzg;gLk;

jhq;F rf;jpia mspj;jy;> nry;Rth; nry;YNyh]; + ngf;bd;> capUs;s nry;.

];fpspnud;ifkh:

1. ehh;> 2. ];fpspiuL

fbdkhdJ / cWjp tha;e;jit> nry;Rth; - ypf;dpd; vd;w nghUshy; MdJ. ,we;j

nry;

capuw;w nry;

1. ehh;fs;:

Njq;fha; kl;il> gid ,iyf;fhk;G> rzy; nrbjz;L Nghd;wtw;wpy; fhzg;gLk;.

jhq;F nry;fs; vdg;gLk;.

2. ];fpspiuLfs ;: (fy;nry;fs;)

Mg;gps;> Nghp fbdj;jd;ik fhuzk; mjd; jsj;jpRtpy; cs;s ];fpspiuLfNs.

Ntg;gkuj;jpd; gl;il> mtiu tpij ciw> gl;lhzp tpij ciw> Mkzf;F tpij

ciw fbdj;jd;ik fhuzk; - ];fpspiuLfs;.

$l;Lj;jpR:

1. iryk;:

Nthpdhy; cwpQ;rg;gl;l ePhpidAk;> fdpk cg;Gf;fisAk; jhtuj;jpd; ntt;NtW

gFjpfSf;F flj;JtJ.

iryj;jpd; $Wfs;:

1. l;uf;fPLfs; 2. iryf;Foha;fs; 3. iryk; ehh; 4. iryk; ghud;ifkh (capUs;sit)

2. GNshak;:



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18

xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; NghJ ,iyapy; cz;lhFk; czTg;nghUs;fis GNshak;> jhtuj;jpd; gpwghfq;fSf;F vLj;Jr; nry;tJ.

GNshaj;jpd; $Wfs;: 1. ry;yilf; Foha; $W 2. Jiz nry;fs; 3. GNshak; ghud;ifkh 4. GNshak; ehh;fs; (capuw;wit)

jz;L> Nth;> ,iyapd; cs;sikg;G: Njhy;njhFjp – Gwj;Njhy; - fpa+l;bfps; - ghJfhg;G gzp

jsj;jpR – ghud;ifkh> Nfhyd;ifkh> ];fpspnud;ifkh – MdJ. gzp – Nrkpj;jy;> flj;Jjy;> typik jUjy;

th];Fyhh; njhFjp – ePiuAk; (iryk;)> czTk; (GNshak;) flj;Jk; jpR.

iryk;> GNshak; - ];By;

,Utpj;jpiy jhtuj;jz;L – xUq;fike;j th];Fyhh; fw;iw

,Utpj;jpiy jhtu ,iy - ,iy ,ilj;jpR (kPN]hgpy; jpR) gpj;jpd; gzp - czT Nrkpj;jy; Nfk;gpak; - th];Fyhh; fw;iwapDs; fhzg;gLfpwJ. fh];ghhpad; gl;il - Nthpd; mfj;Njhypy; (vz;Nlhnlh;kp]py;) fhzg;gLfpwJ. ];lhh;r; mLf;F - ];lhh;r; Jfs;fis nfhz;lit.

Nky; fPo; NtWghL cila ,iy – r+hpafhe;jp ,iy (m) ,Utpj;jpiy ,iy (,iy ,ilj;jpR ghypNrl;> ];ghQ;rp ghud;ifkh ,Ue;jhy;)

,Ugf;fKk; xj;j mikg;Gila ,iy - xUtpj;jpiy ,iy (,iy ,ilj;jpR ];ghQ;rp (m) ghypNrl; ghud;ifkh VjhtJ xd;W)

Nthpd; eLtpy; mike;jpUg;gJ – gpj;

Nthpd; nry;fs; gPg;gha; tbtk; nfhz;lit. ,Utpj;jpiy jhtuj;jz;L cs;sikg;G xUtpj;jpiy jhtuj;jz;L cs;sikg;G

1. Gwj;Njhy; Jhtp fhzg;gLk;. Gwj;Njhy; Jhtp ,y;iy

2. i`g;Nghnlh;kp]; Nfhyd;ifkh i`g;Nghnlh;kp]; ];fpspnud;ifkh

3. fw;iw njhg;gp cz;L fw;iw ciw cz;L

4. tisa tbtpy; th];Fyhh; fw;iwfs;

fhzg;gLk;

rpjwpa Kiw – th];Fyhh; fw;iw fhzg;gLk;

5. Nfk;gpak; cs;sjhy; jpwe;j th];Fyhh; fw;iw Nfk;gpak; ,y;yhjjhy; %ba th];Fyhh;

fw;iw

6. jsj;jpR> Gwzp> nkLy;yh fjph; vd;W

gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ

jsj;jpR> Gwzp> gpj;> nkLy;yh fjph; vd;W

gphpf;fg;gltpy;iy.

7. GNshak; ghud;ifkh fhzg;gLk;. GNshak; ghud;ifkh fhzg;gLtJ ,y;iy

Gwg;gz;G NtWghL:

,Utpj;jpiy jhtuk; xUtpj;jpiy jhtuk;

1. MzpNth;j;njhFg;G fhzg;gLk; ry;ypNth;j;njhFg;G fhzg;gLk; 2. tiyg;gpd;dy; euk;gikT ,izNghf;F euk;gikT 3. 5>4 mq;f kyh;fs; %d;wq;f kyh;fs; 4. fUtpy; ,Utpijapiy fhzg;gLk; fUtpy; xUtpijapiy fhzg;gLk; 5. ,iyabr; nrjpy; fhzg;gLk; ,iyabr; nrjpy; mw;wJ 6. Gy;yp> my;yp vd NtWghL nfhz;L cs;sJ

Gy;yp> my;yp vd;wpy;yhky; g+tpjo; (gPhpahe;j;) fhzg;gLk;.

7. Nfk;gpak; ,Ug;gjhy; ,uz;lhk; epiy tsh;r;rp fhzg;gLk;

Nfk;gpak; ,y;yhjjhy; ,uz;lhk; epiy tsh;r;rp fhzg;glhJ.

8. ,iyab ciw fhzg;glhJ v.fh: kh> Gsp> Ntk;G

,iyab ciw> fZtpid Rw;wp fhzg;gLk;. v.fh: ney;> thio> ntq;fhak;

,Utpj;jpiy Nthpy; vgpgpsk;kh ghud;ifkh nry;fshy; MdJ.

6. nry;ypay;



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19

nry;Yyh – yj;jPd; nkhopr; nrhy; - rpwpa miw vd;W nghUs;gLk;.

nry;ypid gw;wpa mwptpay; gphpT – irl;lhy[p

nry; vd;w nrhy;ypid Kjd;Kjypy; gad;gLj;jpath; ,uhgh;l; `Pf;

caphpapd; mbg;gil mikg;G kw;Wk; nry; myF – nry;

nry; nfhs;ifapid ntspapl;lth;fs; - ];iyld; kw;Wk; ];thd;

xU nry; jhtuk; - fpshkpNlhNkhd];> ghf;Bhpah

gynry; jhtuk; - igd];> mkuhe;j]; (Fg;igNkdp)

GNuhNfhpahl;bf; nry; a+Nfhpahl;bf; nry;

1 Nkk;ghL milahj nry; Nkk;ghL mile;j nry;

2 Ez; cWg;G ,y;iy Ez; cWg;G cz;L

3 njsptw;w cl;fU> 70 S hpNghNrhk;

cs;sJ

njspthd cl;fU> 80 S hpNghNrhk; cs;sJ

4 nry;Rth; ,y;iy nry;Rth; cz;L

5 vspa nry;. (v.fh.) ghf;Bhpah rpy

ghrpfs;

KOikahd nry; (v.fh) jhtu> tpyq;F

nry;

6 nry;gphpjy; eilngwhJ. nry;gphpjy; eilngWk;

nry;ypd; Ez;ZWg;Gf;fs;:

1. gpsh];kh glyk;:

nry;iy Rw;wpAs;sJ

nry;Yf;F tbtk; nfhLg;gJ

Njh;T flj;J rt;T

nry;ypd; vy;iy

2. GNuhl;Nlhgpshrk;:

gh;fpd;[p fz;lwpe;jhh;

irl;Nlhgpshrk; + cl;fU Nrh;e;j mikg;G

GNuhl;Nlh – Kjd;ik gh;fpd;[p - $o;Nghd;w mikg;G

3. irl;Nlhgpshrk;:

GNuhl;Nlh gpshr gFjp

gpsh];kh glyj;jpw;Fk; cl;fUtpw;Fk; ,ilg;gl;lJ.

4. cl;fU:

nry;ypd; Kf;fpag;gFjp

uhgh;l; g;nusd; fz;lwpe;jhh;

Fl;bj; njhopw;rhiy vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

jiyKiwf;F gz;Gfis vLj;Jr; nry;tJ

cl;fUkzp> FNuhNkhl;bd; tiygpd;dy; fhzg;gLk;.

5. ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpah:

nry;ypd; Mw;wy; ikak; (rf;jp epiyak;)

Nth; fliy Nghd;w mikg;G

gzp – nry;Rthrj;jpy; eilngWk; ,lk;

ePl;rp Nghd;w gFjp – fphp];Nl

6. Nfhy;if cWg;G:



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20

,it bf;bNahNrhk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

czT nrhpkhdk; mila nehjpfis Rug;gJ

7. vz;Nlhgpshr tiy:

];Nghh;;l; ntspapl;l mikg;G

nry;Yf;F cs;Ns ,Uf;Fk; nghUs;fis xU ,lj;jpy; ,Ue;J kw;Nwhh;

,j;jpw;F nfhz;L nry;gtd;

8. hpNghNrhk;:

ghyl; vd;gth; fz;lwpe;jhh;

nry;ypd; Guj njhopw;rhiy vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

Gujr; Nrh;f;ifapy; gq;F ngWgit

9. iyNrhNrhk;:

fpwp];bad; bLNt fz;Lgpbj;jhh;.

nry;ypd; jw;nfhiyg; igfs; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

10. gRq;fzpfk; (FNshNuhg;sh];l;):

xspr;Nrh;f;if eilngWk; ,lk; gr;ir epwf; fzpfk; ijyf;fha;Lfs; - xsptpid eilngWk;.

];l;Nuhkh - ,Us;tpid eilngWk;.

jhtu nry; tpyq;F nry; 1. nry;Rth; cz;L nry;Rth; ,y;iy 2. fzpfq;fs; cz;L fzpfq;fs; ,y;iy 3. nrd;l;NuhNrhk; ,y;iy nrd;l;NuhNrhk; cz;L

FNuhNkhNrhk;:

ngahpl;lth; thy;Nlah;

jl;L Nghd;w ikag;gFjp – nrd;l;Nuhkpah;

rpwg;Gg; gz;Gfisg; ngw;w FNuhNkhNrhkpd; Kidfs; - BNyhkpah;fs; (Telomere)

rpy FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy; Nfhs tbt mikg;G Nrl;biyl; gFjp

nrd;l;Nuhkpah; miktpid nghWj;J FNuhNkhNrhkpd; 4 tif.

1. nkl;lh nrd;l;hpf; 2. BNyhnrd;l;hpf;

3. mf;Nuhnrd;l;hpf; 4. rg;nkl;lh nrd;l;hpf;

nrd;l;Nuhkpahpd; vz;zpf;ifapid nghWj;J 4 tif.

1. NkhNdhnrd;l;hpf; 2. ilnrd;l;hpf; 3. N`hNyhnrd;l;hpf; 4.

Vnrd;l;hpf;

g+jf; FNuhNkhNrhkpd; ,Utiffs;:

rpy tpyq;Ffspy; Muk;g tsh;r;rp fhyj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; kpfg;nghpa FNuhNkhNrhk;.

1. ghypBd; FNuhNkhNrhk; - ghy;gpahdp fz;lwpe;jhh; (1881)

2. Jhhpif / yhk;gpu\; FNuhNkhNrhk; - uhf;nfl; (1892)

cly; FNuhNkhNrhk; - 44 kdpjd; ghy; FNuhNkhNrhk; - 2 46

XX XY

caphpapd; ngah; caphpay; ngah; FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;if



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21

1. kdpjd; N`hNkNrg;gpad;]; 46

2. ntq;fhak; my;ypak; rpgh 16

3. mhprp xiu]h ]l;ilth 24

4. kf;fhr;Nrhsk; rpahnka;]; 20

5. fhgp fhgpah muhgpf;fh 44

6. cUisf;fpoq;F nrhyhdk; l;a+g;Nuhrk; 48

7. fhshd; mfhhpf]; 2

8. Kl;ilNfh]; gpuh]pf;fh xypNurpah 18

9. gUj;jp fh]pg;gpak; 53

DNA:

B Mf;]p hpNgh epa+f;spf; mkpyk;

thl;rd; kw;Wk; fphpf; fz;lwpe;jhh; - ,ul;il RUs; mikg;G

DNA fhzg;gLk; %yf;$Wfs;

1. rh;f;fiu – B Mf;]phpNgh]; rh;f;fiu

2. iel;u[d; fhuk; - (A) mbidd; g;a+hpd; (T) jakpd; gphpkpbd;

(G) Ftdpd; (C) irl;Nlhrpd;

3. gh];Ngl; %yf;$W

epa+f;spNahirL - rh;f;fiu + iel;u[d; fhuk;

epa+f;spNahilL - rh;f;fiu + iel;u[d; fhuk; + gh];Ngl; %yf;$W

DNA tpd; FWf;fsT - 20 A

xU DNA ,Ue;J Gjpa DNA cUthFk; epfo;T DNA ,ul;bg;ghjy;

DNA ,ul;bg;ghjypd; NghJ ,ul;ilr; RUspid gphpf;Fk; nehjp – NlhNgh INrhkpNu]; nehjp

DNA cz;lhf;fg; gad;gLk; nehjp - DNA ghypkNu];

DNA Jz;bid ,izf;fg; gad;gLk; nehjp - DNA iyNf];

DNA tpd; Ntiyfs;:

nry;ypd; nray;fis fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy;

jiyKiwf;F kuGg; gz;Gfis flj;Jjy;

Guj cw;gj;jpia fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy;

RNA tpid cUthf;Fjy;

RNA:

hpNgh epa+f;spf; mkpyk;

xw;iwr; RUs; mikg;GilaJ

jakpDf;F gjpy; Auhrpy; fhzg;gLk;. (T – (U) )

RNA tpy; fhzg;gLk; %yf;$Wfs;

1. rh;f;fiu - hpNgh]; rh;f;fiu

2. iel;u[d; fhuk;: g;a+hpd; - mbidd; (A) Ftdpd; (G),

gphpkpbd; - Auhrpy; (U) irl;Nlhrpd; (C)

R.N.A. tpd; tiffs;:

1. JhJ RNA - (mRNA) 2. khw;W RNA - (tRNA) 3. hpNghNrhk; RNA - (rRNA)

m RNA:



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22

Guj cw;gj;jpf;F kuG FwpaPl;bid vLj;Jr; nry;Yk;

nkhj;j RNA 5 % m RNA cs;sJ

t RNA:

Guj cw;gj;jpf;F mkpNd mkpyj;jpid vLj;Jr; nry;Yk;

nkhj;j RNA 15% tRNA cs;sJ

fpshth; ,iykhjphp mikg;G

r RNA:

Guj cw;gj;jpapy; gq;F nfhs;Sk;.

nkhj;j RNA tpy; 80% r RNA cs;sJ.

ghf;Bhpah (GNuhNfhpahl;) cs;s mRNA - ghyprp];l;uhdpf; tif

a+Nfhpahl;Lfspy; cs;s m RNA - khNdhrp];l;uhdpf; tif

nry;fspd; myF - ikf;uhd;

1 ikf;uhd; - 1/1000 kp.kP. (μ)

1 kpy;yp ikf;uhd; - 1/10,00,000 kp.kP. (mμ)

Ez;Nzhf;fpapid Kjd;Kjypy; gad;gLj;jpath; - ,uhgh;l;`Pf;

xU nghUspd; Kg;ghpkhzj;jpid Njhw;Wtpg;gJ ];Nfdpq; kpd;dZ Ez;Nzhf;fp

jhtuj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; fzpfk;

ypa+f;Nfhgpsh];l; - epwkw;w fzpfk; - Nrkpj;jy; gzp

fzpfk; (gpsh];bl;L) FNuhNkhgpsh];l; - rptg;G> MuQ;R> kQ;rs; - kyh;fs;> fdpepwk;

gRq;fzpfk; (FNshNuhg;sh];l;) - gr;ir epwk; - xspr;Nrh;f;if

nry;gphpjy;:

capUs;s nry; mbg;gil nray; nry; gFg;G

nry; gphpjypy; cl;fU gphpjiy fhhpNahifdrp]; vd;W miof;fyhk;.

ikl;lhrp];:

gpsk;kpq; fz;lwpe;jhh;

kiwKf nry;gphpT vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

cly nry;fspy; eilngWk;.

4 epiyfs;:

1. GNuhNg]; - ];gpd;by; fjph;fs; Njhd;Wjy; 2. nkl;lhNg]; - 4 FNuhNkhbl; cUthFk;

3. mdhNg]; - ];gpd;by; ,io kiwAk; 4. BNyhNg];-(,uz;L cl;fU Njhd;Wk; epiy)

kpahrp];:

Fd;wy; gphpT vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

,dg;ngUf;f nry;ypy; eilngWk;

2 epiyfs; Kjyhk; Fd;wy;gphpT

,uz;lhk; Fd;wy;gphpT

,Ukanry; (2n) Fd;wy; gphptpdhy; xUkakhf (ghjpahf) Fiwf;fg;gLk;. (2n = n)

7. kugpay;

kuG topj; njhlh;> ghuk;ghpa NtWghLfis fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; tpjpfs; kw;Wk; ,it Fwpj;j

tpsf;fq;fs; gw;wpa caphpaypd; xU gphpT kugpay; vdg;gLk;.

21 k; Ehw;whz;bid [Pd; Ehw;whz;L vdyhk;

ghuk;ghpak; vt;thW nray;gLfpwJ vd;gJ Fwpj;j nkz;lypd; Nfhl;ghLfs; nkz;lyprk;

kugpaypd; je;ij G.J. nkz;ly;

fyg;gpdr; Nrh;f;if Ma;tpid epfo;j;jpa jhtuk; gl;lhzp – igrk; rl;iltk;

kugpaypd; fpis - kuGg; nghwpapay;



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23

nkz;lypd; gz;Gfis cyfpw;F vLj;Jiuj;jth;fs;

`hye;J - `pa+Nfh Btphp];

n[h;kdp - fhuy; fhud;];

M];jphpah - n\h;khh;f;

7 N[hb gz;G - 34 tiffs; ,Ug;gij fz;lwpe;jhh;.

kugpay; fiyr; nrhw;fs;:

1. fhuzpfs; (m) [Pd;fs;:

xU gz;gpid fl;Lg;gLj;Jgit T – Tall, t- dwarf

2. gPNdhilg; (m) Gwj;Njhw;wk;:

xU gz;gpd; Gw ntspg;ghL - nel;il> Fl;il

3. [PNdhilg; (m) [Pdhf;fk;:

xU gz;gpid fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; [Pd;fspd; ,Ug;G

4. my;yPy;fs;:

xU gz;gpd; ,UNtW Gwj;Njhw;wj;jpid fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; ,izfhuzpfs;. (v.fh.)Y kw;Wk; R

5. N`hNkhirf];:

xU gz;gpw;fhd fhuzpfs; xNu jd;ik cilajhf ,Uj;jy;. (v.fh) TT, tt

6. n`l;bNuhirf];:

xU gz;gpw;fhd fhuzpfs; NtWgl;l jd;ik cilajhf ,Uj;jy;. (v.fh) Tt

7. Xq;F gz;G:

Kjyhk; jiyKiwapy; ntspg;gLk; gz;G

8. xLq;F gz;G:

Kjyhk; jiyKiw kiwf;fg;gl;l gz;G

9. fyg;Gaph;:

,U Jha fyg;gw;w ngw;Nwhh;fSf;F ,ilNa eilngw;w fyg;gpd Nrh;f;ifapy; Njhd;wpa

jhtuk;

xU gz;G fyg;G:

jhtuk; - igrk; rl;iltk;

xU Gwj;Njhw;w gz;gpy; kl;Lk; NtWgl;l ,U ngw;Nwhh;fSf;F ,ilNa nra;Ak; fyg;G

rhpghh;f;Fk; fl;lj;jpid tpsf;fpath; Gd;dl;. Mjyhy; Gd;dl; fl;lk; vdTk;

miof;fg;gLk;.

xUgz;G fyg;gpd; Gwj;Njhw;w tpfpjk; - nel;il : Fl;il

3 : 1

xUgz;G fyg;gpd; [Pdhf;f tpfpjk; - TT : Tt : tt

1 : 2 : 1

xUgz;G Nrhjidf; fyg;gpd; tpfpjk;: 1 : 1

,Ugz;G fyg;G:

jhtuk; - gl;lhzp (igrk; rl;iltk;)

,Utif Gwj;Njhw;wg; gz;Gfspy; NtWgl;l ,UJha ngw;Nwhh; (fyg;gw;w) tif

jhtuq;fSf;F ,ilNa nra;ag;gLk; fyg;G.

ngw;Nwhh; jhtuk; - kQ;rs; x gr;ir

cUz;il RUq;fpaJ

Gwj;Njhw;w tpfpjk; 9 : 3 : 3 : 1

k k g g



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24

c R c R

xUgz;gpd; fyg;G Kbtpy; - jdpj;Jg;gphpjy; tpjp

,Ugz;Gf; fyg;gpd; Kbtpy; - rhh;gpd;wp xJq;Fjy; tpjp

jpBh;khw;wk; (Mutation)

[Pdpd; mikg;gpNyh (m) FNuhNkhNrhk; mikg;gpNyh Vw;gLk; guk;giuahf njhlUk; khw;wk;

lhh;tpd; - ];Nghh;l;]; vdTk; mioj;jhh;.

Ngl;rd; kw;Wk; Gd;dl; - njhlh;r;rpaw;w khw;wk; vdTk; mioj;jhh;.

`pa+Nfh Btphp]; - caphpdq;fspy; jpBh; khw;wj;jpid Muha;e;jth;.

jpBh;khw;w tiffs;:

1. cly nry; jpBh;khw;wk;

2. ,aw;if jpBh; khw;wk;

3. nraw;if jpBh; khw;wk;

4. Ntjp jpBh; khw;wk;

5. Jhz;lg;gl;l jpBh;khw;wk;

6. ,dr;nry; jpBh; khw;wk;

epug;G [Pd;fs; (m) fhk;g;spnkd;lhp [Pd;fs;:

tpfpjk; - 9 : 7

jhtuk; - ,dpg;G gl;lhzp

mwpQh; - Ngl;rd; kw;Wk; Gd;dl;

kiwj;jy; tpfpjk; (m) vg;gp];lh]p];:

tpfpjk; - 12 : 3 : 1

jhtuk; - nts;shp

mwpQh; - rpd;dl;

KOikngwh Xq;F jd;ik:

jhtuk; - me;jpke;jhiu

tpfpjk; - 1 : 2 : 1

mwpQh; - fhuy; fhud;];

,Ugz;G Nrhjidf; fyg;G tpfpjk;: 1 : 1 : 1 : 1

8. jhtur; nraypay;

xspr;Nrh;f;if:

gRq;fzpfj;jpy; eilngWk;

xspapd; cjtpahy; cUthf;Fjy;

r+hpa Mw;wy; Ntjp Mw;wyhf khWtJ

xsptpid> ,Us;tpid

xsptpid - gRq;fzpfj;jpy; ijyf;fha;L rt;Tfspy; eilngWk;.

,Us;tpid – gRq;fzpfj;jpy; ];l;Nuhkh eilngWk;.

xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; NghJ O2 thA ntspg;gLk;.

xspr;Nrh;f;if rkd;ghL:

r+hpa xsp CO2 + 2 H2O (CH2O)n + H2O + O2 gr;irak;

xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; ,Wjpg;nghUs; fhh;Nghi`l;Nul; (m) ];lhh;r;

xsptpid - tsh;khw;w tpid



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25

xspr;Nrh;f;if - H2O gpsf;fg;gLjy; ePhpd; xspgpsg;G vdg;gLk;.

ePuhtpg;Nghf;F:

ePh; Mtp tbtpy; jhtuj;jpy; ,Ue;J ntspNaWtJ.

1. ,iyj;Jis ePuhtpg;Nghf;F - mjpf mstpy; eilngWk;.

2. fpa+l;bfps; ePuhtpg;Nghf;F 3. gl;il Jis ePuhtpg;Nghf;F

ePh; jput tbtpy; ,of;fg;gl;L tUtJ - i`lNjhLfs;.

,iyj;Jis (];NlhNkl;lh) - mtiu tpij tbtk;> fhg;G nry;fshy; r+og;gl;Ls;sJ.

kzp [hb Nrhjid – ePuhtpg; Nghf;fpid ep&gpf;Fk; Nrhjid

xspr;Nrh;f;if Nrhjid Nfdhq;fpd; xspj;jpiu Nrhjid (r+hpa xsp mtrpak;)

Nkhypd; miu ,iy Nrhjid (CO2 mtrpak;)

Rthrpj;jy;: rpijkhw;w tpid> CO2 ntspg;gLk;.

Rthr jsg;nghUs; - FSf;Nfh];

Rthrpj;jypd; ,Wjpg;nghUs; CO2 + H2O + Mw;wy;

midj;J caphpdq;fspYk; eilngWk; kpf Kf;fpa epfo;r;rp

xspr;Nrh;f;ifapy; cUthd ];lhh;r;ir nry;ypy; rpijf;Fk; epfo;r;rpNa Rthrpj;jy;

Rthrpj;jYf;F cfe;j ntg;gepiy 300 C.

1. fhw;Wr; Rthrpj;jy; epiyfs;;:

eilngWk; ,lk; - ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpah

O2 gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.

1. fpisf;fhyprp]; (m) EMP topj;jlk; ( vk;ld; Nkah;`hg; gh;dh];) - ,dpg;G

gpsg;G - irl;Nlhgpshrk;

2. ig&tpf; mkpy Mf;]p[Ndw;wk;

3. rpl;hpf; mkpy Row;rp (m) fpnug; Row;rp (m) TC Row;rp

4. vyf;l;uhd; flj;J rq;fpyp

2. fhw;wpy;yh Rthrpj;jy;: fpisf;fhyprp]; - ,U Rthrpj;jYf;Fk; nghJthdJ.

O2 gad;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy

rpy Ez;Zaph;fspy; eilngWk;. (<];l;> Ngrpy;y];)

nehjpj;jy; Kiw My;f`hy; jahhpg;gpy; gad;gLfpwJ.

ePhpid cwpQ;Rk; cWg;G - Nth;j;Jhtp

fdpk Cl;lk;

ngU%yfk; Ez;%yfk;

1. iel;u[d; - gr;ira Nrhif 1. khq;fdPR

2. gh];gu]; - ,iyfs; Kjph;r;rpAWk; 2. Jj;jehfk;

Kd;NdNu cjph;jy; 3. Nghuhd;

3. fhy;rpak; - Mf;Fj;jpR ghjpf;fg;gl;L ,wj;jy;

NPK cuk; - iel;u[d;> gh];gu];> nghl;lhrpak;

gh];Ngl;bid fiuf;Fk; ghf;Bhpak;: iuNrhgpak;> Ngrpy;y];> r+NlhNkhdh];

Nth;Kz;by; cs;s nghUs; - nyf;`pNkh FNshgpd;

xspf;fhyj;Jtk;:

1. xsp kw;Wk; ,Us; fhyq;fspd; fhy mstpw;F Vw;g jhtuj;jpy; Vw;gLk; tpisT.

2. fhh;dh; kw;Wk; myhh;l; Kjypy; ep&gpj;jth;fs;



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26

ePz;lehs; jhtuk; - kPl;lh ty;fhhp];> NfhJik> Xl;];

FWfpa ehs; jhtuk; - Gifapiy> f;iurhe;jpkk; (rhke;jpg;g+)

ehs; eLepiy jhtuk; - r+hpafhe;jp> kf;fhr;Nrhsk;

g+j;jypy; gq;F ngWk; `hh;Nkhd; - g;Nshhpn[d;

jhtu tsh;r;rp `hh;Nkhd; - igl;Nlh `hh;Nkhd; MFk;.

jhtu `hh;Nkhd; - Mf;rpd; - Edp Mjpf;fk;

[pg;uypd; - tpij Kisf;f

irl;Nlhifdpd; - %g;G miltij jhkjg;gLj;j

vj;jpypd; - gok;gOj;jy;

jhtuq;fs; kyUtjw;F Njitahd ntg;gepiy 2 – 40 C

g+j;jypy; gq;F ngWk; epwkp - igl;NlhFNuhk;

rt;t+L guTjiy - jprpy; Gdy; Nrhjid %yk; tpsf;fyhk;.

Nthpy; ePh; flj;jg;gLk; top: Gwzp - cl;Njhy; nghpirf;fps; iryk;

ePhpd; cs;shh;e;j Mw;wypd; myF: ghh; ( )

tspkz;lyj;jpy; 80 % iel;u[d; cs;sJ.

9. fUtpay;

Mz;> ngz; NfkPl;Lfspd; ,izT - fUTWjy;

fUTWjy; eilngw ePh; mtrpak; (jhtuk;)

ghypdhy[p (Palynology) vd;gJ kfue;jq;fisg; gw;wp gbg;gJ

kfue;j Jhs; r+yf Kbia miltJ kfue;jr; Nrh;f;if vdg;gLk;.

jd; kfue;jr; Nrh;f;if (Autogamy) (Ml;NlhNfkp)

xU g+tpy; cs;s kfue;jJhs; mNj g+tpy; cs;s r+yf Kbia miltJ.

may; kfue;jr; Nrh;f;if: (Allogamy) (my;NyhNfkp)

xU g+tpy; cs;s kfue;j Jhs; NtnwhU g+tpy; cs;s r+yf Kbia miltJ may; kfue;jr; Nrh;f;if. g+r;rpfs; tpUk;Gk; kyh;fs;:

1. ePyepw kyh; - Njdp 2. rptg;G tz;zkyh; - tz;zj;Jg;g+r;rp

kfue;jr; Nrh;f;ifapd; tiffs;:

1. g+r;rpfs; %yk; eilngWtJ - vz;NlhNkh gpyp

2. gwitfs; %yk; eilngWtJ - Mh;dpj;Njhgpyp

3. tt;thy; %yk; eilngWtJ - rpuhg;bNuhgpyp

4. fhw;wpd; %yk; eilngWtJ - mdpNkh gpyp

5. ePhpd; %yk; eilngWtJ - i`bNuh gpyp

rhy;tpah jhtuj;jpy; g+r;rpfs; (Njdp) %yk; kfue;jr; Nrh;f;if eilngWfpwJ.

i`l;hpy;yh> thyp]; ePhpah - ePhpd; %yk; kfue;jr; Nrh;f;if eilngWfpwJ.



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27

GNuhl;lhd;l;hp - kfue;j Jhs; r+yfj;jpw;F Kd;Ng Kjph;r;rp miltJ.

(v.fh) nrk;gUj;jp> r+hpafhe;jp

GNuhl;Nlhifdp - r+yfk; kfue;jj;jpw;F Kd;Ng Kjph;r;rp miltJ.

(v.fh) ney;> Nrhsk;> NfhJik.

r+yhdJ - nkfh];nghuhQ;rpak; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.

kfue;j Jhs; - vf;i]d;> vd;ild; vd;w ,U ciwapid nfhz;Ls;sJ.

Kjph;e;j kfue;j Jhs; - n[dNul;bq; nry;> nt[pNlbt; nry; Mfpa 2 nry;fisg;

ngw;Ws;sJ.

fUf;Nfhs nry;ypd; topapid gw;wp gbg;gJ - guk;giu Ngdy;

10. r+o;epiy mwptpay; (m) r+o;epiyapay;

r+o;epiyapay; vd;w nrhy;ypid cUthf;fpath; nua;l;lh;

r+o;epiyapid tiuaWj;jth; vh;d];l; n`f;Nfy;

caph;f;fhuzp kw;Wk; capuw;w fhuzpfSf;fpilNa cs;s njhlh;gpid gw;wpa mwptpay; gphpT

– r+o;epiyapay;

r+o;epiyf;fhuzp

caph;f;fhuzp capuw;w fhuzp

1. cw;gj;jpahsh;fs; 1. ePh; 2. fhw;W 3. kz;

2. Efh;Nthh;fs; 4. ntg;gk; 5. xsp 6. CO2

3. rpijg;gifts; 7. O2 8. N 9. Ca

1. cw;gj;jpahsh;:

jkf;Fj; jhNk czT jahhpg;git.

2. Efh;Nthh;fs;:

cw;gj;jpahsh;fshy; jahhpf;fg;gLk; cztpid gad;gLj;Jk; caphpfs;.

1. Kjy;epiy Efh;Nthh; - khd;> Kay;> gR> vyp

2. ,uz;lhk; epiy Efh;Nthh; - ehp> Xeha;> ghk;G

3. %d;whk; epiy Efh;Nthh; - rpq;fk;> Gyp

3. rpijg;gitfs;:

,we;J Nghd jhtuq;fs; kw;Wk; gpuhzpfspd; cly;fs; kPJ nray;gLfpd;wd.

rpf;fyhd $l;Lg; nghUis rpijj;J vspa %yf;$Wfshf khw;Wfpd;wd. (v.fh)

fhshd;> ghf;Bhpah

czT rq;fpyp: (Food Chain)

xU caphpdj;jpy; ,Ue;J kw;nwhU caphpdj;jpw;F czthw;wy; flj;jg;gLtJ.

jhtuk; khd; rpq;fk;

czT tiy: (Food Web)

gy;NtW czTr;rq;fpyp xd;Wf;nfhd;W gpd;dpg; gpide;J tiy Nghd;W cs;sijNa

czT tiy vd;fpNwhk;.

Fsk; - r+o;epiy kz;lyk; (ePh;tho; jhtuk;)

ePh;tho; jhtuk; (i`l;Nuhigl;)



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28

ePhpy; kpjg;git - If;fhh;dpah> gp];bah

ePhpy; %o;fpait - thyp];ePhpah> i`l;hpy;yh

Nt&d;wp kpjg;git - jhkiu> my;yp

ePh;> epy tho;td: - ypk;Ndhgpy;yh n`l;bNuhgpy;yh

,ilepiyj; jhtuk; (kPNrhigl;) - gyh> nfha;ah> thio> kh> KUq;if> nrk;gUj;jp

tws; epyj;jhtuk; (rPNuhigl;lh) - rTf;F> jpUf;fs;sp> rg;ghj;jpf;fs;sp

ePh; thoplk; rydKs;s ePh; thoplk; - MWfs;> rpw;Nwhil

rydkw;w ePh; thoplk; - Fsk;> Vhpfs;

cyf Rw;Wr;#oy; ehs; - [_d; 5

rh;tNjr XNrhd; jpdk; - nrg;lk;gh; 16

nfhR xopg;G jpdk; - mf;Nlhgh; 20

ghiy tdq;fs; vd;gJ jiu thoplk;.

caph;Nfhsj;jpd; (Biosphere) kw;nwhU ngah; r+o;epiyf; Nfhsk;

kur; r+o;epiy kz;lyk; - jiyfPo; NfhGuj;jpid cz;lhf;Fk;

fhLfis mopj;jhy; xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; NtfKk;> Mf;]p[d; msTk; Fiwf;fg;gLk;.

ekJ ehl;by; tPl;Lg; gad;ghl;bw;F fpilf;Fk; ePhpd; msT - 4 – 5%

`hNyhigl;L (m) rJg;G epyj;jhtuk;

rJg;G epyj;jhtuk; fhzg;gLk; ,lk; - gpr;rhtuk; (rpjk;guk;)

fhw;wpid khRwr; nra;Ak; khRgLj;jpfspy; xd;W - iel;u[d; Mf;irLfs;

ed;dPhpd; Kf;fpa Mjhuk; - kio

caphp thAtpy; (Biogas) kPj;Njd; - 70%, CO2 – 30% cs;sJ.

fhLfspdhy; gUtkio xOq;FgLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

fiue;Js;s cg;Gf;fs; mjpfk; ,Ug;gJ fly;ePh;

kf;fs; njhif fy;tp - nlNkhfpuhgp

gRik ,y;y thA - CO2, CH4, CFC, N2O

XNrhd; glyk; fhzg;gLtJ - ];l;Nul;Nlh];gpahpd; fPo; mLf;fpy;

XNrhd; glyj;jpid Fiwf;Fk; nghUs;

C F C – FNshNuh GNshNuh fhh;gd;

fhw;wpy; khRg; nghUs;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tpisTfs;

khRnghUs; tpisTfs;

1. CO (fhh;gd; Nkhdhf;irL) 1. ,ja Neha;> 2. O2 msit Fiwf;fpwJ.

2. ry;gh;il Mf;irL 1. mkpy kioapid cz;lhf;Fjy;> 2. Rthr ghijapy; vhpr;riy

cz;lhf;Fjy;

3. iel;u[d; Mf;irL 1. cyf ntg;g kakhjiy Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. 2. Rthr vhpr;riy

Vw;gLj;Jk; 3. mkpy kio Vw;glr; nra;Ak;

4. <ak; 1. euk;G 2. rpWePuf Neha; Vw;gLj;Jk;

5. jiukl;l XNrhd; 1. njhz;il fufug;G> ,Uky; 2. jhtuk;> gaphpdk; mopT

Vw;gLj;Jk;

xypapd; myF - nlrpngy;

10-120 nlrpngy; tiu - kdpjdhy; Nfl;f ,aYk;.



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29

30-60 nlrpngy; tiu - rhjhuzkhf NgRtJ

120f;F Nky; - cly; tUj;jk;> fhjpy; typ Vw;gLk;.

rpg;Nfh ,af;fk; (kuk; ntl;Ljiy jtph;j;jy;)

Re;jh;yhy; gFzhdh vd;gth; jiyikapy; ,aq;FfpwJ.

fh;ehlfh khepyj;jpy; mgpNfh vd;w ngahpy; ,aq;FfpwJ.

kz;ts mjpfhpg;G fhuzk; - ghf;Bhpahf;fs;

ry;gh;il Mf;irL - khR%yk; gspq;F fy;yhy; Md epidTr; rpd;dq;fis

gOjilfpwJ. (v.fh.) jh[;kfhy;

“rpy;tp fy;rh;” - kuq;fis tsh;j;J tdq;fis Vw;gLj;Jjy;.

ntg;gkz;ly ,iyAjph;fhLfs; ,Utifg;gLk;. 1. <ug;gjKs;sit 2.

twz;lit

Crpapiyf; fhLfspy; igd;> gph;r; kuq;fs; cs;sd.

ePh; thoplj;jpy; czTr; rq;fpyp: jhtukpjit caphp lhdpah kPd; gh

jiu thoplj;jpy; czTr; rq;fpyp: jhtuk; vyp ghk;G fOF

czTr; rq;fpyp - Nka;r;ry; czTr;rq;fpyp> rpijj;jy; czTr;rq;fpyp

czTr; rq;fpypapy; cs;s Nky;kl;l caphpdq;fs;> fd cNyhfq;fspd; Nrh;f;ifahy;

ghjpg;giltJ ‘caphpay; nghpJgLj;Jjy;’ vdg;gLk;.

rpwe;j khw;W vhprf;jp thA - i`l;u[d;

Fsph;rhjdg; ngl;bapy; ,Ue;J ntspNaWk; thA - C F C (FNshNuhg;SNuh

fhh;gd;)

khR fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjpy; jhtuj;jpd; gq;F:

1. khR ePf;fpfs; - FNshnuy;yh> Mfhaj;jhkiu

2. Gsp> Ntk;G> kh - fhw;W khRWjiy jtph;f;Fk;.

,Urf;fu thfdq;fspy; ,Ue;J tUk; Gif – CO

11. caphp njhopy; El;gtpay;

caphpdq;fshy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fspd; gjdk; kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp Mfpatw;wpy;

mwptpay; kw;Wk; nghwpapay; Nfhl;ghLfspd; gad;ghNl caphp njhopy; El;gtpay;.

1. ,d;Rypd; - rpfpr;irf;fhd nghUs;

2. nrhkhl;Nlhl;uhgpd; - kdpj tsh;r;rpg; nghUs;

3. kdpj ,d;lh;nguhd; - itu]; Neha;fshd kQ;rs; fhkhiyia Fzg;gLj

gad;gLfpwJ.

4. jLg;G Crp - n`ghilb]; B itu];> uhgp]; itu];> NghypNah

itu]; Nghd;w Neha;fis Fzg;gLj;j gad;gLfpd;wJ>

5. fhpk mkpyk; - mrpbf; mkpyk;> yhf;bf; mkpyk;> g;a+khhpf; mkpy

jahhpg;gpy;

6. khNdh FNshdy; Md;bghbfs;- Nehapid fz;lwpAk; Ma;T kw;Wk; Gw;W

Neha; rpfpr;ir

Gw;W Neha; gw;wpa mwptpay; gphpT Mq;fhy[p (Onchology)

1. cyfpy; kpfg;nghpa capUs;s g+f;Fk; jhtuk; - nrf;Nfhah ([pk;Ndh];ngh;k;)

2. cyfpy; kpfr;rpwpa g+f;Fk; jhtuk; - cy;gpah



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3. cyfpy; kpfg;nghpa kuk; - a+fypg;l];

kuGg; nghwpapay;:

kugpaypd; fpis

gytifahd njhopy; El;gq;fis gad;gLj;jp gad;jUk; [Pd;fis nray; jpwDld;

xUq;fpizj;jNy [Pd;fisf; ifahSjy;.

kuGg; nghwpapaypy; gad;gLk; nehjpfs;:

1. R E N (nu];l;hpf;rd; vz;Nlh epa+f;spNaR) D N A ,iofis Jz;lhf;fg; gad;gLk;.

2. D N A iyNf];: ntl;lg;gl;l D N A Jz;Lfis ,izg;gjw;F

kuGg; nghwpapaypy; flj;jpahf nray;gLgit:

ghf;Bhpa gpsh];kpL> ghf;BhpNahNg[;

kuGg; nghwpapaypy; gad;gLk; Ez;Zaphp:

1. v. Nfhiy 2. Ngrpy;y]; 3. <];l; (rhf;fhNuikrp]; nrhptprpNa)

NIF: (Nitrogen fixing gene)

iel;u[id epiyg;gLj;Jk; jpwd; rpy ghf;Bhpahtpw;F kl;LNk cs;sJ. mitahtd

1. raNdhghf;Bhpak; 2. iuNrhgpak; 3. mrpl;Nlhghf;lh;

jpR tsh;g;G:

jdpikg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhtu nry;Yf;F xU KO jhtuj;jpid cUthf;Fk; cs;shh;e;j jpwd;

rh;t ty;yik.

fhy]; vd;gJ jpR tsh;g;gpy; xU NtWghL milahj jpul;rpahd nry; njhFg;G

gq;F ngWk; `hh;Nkhd; - Mf;rpd;> irl;Nlhifdpd;

FNshdpq;:

njhopy; El;gj;jpid gad;gLj;jp xU tpyq;fpd; KOikahd efiy cz;lhf;Fjy;.

mad; tpy;kl; -1997– KOikahd efiy cUthf;fpdhh;. tpyq;fpdk; - Nlhyp

(nts;shL)

12. gad;ghl;L jhtutpay;

gRikg;Gul;rpapid mwpKfg; gLj;jpath; - tpy;ypak; v];fhl;

gRikg;Gul;rpapd; je;ij - ehh;kd; Nghh;yhf;

,e;jpahtpy; gRik Gul;rpapd; je;ij - Dr. M.S. Rthkpehjd;

gRik Gul;rpahy; cUthf;fg;gl;l ufk; - I R 8

Nfhy;rpird; vd;w Ntjpg;nghUisgad;gLj;jp gd;kagaph;ngUf;fk;

(ghypg;sha;b)cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ

caphp cuk;:

jhtu tsh;r;rpf;F Ntz;ba Cl;lj;jpid gpw caph;fsplkpUe;J ngWgit.

1. ghf;Bhpa caphp cuk; - iuNrhgpak;> mrpl;Nlhghf;lh;

2. caphp cughrpfs; - eh];lhf;> mdgPdh

3. caphp cukhf Nth; g+Q;ir - ikf;Nfhiurh

4. gRe;jhs; cuk; - nr];Ngdpah

Ntg;gkuk; - kUe;Jg; nghUs; - ‘m]hbuhf;bd;’

rhke;jpg;g+ - kUe;Jg;nghUs; - ‘ighpj;hpd;’ g+r;rpf; nfhy;ypahf gad;gLk;

Kf;fpa czTg; gaph;: NfhJik> mhprp> Nrhsk;> jpuhl;ir> Njq;fha;> ntq;fhak;

Kf;fpa vz;nza; gaph;:



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31

r+hpafhe;jp vz;nza;> (`Pypahe;j];) Mypt; vz;nza;> ey;nyz;nza;

Kf;fpa ehh; gaph;:

gUj;jp ehh; - fh]pg;gpak;

gh];l; / GNshak; ehh; - i`gp];f]; nfd;dhgPd]; kzPyh n`k;g; - kpa+yh nlf;];ilyp];

czTg;gaph;:

ney; - xiurh rl;ilth - NghNa]p

gdg;gaph; - fUk;G - rf;fhuk; mgp]pehuk; (NghNa]p)> gUj;jp (khy;Ntrp)

uhfp - (Nfo;tuF) vypArpd; Nfhuf;fhdh (NghNa]p)

fisf;nfhy;yp: nraw;if Mf;rpd; - 2-4 D (2> 4 – ilFNshNuh gPdhf;rp mrpbf; mkpyk;)

fdpkq;fs;

cNyhfk; mNyhfk;

,Uk;G rhh;e;jit ,Uk;G rhuhjit Rz;zhk;Gf;fy;

epf;fy; jq;fk; iel;Nul;

Nfhghy;l; nts;sp ikf;fh

khq;fdPR jhkpuk; nghl;lh\;

,Uk;Gj;jhJ <ak; fhp

ghf;irl; ngl;Nuhypak;

Mw;wy;

kuGrhh; Mw;wy; kuG rhuh Mw;wy;

r+hpa Mw;wy;

epyf;fhp fhw;whiy Mw;wy;

ngl;Nuhypak; miytop Mw;wy;

,aw;if vhpthA mDkpd; Mw;wy;

kpd;dhw;wy; (mdy; / ePH;) caphp vhpthA

ney; gaphpLjypy; [_d; Kjy; nrg;lk;gh; tiu gUt fhyk; - FWit rhFgb mbg;gilapy; [dthpapy; tpijj;jy; ijg;gl;lk; fhpk Cl;lr;rj;J mjpf mstpy; cs;s cuk; fk;Ngh];l; cuk; fisr; nrbf;F xU cjhuzk; - fhl;Lr; Nrhsk; B> fhgp - kiyj;Njhl;lg; gaph;fshFk; gzg;gaph; - rzy;> Gifapiy> fUk;G> gUj;jp mf;uhekp vd;gJ Ntshz;ik fy;tp ntq;fhak;> fj;jhp - Njhl;lg;gaph; tptrhaj;jpd; Kjy; Nehf;fk; - gaph; cw;gj;jp rpj;j itj;jpa Kiw - mf];jpah; itj;jpa Kiw Nahfh Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - gjQ;ryp N`hkpNah gjpapd; je;ij - lhf;lh; rhKNty; n`d;kd; Adhdp kUe;Jfspd; je;ij - `pg;Ngh fpNul;b]; Adhdp kUj;JtKiw tsh;j;jth; - mhp];lhby; MAh;Ntjj;jpid Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - rufh; Njrpa Adhdp kUj;Jt fofk; - ngq;f@h; gz;ila MAh;Ntj mWit rpfpr;irahsh; - r\;Ujh Njrpa MAh;Ntj fofk; - n[a;g;g+h;

web: tvkbiology.blogspot.in



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· 2018-04-16 · 3 ghf;Bhpah vnyf;l;uhd Ez;Nzhf;fp fz;lwpe;jth; - vh;d];l; u];fh kw;Wk; khf;] ehy; ghf;Bhpahtpidg; gw;wpa mwptpay gphpT - ghf;Bhpahy[p ghf;Bhpahy[papd; je;ij Mz;ld