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Gunnar Duttge, Sang Won Lee (Hg.)

The Law in the Information and

Risk Society

Göttinger Juristische Schriften

Universitätsverlag Göttingen

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Gunnar Duttge and Sang Won Lee (Hg.)

 The Law in the Information and Risk Society

 This work is licensed under theCreative Commons License 3.0 “by-nd”,

allowing you to download, distribute and print thedocument in a few copies for private or educational

use, given that the document stays unchangedand the creator is mentioned.

 You are not allowed to sell copies of the free version.

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Erschienen als Band 10 in der Reihe „Göttinger Juristische Schriften“im Universitätsverlag Göttingen 2011

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Gunnar Duttge andSang Won Lee (Hg.)

 The Law in the Informationand Risk Society

Göttinger Juristische Schriften,

Band 10

Universitätsverlag Göttingen

2011 

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Bibliographische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek

Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in derDeutschen Nationalbibliographie; detaillierte bibliographische Daten sind im

Internet über abrufbar.

KontaktProf. Dr. Gunnar Duttgee-mail: lduttge@gwdg.de

Dieses Buch ist auch als freie Onlineversion über die Homepage des Verlagssowie über den OPAC der Niedersächsischen Staats- undUniversitätsbibliothek (http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de) erreichbar und darfgelesen, heruntergeladen sowie als Privatkopie ausgedruckt werden. Es geltendie Lizenzbestimmungen der Onlineversion. Es ist nicht gestattet, Kopien odergedruckte Fassungen der freien Onlineversion zu veräußern.

Satz und Layout: Alice von BergUmschlaggestaltung: Jutta Pabst

© 2011 Universitätsverlag Göttingenhttp://univerlag.uni-goettingen.deISBN: 978-3-86395-012-5ISSN: 1864-2128

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Table of Contents

Preface vii 

Greeting from the Faculty of Law of Georg-August-Universität Göttingen ix 

SECTION 1:CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES, D ATA PRIVACY AND MEDICAL L AW 

Hong Sik Cho Liberal Democracy in tate of !mergency"een #y tan$ing on the houl$ers of %arl chmitt &

Werner Heun  'is( )anagement by the Government an$ the %onstitution *+ 

Frank Schorkopf  ,nformation as the #asis of Parliamentary 'esonsibility for !uroean ,ntegration &* 

Gunnar Duttge   .he 'ight to ,gnorance in )e$icine /* 

 Erwin Deutsch  'ecent 'esearch Acci$ents an$ 0ew Aroaches to 1accination /2 

SECTION 2:CONTRACT L AW, INDUSTRIAL L AW AND OVERNIN STOC! E"C#ANE 

Youngjoon Kwon   3u$icial )o$ification of %ontract in 'elation to the %hange of %ircumstances 4+ 

Rüdiger Krause  0ew Develoments in Data Privacy for !mloyees in German Law 5& 

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  .able of %ontents vi

SECTION $:INTERNET L AW AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY  

 ohn !" #eitner  6orean 0eti7en !8uality in the ha$ow of 'eal 0ame 1erification *9& 

Seong Wook Heo  An overview of foo$ safety regulation in 6orea- Precautionary Princile vs: %ost-#enefit Analysis - *;* 

SECTION %:

CRIMINAL L AW AND CRIMINOLOY  

Sang Won #ee  

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P&efa'e

 .he information an$ ris( society oses a new challenge for the law in all itsfragments: )o$ern me$ia communication an$ technologies increase eole>sroserity while stating new ris(s with not uncommonly $evastating crisis-otential" .he ban(ing crisis? the safety net for the euro 7one an$ the nuclearinci$ent in Fu(ushima are only the latest forms of those secific mo$ern common$angers which the law is facing @ in many cases $ue to it>s $omestically limite$

 vali$ity - not or not sufficiently reare$:

 .he fre8uently transboun$ary an$ suranatural relevance of these new ris(s lea$ toa inevitable international cooeration concerning the efforts of a legal ris(limitation in resect of the $ifferent constitutional an$ cultural circumstances?however? this is a $ifficult exercise: ,nitial to all common efforts of $ealing withthis challenge there is the international an$ intercultural $ialog? even if theimlications an$ the eventually imlemente$ solutions $rift aart at national levelin the en$: ,n or$er to romote the international $ialog within the Burisru$encethere was a conference in

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&eet(n) f&o* t+e a'-lt. of La/ ofeo&)0A-)-st0Un(e&s(tt 3tt(n)en

Gunnar Duttge

)y $ear colleagues of the resectable an$ extremely renowne$ law faculty of theeoul 0ational University?my $ear colleagues from Göttingen?la$ies an$ gentlemen? $ear guests?

it is my great leasure to cor$ially welcome all of you @ an$ a very warm welcomegoes to our guests from eoul who travelle$ so far to be with us to$ay: , mayexress this warm welcome in my osition as a me$ical an$ criminal law rofessoras well as on behalf of my colleague Prof: Langenfel$? $ean of the local law school?

 who aologi7es for not being here $ue to other commitments: owever? she sen$s

her warmest regar$s:Last evening? vice resi$ent Prof: )Ench alrea$y greete$ an$ welcome$ you in

the name of the chairmanshi of Georgia Augusta: Göttingen>s law faculty an$ itsmembers are no less cheerful: ome of these members are currently resent or willBoin us in the course of the next hours or by tomorrow:

 .he imme$iate reason of our meeting is an invitation by Göttingen>s faculty oflaw which Boins in the larger context of Georgia Augusta>s en$eavors to strengthenthe existing international cooeration an$ to romote as well as exten$internationali7ation of the sciences:

,n times of globali7ation across all areas of life? having been initiate$ long ago?it shoul$ be natural an$ ta(en for grante$ that one>s own thoughts in the course of

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  Gunnar Duttgex

Law an$ its scientific a$atation $on>t en$ at the national bor$ers: .herefore wenee$ to ursue  with great interest  the solutions an$ $ebates about similar? often

i$entical legal 8uestions of other legal systems: .hereby we are offere$ theoortunity to critically analy7e an$ confront our own legal system: For criminallaw? however? the ama7ingly well establishe$ relationshi with our colleagues fromouth 6orea is no news: For $eca$es now? an$ for hoefully many more?rofessors as well as $octoral stu$ents have vivaciously exchange$ i$eas:Globali7ation? nevertheless? reaches all areas of law: ,t certainly embraces civil an$constitutional law an$ all other inter$iscilinary fiel$s? one of which is me$ical an$bio law? a tra$itional fiel$ in Göttingen which has seen an uwar$ tren$ in recentyears: .he local center of me$ical law has strong ties with !wha University>s,nstitute for #iome$ical Law !thics in 6orea:

 =ith regar$s to recent $eveloments in Göttingen>s relationshi to eoul0ational University an$ its law faculty? the meetings an$ lecture events on theoccasion of the oening of a branch of Göttingen University in eoul are esecially

 worth mentioning: 3ust last year we were fortunate to welcome here in Göttingen the resi$ent of

the eoul 0ational University? who? $uring his visit to Göttingen>s %enter for)e$ical Law? voice$ a strong interest in further communication an$ exchange ofi$eas? articularly between both law schools: =ith this bac(groun$? we can ta(e itu from here an$ with this conference further strengthen existing relations:

#esi$es our vast unifie$ interest in getting to (now each other for institutionalreasons? we Boin to$ay chiefly because of our share$ ursuit of the exchange ofscientific i$eas an$ for the urose of $eeening our (nowle$ge of recent 8ueriesof Law in to$ay>s forge$ ahea$ ris( an$ information society:

 As you all (now? Law is facing new societal challenges which can no longer becoe$ with through conventional measures: s growingheterogeneity regar$ing its constitution an$ concomitant roblems of integration?another one the exorbitant increase in significance of the me$ia an$ new forms ofcommunication in all ublic areas: An esecially $eman$ing societal challenge isthe @ in former times unimaginable @ $imension of interconnecte$ness an$ all the

conse8uences thereof? such as informational rotection of rivacy? on one han$?an$ on the other han$ the amen$ment of resonsibilities regar$ing the legalsanctioning of harm $one? through a struggle with incomrehensible comlicationsof causalities: .hese catchwor$s are only a few of many: .hey stan$ for all the newroblems an$ 8uestions which affect the inter$iscilinary fiel$s of legal sciences:

 .he array of relevant toics is broa$ an$ har$ly luci$? yet we @ an$ , mean allof us as we are gathere$ here to$ay @ seemingly manage$ to erfectly single out themost essential 8uestions for this conference which we will go on to $iscuss in$etail later throughout the $ay:

, am excetionally thrille$ about everything we are going to hear an$ further

$eliberate over to$ay an$ tomorrow: , wish to alrea$y than( everyone very much who hele$ facilitate this conference? an$ ma(e it ossible in the first lace? by

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Greeting from the Faculty of Law of Georg-August-Universität Göttingen xi

contribution within the framewor( of our $iscussions: , wish to esecially than(my $ear colleague Prof: 6u( %ho? who on short notice  accete$ my   offer an$

 within no time set the course for to$ay>s conference on trac( as well as establishe$contacts: ,t woul$ not have been ossible to get together here in Göttingen to$ay without your committe$ suort? $ear Prof: 6u( %ho: .han(s again

0ow? , woul$ li(e not to further rolong the commencement of the scientificart of this conference an$ therefore wish? on behalf of the $ean of Göttingen>sfaculty of law? for the conference to run smoothly:

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SECTION 1: CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES, D ATA PRIVACY ANDMEDICAL L AW

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L(be&al De*o'&a'. (n State of E*e&)en'.:

Seen 4. Stan5(n) on t+e S+o-l5e&s of Ca&l S'+*(tt∗ 

Hong Sik Cho )       *

I6 T+e C-&&ent lobal (nan'(al C&(s(s an5 !o&ea7s Res8onse

!ven though the global financial crisis was $eeme$ to be as severe emergency asthe worl$wi$e $eression of the *2&9s? the 6orean government has not yet ta(ene+tra legal measures: ince basic constitutional norms resuose a bac(groun$ ofsocial an$ olitical stability? at times of emergency? whether it being Hmilitaryexigencies in the theater of warI or Hless grave? but unusual an$ urgent con$itionsIsuch as current financial crisis? the basic constitutional norms are subBect tosusension: .he %onstitution of 6orea? in Article J4? rovi$es that in time of agrave financial or economic crisis? the Presi$ent may ta(e the minimum financialan$ economic action or issue or$ers that have the effect of an Act when? an$ only

 when there is an urgent nee$ to ta(e measures for the maintenance of nationalsecurity or ublic eace an$ or$er? an$ there is no time to await the convocation ofthe 0ational Assembly: Desite the broa$ resi$ential owers rescribe$ by the%onstitution? , woul$ say that the 6orean government has reson$e$ to thefinancial crisis with much constitutional care an$ fully aware of the temtation ofover-reactions:

owever? asi$e from the e+tra legal measures? the 6orean government $i$ ta(eevery means without $earting from establishe$ rinciles: Among the measuresta(en by the 6orean government has increase$ exen$iture on research an$$eveloment? intro$ucing numerous legislative bills? ta(ing various a$ministrative

∗ .his is a revise$ version of the aer ublishe$ at  ,ationa- (aiwan .ni/ersit0 #aw Re/iew  vol: /? no: &?++-5/ KDec:? ;992:

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otions? rovi$ing sufficient li8ui$ity an$ executing bu$get earlier than sche$ule$: .hese means ta(en by the 6orean government seemingly are within the scoe of

its a$ministrative $iscretion: owever? the 6orean Assembly was critici7e$ forime$ing governmental efforts by not timely resolving the legislative bills: ,narticular? because of the $ea$loc( surroun$ing the controversial me$ia bills? the6orean Assembly coul$ not focus on bills which affect the $aily lives of eolesuch as a bill aime$ at reviving small-scale shos: ,n site of aarent lac( of senseof resonsibility on the si$e of the olitical lea$ers? the 6orean economy isgra$ually recovering from its $ownturn:

uch being the case? the governmental reaction to the crisis has not beensubBect to Bu$icial review: .here are a han$ful of the %onstitutional %ourt cases$ealing with the H,)F bailout crisisI? a financial crisis the 6orean eole $eem far

severer than the current crisis: !ven though much more swift an$ ra$ical measures were ta(en by the 6orean government? none too( on the e+tra legal form? an$ none were $eclare$ unconstitutional by either the ureme %ourt or the %onstitutional%ourt: Given the lac( of e+tra legal actions ta(en by the government an$ relevantrece$ents? , woul$ li(e to a$$ress general issues relate$ to emergency ower fromtheoretical ersectives:

II6 W+. Ca&l S'+*(tt (n t+e State of C&(s(s9%arl chmitt? a Burist with an enormous influence on German olitical an$ legalthought? is (nown not only for his charge that liberalism is nothing but onei$eology see(ing to imose uon the whole its own artial concetion of the goo$life? but also for association with the 0a7is: urrisingly? the !nglish-sea(ing

 worl$ inclu$ing the Unite$ tates in the aftermath of etember ** has recentlyha$ Ha renaissance of interestI in his wor(: chmitt>s criti8ue catures better thancontemorary critics the roblematic nature of liberalism at least in some asects?an$ , woul$ li(e to examine chmitt>s well (nown insights an$ highlight somelessons for times of crisis by offering my own resonse to what , regar$ to bechmitt>s oints:

 Accor$ing to chmitt? the stui$ity of arliaments rovi$es the occasions forexecutives to exercise the sovereign ower that always resi$es in the executive:chmitt>s antiliberalism seems to get more relevant in times of crisis as reflecte$ inthe ost-2** attention of constitutional theorists: As anfor$ Levinson oints out?former U Presi$ent #ush>s resonse to the etember ** attaches resentsconstitutional theorists with the (in$ of roblem chmitt seems to have a$$resse$:,n this sense? we can ta(e note of lessons from chmitt:

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chmitt>s reflection sen$s a wa(e-u call for those who believe in rationalin$ivi$ualism: 'ational in$ivi$ualism uts too much emhasis uon rationality an$

ignores that it is through olitical $iscourse in ublic shere that $emocraticciti7ens rather than rational consumers can intro$uce 8uestions of values into$eliberation: A value is constitute$ through olitical action? an action through

 which olitical agents create a common value by committing themselves to that value: =ithout a lurality of cometing forces? olitics is $islace$ by mere tra$ebetween selfish interest grous or rational calculation by technocrats: .he currentglobal financial crisis is a $ramatic examle of the $angerous conse8uences thattoo much emhasis on rationality can brings u: .he roblem was not a failure ofrational analysis but? accor$ing to Presi$ent s $iagnosis? was Ha collectivefailure of resonsibility in =ashington? on =all treet an$ across America:I )ore

li(ely? chmitt woul$ argue that the roblem here is the concet of rationalityitself: .he myoic rationality rewar$e$ Hthose who try to game the systemI?instea$ of Hthose who comete honestly an$ vigorously within the system:I

, thin( that chmitt successfully shows the $angers that the $ominance of therational in$ivi$ualism bring to the $emocracy: Liberal $emocracy? as a regime? ismuch more than a mere form of government given that it concerns the concetualor$ering of social relations: A $efining factor of liberal $emocracy is luralism?meaning the $issolution of one an$ only i$ea of the goo$ life: Pluralism not onlysecures in$ivi$ual e8ual liberty for all? but also legitimates conflict an$ $ivision:owever? rational in$ivi$ualism overloo(s that the essence of luralism consists inrecogni7ing that there must be a wi$e variety of ersectives concerning valuesan$ thereby sees obBectivity as belonging to the things themselves: )y concern isthat too much emhasis on rationality woul$ ma(e rationalism $ominate mo$ern$emocracy: .his may be a real threat to $emocracy because it may negate theinevitable conflict of values an$ aim at a universal rational consensus: #ut then? ,$o not a$vocate an unconstraine$ extreme luralism because such value relativism$oes not recogni7e that certain $ifferences are constructe$ as relations ofsubor$ination:

,s there any other way to ma(e whole our liberal $emocracy roBect than to

resort to rationalityM s concetion of Bustice? similar to social contract metahor? aeals

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Liberal Democracy in tate of !mergency J

to an in$ivi$ual>s i$ea of rational a$vantage: ,n a$$ition? as chmitt oints out? toomuch emhasis on universal morality woul$ lace oneself in the fiel$ of ethics

instea$ of the fiel$ olitics because being blin$ to $ynamic interactions amongmembers? one woul$ $eny the nee$ to constitute collective i$entities: .he thir$ otion is to she$ a new light on olitics: ome of liberal theories of a

 well-or$ere$ society resuose that olitical actors are only $riven by what theysee as their rational self-a$vantage an$ thus the realm of olitics is finally re$uce$to a neutral fiel$ of cometing interest: owever? is it ossible that a rationalolitical consensus? a $efinite solution to the issue of Bustice? fills a ga betweenBustice an$ olitical $ecision that will constitute concrete content of $emocracyforeverM ,n articular? the claim of neutrality $oes not stan$ in times of crisis: .hisis because there cannot be neutrality in Hthe olitical:I .he essential art of the

concet of the olitical is such that eole constitute their values through oliticalarticulation? which in turn constructs the i$entity of the eole: uch an i$entitycan only exist through a very struggle about the multile an$ cometingi$entifications of the eole: .hus? the best way to (ee liberal $emocracy alivemight be to get eole to ma(e value articulations: .he recognition of $ynamicasect of olitics? that is? variability is the con$ition of existence of $emocraticolitics: )erely see(ing a final rational resolution of conflicts uts the $emocraticroBect at ris(: ,nstea$? in a $emocratic olity? conflicts an$ confrontations? farfrom being a sign of imerfection? in$icate that $emocracy is alive an$ inhabite$by luralism:

IV6 S'+*(tt7s P&es'&(8t(on (n T(*es of C&(s(s as a)a(nst t+e R-leof La/: E*e&)en'. Po/e& W(t+o-t C+e'

 .he 8uestion of crisis for legal scholars is how to coe with a shoc( to a oliticalsystem that is so great that normal rules seem no longer alicable: !xcetionalmeasures for excetional times are usually $eeme$ to have the effect ofun$ermining both searation of owers an$ in$ivi$ual rights: owever? chmittclaims that the ability of a ruler to susen$ the rule of law is the ultimate act ofsovereignty: .o chmitt? Hovereign is he who $eci$es on the state of excetion:I ,

 will call this statement as chmitt>s sovereign thesis: ,n state of excetion wherethe entire legal or$er is at sta(e? a sovereign $ecision is not constraine$ by anynormative rinciles: .he extraor$inary owers affor$e$ to the Presi$ent in timesof crisis? coule$ with the ower to recogni7e such a crisis essentially by executivefiat? has le$ to a shoc(ing roliferation of executive or$ers $eclaring a Hstate ofemergency:I For examle? in =eimar Germany? executives gaine$ great owersthrough $eclarations of states of emergency which then was not confine$ to thearea which ha$ originally triggere$ its alication: ,n chmitt>s i$ea? the sovereign

may set asi$e constitutional rules to act $irectly to coe with the threat base$ on its

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ultimate resonsibility for the continuing existence of the state: As a result? the =eimar %onstitution ha$ bro(en un$er emergency government:

,s there a way for chmitt>s sovereign thesis to reconcile with the concet ofthe rule of lawM A few otions are ossible: Firstly? one can claim that thesovereign thesis has its own immanent restraint because sovereign will not (ee itsower unless it successfully secures homogeneity in substance with the $emo:owever? there is no controlling mechanism against the sovereign>s arbitraryexercise of ower in chmitt>s theory because even though a sovereign is$ethrone$? another sovereign of the same nature will acce$e to the throne:

 .he secon$ otion can be foun$ in that while un$er some of thecontemorary constitutional theories the %onstitution entitles the Presi$ent to$isregar$ $ifferent constitutional construction suggeste$ by the courts? the

Presi$ent>s arbitrary exercise of ower is subBect to restriction because %ongresscoul$ imeach him: owever? , thin( this is too otimistic in the sense that thereis no concetual resource with which to challenge a $ecision by the Presi$ent$esite execte$ imeachment: As a matter of concet? chmitt>s sovereign thesiscontra$icts with the rule of law because the true chmitt>s osition woul$ occur

 when the Presi$ent ta(es actions that he believes to be essential to the state>ssurvival when the %onstitution roerly construe$ $oes not allow it:

 .hir$ly? the sovereign thesis itself can be construe$ constitutional: owever? itis naNve to regar$ the %onstitution as sea(ing clearly to the resolution: =hile therule of law suggests the rimacy of abstract normative rinciles over concreteolitical $ecisions? chmitt states that normative rinciles cannot have an effecton human society unless they are interrete$ by articular agents an$ alie$ toarticular circumstances: Further? one may thin( to substitute courts as sovereign:owever? this woul$ not guarantee the rule of law at wor( because Bu$ges also mayma(e arbitrary $ecisions: ,n a$$ition? the state of emergency cannot be $efine$ ina$vance an$ therefore the unanticiate$ nature of the emergency calls for thechmittian sovereign: Given the un$efinability of emergency all the law can $o isto $esignate who has the ower to act to a$$ress the emergency:

,n sum? there is no way to concetually reconcile between the sovereign thesis

an$ the rule of law: .herefore? , conclu$e that to resolve the $ilemma? one mustfin$ a ractical way to tame the chmittian sovereign: ence? the 8uestion now ishow to survive even excetional situations without aban$oning its liberalconstitution:

First? we can consi$er to rely on Hhigh olitics:I Accor$ing to Legal'ealistC%ritical Legal tu$ies? the interretation of legal terms is $etermine$ byolitics not only in states of excetion but also in the normal state of affairs: Aslong as we are able to $evelo olitics that is Ohigh>? meaning olitics involvingfun$amental olitical vision about the roer way to organi7e an$ steer society? theimossibility of constitutionalism shoul$ not trouble us:

econ$ly? the rece$ents set through such high olitics can finally buil$ anormative structure which can ultimately constrain the sovereign over time: ,

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 3U',  /52 K;99/: =ittgenstein? however? rovi$es an exit out of this ara$ox"Hthere is a way of grasing a rule which is not an interretation:I K= ,..G!0.!,0? 

supra at 5/: Quite often? in$ee$? one can gras the meaning of a rule right away without recourse to any interretation: ,n this case? the meaning of a rule is$etermine$ by conventions wi$ely establishe$ in society: ,n short? =ittgenstein>soint is that interretation is re8uire$ only when establishe$ linguistic rules an$conventions un$er$etermine the meaning of an exression KFor examle? A0D'!,) A')s viewimlicates a lot for the 8uestion this essay see(s to answer: .he (ey to resolvingthe roblem of in$eterminacy in rule of law in states of emergency woul$ be tobuil$ u conventions? whether legislative or Bu$icial? necessary to control

sovereign>s exercise of emergency ower:s in$ivi$ual affairs on the basis of this (nowle$ge:I KF',!D',%  A:  A!6 ? .! ' s criti8ue of liberalism" ystematicreconstruction an$ countercriticism: Canadian ourna- of #aw and urisprudence ?67? 4+-J+:

#lais$ell v: ome #l$g? ;/2 0:=: &&/ K)inn: *2&&:

#ush v: Gore? +&* U:: 25 K;999:

%al$well? P: %: K*22J: Poular sovereignty an$ the crisis of German %onstitutionalLaw" .he theory ractice of =eimar constitutionalism: Durham? 0%" Du(eUniversity Press:

%ana$ian 3ournal of Law an$ 3urisru$ence? *9 K*22J:

%ho? 3:-: K;992? 3uly ;/: Parties blame each other for $ea$loc(: Korea Hera-d"'etrieve$ from htt"CCwww:(oreaheral$:co:(rCarchivesCresultTcontents:as

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%ho? 3:-: K;992? 3uly ;+: DP lea$er 8uits arliamentary seat: Korea Hera-d"'etrieve$ from htt"CCwww:(oreaheral$:co:(rCarchivesCresultTcontents:as

*2+5 %

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)armor? A: K;99+: 1nterpretation and -ega- theor0 : Portlan$?

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 .ushnet? ): K;99+: revisite$: ,n P: #er(owit7 K!$:?(erroris' the -aws of war and the constitution; DeAating the ene'0 co'Aatant cases K:

*&*-*+5: tanfor$? %A" oover ,nstitution Press: .ushnet? ): K;994: )e$itations on %arl chmitt: Georgia #aw Re/iew ? 

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R(s Mana)e*ent b. t+e oe&n*ent an5 t+eConst(t-t(on

Werner Heun

I6 Int&o5-'t(on: Se'-&(t. ; Dan)e& ; R(s At first sight ris( management by the government is an unfamiliar concet inGerman constitutional law: )uch more common are the concets of security an$its oosition" $anger: .he three notions security? $anger an$ ris( are closelyinterrelate$ an$ ris( management has been a governmental function for a longtime? although it has not been sufficiently concetuali7e$ as such: ea(ing aboutthese $ifferent but interrelate$ concets in German constitutional theory an$ lawin the !nglish language has to ta(e into account the slightly $ifferent meanings an$associations of the !nglish an$ German exressions: At least in legal language forexamle the German wor$ HGefahrI means imminent $anger in !nglish:

#efore turning to the subBect of ris( management itself it seems useful toclarify the three notions an$ their relation to each other in a short historicaloverview:

*: .he ol$est concet in olitical an$ constitutional theory is security:*  .he'oman securitas? where all mo$ern !uroean notions are $erive$ from? originallymeans lainly the absence of grief or trouble: ,t soon gaine$ a olitical sense as an

*  istorical overviews Werner Con=e ? icherheit? chut7? in" Geschichtliche Grun$begriffe? vol: +?*25/? : 5&*-54;  9ndrea Schri''BHeins ? Gewissheit un$ icherheit: Geschichte un$

#e$eutungswan$el $er #egriffe certitu$o un$ securitas? Archiv fEr #egriffsgeschichte &/ K*22*? :*;&-;*& &+ K*22;? : **+-;*& !ichae- !akropou-os ? istorisches =örterbuch $er Philosohie? vol: 2?*22+? col: J/+-J+9:

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exression of the Pax 'omana but meaning only a subBective feeling: During the)i$$le Ages securitas became an obBective status an$ then a ositive olitical

concet: ,t is however the rise of the mo$ern state that elevates securitas ublica tothe foremost goal of the state:; ,n a$$ition this general urose of government is$ivi$e$ into two $ifferent asects" internal an$ external security which are gui$e$by $ifferent rules an$ maxims:& .homas obbes integrates safety into a coherentolitical theory by $efining it as Hnot mere survival in any con$ition but a haylife so far as that is ossibleI:/ 3ohn Loc(e 8ualifies security as central element ofthe integral goal of Heace? safety an$ ublic( goo$ of the eoleI+ which are theconcreti7ation of life? liberty an$ roerty as the en$ of government:4 ,n the *5th %entury ublic safety was exten$e$ to a comrehensive concet that encomasse$the hainess of the eole:J As a countermovement security was re$uce$ to its

core as ublic safety in a narrow sense as well as the rule of law:5 At the en$ of the*2th century a rocess of extension set in again: .he i$ea of social security becamea $ominant goal of government2 even before the invention of the notion by F:D:'oosevelt in the *2&9s*9  an$ increasingly ever since:

;: ecurity is always threatene$ by $anger: ,n the !nglish language $anger ingeneral means that harm or $amage is imen$ing: As a Buri$ical concet $angerKGefahr is a ro$uct of *2th  century olice law in Germany **  an$ in a literaltranslation means Ha situation or con$ition? in which in case of an unime$e$course of events a con$ition or a con$uct will with sufficient robability lea$ to aninBury of ublic safetyI:*;  .his tra$itional $efinition was $eveloe$ by Prussiana$ministrative courts $uring the !mire an$ is still alie$ to$ay: Public safety inthis context is also legally $efine$ as the whole ublic legal or$er? in$ivi$ual life?health an$ free$om as well as the institutions of government an$ ublic goo$s li(e

; ee also osef 1sensee ? Das Grun$recht auf icherheit? *25&? : &ss:& Con=e ? icherheit KFn: *? : 5/;s:/ (ho'as HoAAes ? De cive K*4/J? ch: *&? /: K!nglish e$: by ': .uc(C): ilverthorne? *225 : */&ide' Leviathan K*4+*? ,,? &9:+  ohn #ocke ? .wo .reatises of Government K*429? ,,? ch: 2? *;&ss:? *&*:4  2eter Graf Kie-'annsegg ? 1ol(ssouveränität? *2JJ? : */&Wa-ter Euchner ? 0aturrecht un$ Politi( bei 3ohn Loc(e? *242 Krer: *2J2? : *25ss:J ee e:g: Christian Wo-ff ? 1ernEnftige Ge$anc(en von $em Gesellschaftlichen Leben $er )enschenun$ inson$erheit $em gemeinen =esen K/: e$: *J&4? ,,? ch: *? ;;;s:? in" %: =olff? Gesammelte =er(e *: Abt: vol: +? : *4+s:5 1''anue- Kant ? Vber $en Gemeinsruch" Das mag in $er .heorie richtig sein? taugt aber nicht fEr$ie Praxis K*J2&? A ;&;-;J9? in" =er(e Ke$: =: =eische$el? vol: 4? : *;J-*J; K*/&-*4/ Wi-he-' /onHu'Ao-dt ? ,$een 7u einem 1ersuch? $ie Gren7en $er =ir(sam(eit $es taates 7u bestimmen K*J2;in" =er(e Ke$: A: FlitnerC6: Giel: vol: *? *249? : +4-;&&:2 ee Fran=Ba/er Kauf'ann ? icherheit als so7iologisches un$ so7ialolitisches Problem? ;: e$: *2J&?: 2*ss Gerhard 9" Ritter ? Der o7ialstaat? ;: e$: *22* for the legal concet of the social state inGermany see Hans acher ? Das so7iale taats7iel? in" an$buch $es taatsrechts? vol: ,,? &: e$: ;99/? ;5? : 4+2-J5/:*9  Frank-in D" Roose/e-t ? eech &9: et: *2&/? .he Public Paers an$ A$$resses of Fran(lin D:'oosevelt Ke$: :,: 'osenman? vol: &? *2&5? : /*&-/;+ K/;*:**eminal $ecision" PreuWisches

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ublic utilities: As a conse8uence any violation of a law that rotects ublic @ notonly rivate @ interests is 8ualifie$ as an HinBury of ublic safetyI:*& .he olice an$

the general a$ministration are authori7e$ to ta(e the necessary measures if the$anger is imminent: ,mminence is $efine$ by sufficient robability accor$ing togeneral exerience of life? so that the inBury is consi$ere$ almost certain from theersective of the acting officer:*/ .he assume$ certainty of the reali7ation of the$anger is the crucial $ifference to ris(: .he revention of $angers by thegovernment has therefore to be $istinguishe$ from ris( management:

&: .he concet of ris( is only a recent $eveloment in German Burisru$ence:ince esecially nuclear lants may lea$ to catastrohic $amages for ublic safety?although only with a very low robability? the tra$itional concet of the reventionof imminent $anger accor$ing to the rules of olice law was consi$ere$ insufficient

an$ therefore sulemente$ by a new concet of ris( revention: ,n this contextris( is legally $efine$ as a ro$uct of the extent of the execte$ $amage an$ therobability of its occurrence: .he $efining $ifference to imminent $anger is @solely @ the by far lower robability:*+ .his legal concet is more or less restricte$to the law of technical safety: !ven the notion of a Hris( societyI ertains mainly tothese technical ris(s:*4 ,ts main alications are the law of nuclear lants as well asgenetic technology an$ now more recently nanotechnology:*J .he concet is thebasis for legal revention measures which shoul$ forestall the occurrence ofimminent $angers in a$vance: .he recautionary rincile authori7es governmentto ta(e such reventive measures:*5 

'is( an$ its management is a roblem of a wi$er scoe that excee$s by far thenarrow limits of the so far $escribe$ concet of technical ris(s:*2 A much broa$erersective is nee$e$ since technical ris( is only a very artial asect of ris(: 'is(in this broa$ sense has two elements:;9 ,t resuoses firstly uncertainty about the

*& Kne'e0er ?

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future an$ secon$ly the ossibility of harm an$ loss on one si$e as well as mostly @if not always @ the ossibility of gain or other ositive $eveloments on the other

si$e: As a general observation ba$ contingencies cannot exist in the absence offavourable ones:;* 0atural $isasters seem rima facie to resent a counterexamlebut only if one neglects the fact that eole went the ris( of being hit by such a$isaster by settling on the coast Kin case of floo$s? in an area that is en$angere$ byearth 8ua(es or living near a volcano:

 .he formation of such a broa$ concet of ris( can be trace$ bac( to the ,talian'enaissance when in the *+th century sea insurances were establishe$:;; 

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rogressively smaller amount of utility from each a$$itional currency unit:;J .his$iminishing marginal utility of wealth lea$s to the sychological an$ economical

henomenon of ris( aversion:;5 .herefore? in$ivi$uals will lace a higher value onlosses than on e8ually si7e$ gains: .hat favors insurances in general? since eole will ay more than the execte$ value of ha7ar$:;2 

 .his attitu$e of in$ivi$uals to ris( is also strongly characteri7e$ by the fact thatris( accetance is generally higher if it is ta(en voluntarily than if the ris( isKinvoluntarily imose$ by a thir$ arty:&9 owever? this $istinction shoul$ not bema$e the basis of a categorical $ifference between $anger an$ ris(? as has beenroose$ by 0i(las Luhmann? who $efines $anger as imose$ an$ ris( as base$on human $ecision:&* 

II6 Met+o5s of R(s Mana)e*ent

ince the worl$ is full of ris(s man has always trie$ to $eal with ris(: !ssentiallythere are three $ifferent metho$s to mo$ify an$ mo$erate ris(s:&; 

*: .he most common an$ at first referable metho$ is ris( re$uction: Peoletry to minimi7e ris(s by eliminating or substantially re$ucing the execte$ ris(:

 .his ersective $ominates esecially ublic law: .he revention of imminent$anger is the mo$el for ris( re$uction: afety regulations are a rime examle forthis strategy: %riminal Law is robably the ol$est metho$ of ris( re$uction by

regulation:&& Quite often however? ris(s an$ losses are unavoi$able: ,n this case?ris( management by ris( re$uction fails to a great extent: till? there are othermetho$s which are overloo(e$ 8uite often:

;: ,t might be feasible in many cases to reallocate ris(s: .here are two metho$sof ris( reallocation which sulement each other: ,t is ossible to simly shift ris(sor the ris( can be srea$:&/ A classical examle for shifting ris(s are liability rules:

;J Da/id %ernou--i ? ecimen theoriae novae $e mensura sortis? in" %ommentarii aca$emiae scientiarumimerialis Petroolitanae? 4 K*J&5? : *J+-*2; !nglish translation? !conometrica ;; K*2+/? ;&-&4for the mo$ern version of execte$ utility theory in economics foun$e$ by  ohn /on ,eu'ann8skar !orgenstern ? .heory of Games an$ !conomic #ehavior K*2//? &: e$: *2+&? see  !i-tonFried'an#eonard " Sa/age ? .he !xecte$ Utility yothesis an$ the )easurability of Utility? 3ournalof Political !conomy 49 K*2+;? : /4&-/J/ but see also alrea$y the classical exosition by  9-fred !arsha-- ? Princiles of !conomics? 5: e$: *2;9 Kreset *2/2? : /49s:;5 ee e:g: !i-ton Fried'an #eonard " Sa/age ? .he Utility Analysis of %hoices ,nvolving 'is(? 3ournalof Political !conomy +4 K*2/5? ;J2-&9/ Kenneth " 9rrow ? .he .heory of 'is( Aversion K*24+? in"i$em? !ssays in the .heory of 'is(-#earing? *2J*? : 29-*;9 critical !atthew RaAinRichard H" (ha-er ? Anomalies: 'is( Aversion? 3ournal of !conomic Persectives *+ K;99*? : ;*2-;&;:;2 ee below Fn: +&:&9  eminal article" Chaunce0 Starr ? ocial #enefit versus .echnological 'is(? cience *4+ K*242? :*;&;ss:&*  ,ik-as #uh'ann ? o7iologie $es 'isi(os? *22*? : &9s:&; ee for this $ifferentiation !oss ? All KFn: ;*? : *Jss:&&  ee 2at 8J!a--e0 ? .he Government of 'is(s? in" .he #lac(well %omanion to Law an$ ociety?

;99J? : ;2;-&95 K;2+-;25 Henning Sch'idtBSe'isch ? 6riminalität als 'isi(o: cha$enmanagement7wischen trafrecht un$ 1ersicherung? ;99;? : *2ss? *92ss:&/ .erminology of !oss ? All KFn: ;*? : *Jss:

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For instance the liability may be shifte$ from seller to buyer:&+  .his can be$etermine$ by contract between rivate mar(et articiants or by law enacte$ by

the government: .he un$erlying urose of such a regulation might be moralarguments of resonsibility as well as ultimately to in$uce the more owerful tore$uce the ris(: Another metho$ of shifting ris(s that has gaine$ rominence inthe last financial mar(et crisis are futures an$ $erivatives: .hey shift an$ $iversifyris( in time an$ to less ris( averse investors:&4 

&: Finally it is ossible to srea$ ris(s: .his is esecially feasible if ris(s are atleast statistically unavoi$able: ,n this case the ris( is usually well (nown an$ can be$iversifie$ by all (in$s of insurances as well as by ortfolio $iversification:&J toc(sare another form of srea$ing ris(s an$ rofits: .he $efining element is that thismetho$ re$uces in$ivi$ual ris( but not aggregate or total ris(:&5  .he strategy of

srea$ing ris( between $ifferent ersons is the rincile of all insurances since thealrea$y mentione$ 'enaissance sea insurances: .o$ay insurances are a universalan$ common form of ris( management that is familiar to everyone from car an$fire insurances to health insurances: )ostly? this form of ris(-srea$ing is reserve$to the mar(et an$ its articiants who offer all (in$s of insurances? even against aninvasion from )ars: #ut the government also often rovi$es for insurancesstarting with the social insurance system by

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'is( )anagement by the Government an$ the %onstitution ;*

*: ome ris( relate$ mar(et failures are well-(nown since the *2th century an$are base$ on the fact of asymmetric information:/;  .he roblem of a$verse

selection was exlicitly i$entifie$ as term an$ henomenon in the fiel$ of lifeinsurances:/&  A$verse selection occurs when in$ivi$uals (now more than theirinsurers about their own level of ris(: =hile a erson with a terminal $isease onlyhe himself (nows of may buy a high life insurance? a erson with goo$ ris(s mayleave the insurance an$ save money investing otherwise: .his may be countere$ byhealth examination an$ screening but this can be $ifficult? exensive or imossiblein certain resects:// 

!ven more famous in recent $iscussions is the roblem of moral ha7ar$ inother contexts: ,t has been $iscovere$ in the area of fire insurance? where insure$clients might engage in arson? frau$ or intereste$ carelessness:/+ )oral ha7ar$ may

be $efine$ by the incentive to try to increase the overall ris(iness of an activity?that is still controlle$ by someone while the bur$en of ris(s is assigne$ or shifte$to someone else: .his is foremost an insurance roblem but concerns also anyform of Kforce$ bail-out: Although i$entifie$ alrea$y in the *549s? its firstformali7e$ an$ systematic treatment in economics occurre$ only a hun$re$ yearslater:/4  .here are also other information roblems that are not base$ onasymmetric information but nevertheless cause mar(et failures: .his is eseciallythe case if neither arty or nobo$y at all can obtain sufficient information aboutthe ris( in 8uestion an$ it is not calculable in any way: .his concerns catastrohesan$ $isasters which are not re$ictable an$ cause extremely high costs: ,n this caseno one will insure the ris( in the mar(et because the information $oes not exist oris too exensive to ac8uire:

;: A relatively new fiel$ of research that has been neglecte$ by economics for along time are so-calle$ ercetion roblems which un$ermine the economicassumtions of rationality an$ consistency: .he groun$wor( was lai$ in the early*2;9s by Fran( 6night who intro$uce$ the ivotal $istinction between ris( an$uncertainty: =hile ris( involves measurable robabilities? uncertainty concernsuncalculable an$ erhas even un(nown robabilities:/J  .he $istinction wasconsi$ere$ irrelevant for 8uite a long time by economists? since it was argue$ that

recise robabilities were not necessary for an execte$ utility aroach: ,t was

/;  ee for the roblem of asymmetric information in general George 9" 9ker-of ? .he )ar(ets forLemons" Quality? Uncertainty an$ the )ar(et ystem? Quarterly 3ournal of !conomics 5/ K*2J9? :/55ss:/&  !oss ? All KFn: ;*? : &4:// ee  !ichae- Rothschi-doseph Stieg-it= ? !8uilibrium in %ometitive ,nsurance )ar(ets" An !ssay onthe !conomics of ,merfect ,nformation? Quarterly 3ournal of !conomics 29 K*2J4? : 4;2-4/2 forthe roblem of genetic testing in this context see Da/id " Christiansen ? Genetic .esting" 'is(%lassification an$ A$verse election? 3ournal of ,nsurance 'egulation *+ K*224? : J+-J2:/+  ee (o' %aker ?

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assume$ that it was sufficient to base robabilities on subBective estimates whichcoul$ be treate$ as obBective facts:/5 ubBective execte$ utility theory coul$ even

$iscar$ if eole were comletely unaware of obBective existing robabilities: .histheory was shattere$ though by the $iscovery of the !llsberg-ara$ox that showe$that the actual $ecision even of learne$ economists violate$ the consistencyassumtion of this subBective theory:/2 ince then all (in$s of irrational behaviourconcerning ercetion in $ecision-ma(ing have been $iscovere$:+9  !seciallyestimation techni8ues by in$ivi$uals are biase$ in several resects: Alrea$y the!llsberg-ara$ox showe$ that eole try to avoi$ ambiguous or un(nownrobabilities even at the rice of inconsistency: .hey are not only ris( but alsoambiguity averse:+* 

Furthermore? in$ivi$uals use mostly heuristic techni8ues in or$er to estimate

robabilities? which ro$uce systematic biases:+;  Four roblems are eseciallystri(ing an$ common: Firstly as a conse8uence of general ris( aversion eolebehave $ifferently when confronte$ with the same ris(" .hey ta(e less ris(s whenchoices are frame$ in terms of gains an$ more ris(s when choices are frame$ interms of losses? since losses seem more harmful:+&  econ$ly eole ten$ tooverweight the most available an$ memorable information regar$ing the relevantroblem: =hile in some cases availability is useful as a clue for fre8uency 8uiteoften it lea$s eole to rely on memorable but not reresentative information: .hecar acci$ent on the roa$ temorarily raises the subBective robability of car

/5 Fried'anSa/age ? yothesis KFn: ;J? : /4&-/J/ #eonard " Sa/age ? .he Foun$ations of tatistics?*2+/ base$ on Frank R" Ra'se0 ? .he Foun$ations of )athematics? *2&*? see for this aroachrecently  ack Hirsch-eiferohn G" Ri-e0 ? .he Analytics of Uncertainty an$ ,nformation? *22;? : Jss: who $eny conse8uently any $ifference between ris( an$ uncertainty:/2  Danie- E--sAerg ? 'is(? Ambiguity? an$ the avage Axioms? Quarterly 3ournal of !conomics J+K*24*? : 4/&-442 Wi--ia' Fe--ner ? Distortion of ubBective Probabilities as a 'eaction to Uncertainty?Quarterly 3ournal of !conomics J+ K*24*? : 4J9-452:+9 ee for an emirical view 2au- " H" Schoe'aker ? .he !xecte$ Utility )o$el" ,ts 1ariants? Purose?!vi$ence an$ Limitations? 3ournal of !conomic Literature ;9 K*25;? : +;2-+4&? es: +/*-++;?general criti8ue  ens %eckert ? =hat is ociological about !conomic ociologyM Uncertainty an$ the!mbe$$e$ness of !conomic Action? .heory an$ ociety ;+ K*224? : 59;-5/9:+*  E--sAerg ? 'is( KFn: /2? : 4+2-442:+; eminal article 9'os (/ersk0Danie- Kahne'an ? 3u$gment un$er Uncertainty? euristics an$ #iases?cience *5+ K*2J/? : **;/-**&* goo$ short overview Danie- Kahne'an!ark W" Riepe ? Asects of,nvestor Psychology" #eliefs? Preferences an$ #iases ,nvestment A$visors houl$ 6now About? 3ournal of Portfolio )anagement ;/ K*225? +;-4+ for the following see the collections of essays"Danie- Kahne'an2au- S-o/ic9'os (/ersk0  Ke$s:? 3u$gment un$er Uncertainty" euristics an$ #iases?*25; an$ the se8uel Danie- Kahne'an9'os (/ersk0   Ke$s:? %hoices? 1alues? an$ Frames? ;999 2au-S-o/ic   Ke$:? .he Percetion of 'is(? ;999 (ho'as Gi-o/ichDa-e GriffinDanie- Kahne'an Ke$s:?euristics an$ #iases? ;99; see also the influential concet of boun$e$ rationality by HerAert 9"Si'on ? )o$els of )an: ocial an$ 'ational? *2+J? : *24-;9* ide' ? A$ministrative #ehavior? &: e$:*2J4? : 59ss:+&  9'os (/ersk0Danie- Kahne'an ? .he Framing of Decisions an$ the Psychology of %hoice? cience;** K*25*? : /+&-/+5? also in" 3u$gment KFn: +; : &-;9 on loss aversion itself Keole value lossesmore than e8ual si7e$ gains see  9'os (/ersk0Danie- Kahne'an ? Prosect .heory" An Analysis of

Decision un$er 'is(? !conometrica /J K*2J2? : ;4&-;2*? also in" %hoices KFn: +;? : *J-/&? an$ bythe same authors? A$vances in Prosect .heory? 3ournal of 'is( an$ Uncertainty + K*22;? : ;2J-&;&? also in" %hoices KFn: +;? : //-4+:

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acci$ents in general:+/ .hir$ly research has also observe$ an overconfi$ence an$ anotimistic bias concerning the estimation of ersonal ris(s:++ o the vast maBority

of $rivers believe that they face lower than average o$$s of getting into acci$ents:+4 imilar observations have been ma$e for wor( acci$ents or the ersonal ris( ofunemloyment:+J Finally extreme robabilities are usually greatly misBu$ge$: ighlyunli(ely events are either ignore$ or overweighte$? an$ the $ifference betweenhigh robability an$ certainty is either neglecte$ or exaggerate$:+5 !xtremely low-robability but high-conse8uences events li(e natural $isasters+2  are thereforeeither not insure$ at all or heavily overinsure$: Furthermore in hin$sight astevents seem inevitable an$ therefore eole ten$ to believe that this inevitability

 was aarent in foresight:49 A rivate mar(et exchange therefore in many cases willnot be economically otimal:4* ,n a$$ition eole are focuse$ on $ifferent ris(s?

select ris(s an$ $isagree about $esire$ rosects: .herefore ris( ercetion an$management is very much influence$ by cultural attitu$es an$ re$ilections: 'is(management $ecisions therefore often are a olitical choice:4; 

&: Another category of mar(et failures is a conse8uence of governmentalreactions to certain ris(s an$ the secific inability of rivate actors to commit$efinitively for the future? which are therefore occasionally terme$ commitmentroblems:4&  .he losses cause$ by maBor natural or other (in$s of $isasters thataffect a substantial number of citi7ens force K$emocratic government regularly toassist an$ comensate the victims: At the same time the (nowle$ge thatgovernment will act correson$ingly will $iscourage eole from urchasinginsurance against such ris(s: .his constitutes Ha $ilemma of governmentresonsivenessI:4/ 

+/  (/ersk0Kahne'an ? 3u$gment KFn: +;? : **;J see in general several essays in" Kahne'an et a- :? 3u$gment KFn: +;? : ;&ss: Gi-o/ich et a-" euristics KFn: +;? : *2ss:++  ee the several articles in Kahne'an et a-"  3u$gment KFn: +;? : ;5Jss: as well as the articles in"Gi-o/ich et a-" euristics KFn: +;? : &*&ss: shortly Kahne'anRiepe ? Asects KFn: +; : +&s:+4 8-a S/enson ? Are =e All Less 'is(y an$ )ore (illful .han

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'is( )anagement by the Government an$ the %onstitution ;+

for other $rivers an$ e$estrians: )a(ing car insurance man$atory means to force$rivers to assume resonsibility for the ris( incurre$ by using a carJ9 which is ma$e

transarent by the secific form of car insurance in Germany: A secial source of ris(s comes into lay where in$ivi$ual behavior is to acertain extent rational? but on the collective level lea$s to irrational results byincreasing ris(s an$ losses: .his is esecially true for economic $ownturns? where asin(ing $eman$ re$uces suly? which re$uces $eman$ again an$ so forth:J*  ,ncase of a financial anic? fear of losses may become contagious an$ following ban(runs may $estroy even soun$ ban(s:J; ,f nervous $eositors with$raw their moneyabortively? they inflict costs on other $eositors? ban(s an$ investors an$ increasethe overall level of ris(: .his rocess may even result in a systemic ris( for the

 whole financial system as coul$ be observe$ in the last financial crisis:J& 

 .he remature an$ hasty with$rawal of ban( $eosits can be alsoconcetuali7e$ as externalities imose$ on the other $eositors: .he main asectthough is the collective mania an$ the circle of fee$bac(s that aggravates the crisisan$ heightens the ris(s:J/ ,t is almost unmanageable by the rivate sector itself an$re8uires government action:

IV6 T+e Role of oe&n*ent as Ult(*ate R(s Mana)e&

 .he role of government in a olitical system $een$s on the referre$ economic

system: All =estern olitical systems have ote$ essentially for a mar(et system: ,nsuch a system the government has secific functions in or$er to comensate formar(et failures:J+  .hese functions are base$ on several secific caabilities ofgovernment? which rivate mar(et articiants $o not $isose of: .he main assetsof government are the owers to comel by law an$ to enforce its $ecisions withlegitimate force as well as its economic owers to tax? to rint money an$ as theirconse8uence the secial cre$it ower governments enBoy: Governments are able tomobilise caital to such an extent that even the most rich an$ owerful rivatesubBects are not caable to achieve: ,n a$$ition the government has an extensivebureaucratic aaratus that combines seciali7e$ (nowle$ge with a high caacity to

solve roblems of any (in$:J4 .hese caabilites of government in general are thefoun$ation of its role as an ultimate ris( manager:JJ  ,ts classical function of ris(

J9  !oss ? All KFn: ;*? : /5:J* ee Werner Heun ? taatshaushalt un$ taatsleitung? *252? : *;/s:J; .he ris( of ban( runs is the Bustification for central ban(s as len$er of last resort? see Werner Heun ?Die Xentralban( $er UA @ $as Fe$eral 'eserve ystem? taatswissenschaft un$ taatsraxis 2K*225? : ;/*-;5* K;/5s::J& ee Werner Heun ? Der taat un$ $ie Finan7(rise? 3uristen7eitung ;9*9? : +&-4;:J/  !oss ? All KFn: ;*? : /2 who also observes that in this case an insurance may not only srea$ ris(but even re$uce the aggregate ris(:J+  %lassical general overview Richard !usgra/e2egg0 %" !usgra/e ? Public Finance in .heory an$

Practice? /: e$: *25/? : Jss: see also Kar- Ho'ann9ndreas Suchanek? Y(onomi(? ;999? : ;9Jss:J4 ee Renate !a0nt= ? o7iologie $er 1erwaltung? /: e$: *25J? : 5;ss:JJ ee also !oss ? All KFn: ;*? : /2ss:

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re$uction an$ revention by law an$ its enforcement is mainly art of itstra$itional olice owers an$ erva$es many $ifferent governmental activities:J5 

 .he re$uction of collective ris(s is the natural obligation of government: .hegovernment has also a maBor role in shifting an$ srea$ing ris(s: ,ts regulatoryowers can comel current citi7ens an$ future generations to articiate ininsurance rograms or establish governmental insurances:J2 .he government canfight a$verse selection by comelling broa$ articiation an$ reventing anyoting out by goo$ ris( articiants: ocial security systems an$ obligatory carinsurances are a rime examle: .he government functions to a certain extent asan insurance against maBor ris(s li(e war an$ natural or man ma$e catastrohes asa conse8uence of its economic owers an$ its almost inexhaustible asset base as

 well as the fact that it can tax into the future: .axes are sometimes Bustifie$ by the

i$ea that the state acts as an insurance:59 .he len$ing facilities of central ban(s asban(s of last resort as well as their ower to suly the economy with money alsoact as a (in$ of insurance: As a conse8uence of its investigative an$ enforcementcaabilities? the government may control an$ monitor moral ha7ar$: .heun$erestimation of ris( because of ercetion roblems can be countere$ byrovi$ing information an$ by comelling eole to buy the necessary insuranceli(e a car or fire insurance: .he obligatory social insurance against unemloymentis another examle: Furthermore? the government can internali7e externalities thatcause ris(s by liability rules as well as taxes: ,t may shift ris(s by liability rules inor$er to ma(e the more cometent or more wealthy resonsible for ris( re$uction:,n this ersective of ris( management the tra$itional $ifferentiation betweenublic an$ rivate law is almost irrelevant: Liability rules? insurance regulations an$even safety rules may be enacte$ in either form:

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'is( )anagement by the Government an$ the %onstitution ;J

often inefficient:5/  Liability rules may $istort mar(et mechanisms an$ insuranceschemes may romote moral ha7ar$: All these government failures $o not ma(e

governmental ris( management suerfluous or generally harmful:

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rovision an$ safeguar$ is the essential function of government in the mo$ernstate:52  .his function was ta(en for grante$ an$ consi$ere$ too $ifficult to

guarantee so that it was omitte$:29 .he %onstitutional %ourt only in the seventiesstarte$ to construe a constitutional right to safety KGrun$recht auf icherheitalthough it $oes not use this hrase:2* .he governmental $uty to rotect life an$hysical integrity is $erive$ from the fun$amental right of human $ignity incombination with the right to life: owever? a $uty to rotect roerty againstris(s has not been $erive$ from Art: */ #:L: yet:2; 

 =hile the %onstitution $oes not oblige the government to manage ris( itauthori7es the government to $ifferent forms of ris( management an$ gives broa$$iscretion to $eci$e whether an$ how to $eal with ris(s: .his is mainly true evenfor the obligation to rotect the fun$amental rights of the citi7ens against

encroachment by Krivate thir$ arties since it $oes not re8uire the government torotect its citi7ens with $efinite measures: ,t obliges to act at all but not how to act:#ut the in$ivi$ual rights of other in$ivi$uals as well as general constitutionalrinciles Bustify far reaching encroachments by governmental regulation: ,nsummary the #asic Law gives broa$ authori7ation without obligation: ,t alsoauthori7es to regulate an$ establish a social insurance system KArt: J/ 0o *; #:L:an$ the social state rincile correson$ingly Bustifies encroachments into theciti7ens> in$ivi$ual rights in this resect: .his rincile rotects the establishe$social insurance system against comlete abolition but not against fun$amentalmo$ification although in$ivi$ual entitlements are also rotecte$ to a certain extentby the roerty clause of Art: */ #:L: against with$rawal:2& )ostly the rotectionagainst encroachments is even wea(er: .he general authori7ation to enact civil lawsallows for ris( shifting by liability rules? either restricting or creating liability forrivate subBects: .he authori7ation neither obliges the government nor rotects thein$ivi$ual: .he %onstitution also $oes not substantially limit the reallocation ofris(s by taxes or insurances but neither obliges the government in this resect:

 .he overview of the constitutional framewor( reveals a great $iscreancybetween the actual role of government in ris( management? that is har$ly tooverestimate? an$ the reflection of this role in the %onstitution: .he scarcity of

rovisions an$ in$eterminacy of the ris( management by constitutional $irectivesis not astoun$ing though? if one consi$ers the wi$e variety of the roblems of ris(management: .here is an almost unlimite$ $iscretion for government to re$uce

52 .he stu$y by Sto-- ? icherheit KFn: J5 focuses almost only on ris( re$uction? but at least mentionsublic acci$ent insurance? : &*ss:29 A few original tate constitutions in the UA mention ublic safety? see e:g: the 1irginia #ill of'ights of *JJ4? &:2*  .he term is has been coine$ by 1sensee ? Grun$recht KFn: ;? : ;Jss: see also Gerhard RoAAers ?icherheit als )enschenrecht? *25J? : *;*ss:2;  .he omission of a guarantee of safety has not stoe$ scholars from construing such aconstitutional guarantee that is not restricte$ to the alrea$y roblematic right to safety? see es:

 !arkus !&st- ? Die staatliche Garantie fEr $ie öffentliche icherheit un$

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I6 Inte&nat(onal La/ Ma(n): !ee8(n) Pa&l(a*ents (n Pla.

 .he connection between the availability of information an$ arliamentaryresonsibility is best illustrate$ by the classical roblem of .reaty ratification: .hisclassical roblem stems from ublic international law? where national arliamentshave been an$ still are being confronte$ with fully negotiate$ treaties: A fewmonths ago we saw the 'ussian un$ the U Presi$ent signing a new $isarmamentagreement in Prague: .he ceremony illustrate$ that international treaties are notonly negotiate$ but also signe$ by the executives before they are transferre$ to thelegislator: Parliaments are as(e$ by governments to ratify the treaty: ,t $oes notnee$ further exlanation that these international legal acts cannot be amen$e$ insubstance at that stage without utmost $ilomatic s(ills an$ at high olitical cost:

, sea( about the so calle$ ratification situation K Ratifikations-age   in whicharliaments may only choose between $igital categories of HyesI an$ HnoI: omenational Buris$ictions have ameliorate$ the situation by involving members ofarliament in the negotiation rocess: .his concession ma$e by the executive hasthe maBor aim to srea$ information about the negotiations? its execte$ outcomean$ the whole olitical situation within arliament: ,t is an unusual ste becausethe realm of governmental negotiations is normally (et free from otentialtroublema(ers:

 Another strategy? alie$ by the U %ongress? is the arliamentary a$otion ofa man$ate for the negotiation: .he man$ate $efines a corri$or of ossible

solutions? which Parliament is willing to accet? as long as the executive ro$uces afinal result that is situate$ within the olitical arameters Kfast-trac(-roce$ure: ,nthe !uroean Union the roblem is $ifferent:

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,nformation as the #asis of Parliamentary 'esonsibility for !uroean ,ntegration &&

)oreover? national arliaments are confronte$ with a comrehensive regulatorybo$y that challenges national cometence in a$$ressing social roblems: ,n other

 wor$s? arliaments have to form an oinion in most issues of !uroeanintegration regar$less of the fact how the cometences between the !U an$ the)ember tates are allocate$:

II6 A&t('le 2$ 4as(' La/

,n or$er to form such an oinion? for the urose either of rearing nationallegislation or a$$ressing a social roblem olitically? arliaments nee$ information:,n the early $ays of !uroean integration this subBect has almost ha$ no relevance:

!uroean integration was erceive$ as a mixture of classic intergovernmentalcooeration an$ !uroean foreign affairs in which the rerogative of the executiverevaile$: ,t was not until *22; when the German %undestag ? an$ the tatechamber? the %undesrat ? vehemently $eman$e$ a more $eeer involvement in the!uroean $ecision ma(ing rocess: !secially the German fe$eral states K #nder  ma$e $isturbing exeriences with !uroean law ma(ing when the German Fe$eralGovernment in *252 accete$ the $irective 52C++;C!!% on the coor$ination ofcertain rovisions concerning the ursuit of television broa$casting activities: .he$irective covere$ core cometences of the #nder Kausgut an$ a$ote$ a oliticalstance that wasn>t comatible with Zthe law of the lan$[ at that time: !ven worse?

the Fe$eral Government was acting in #russels behin$ close$ $oors in a fiel$ ofcometence that belongs to the inner-sanctum of the #nder : A conse8uence was the amen$ment of the Grun$geset7 in *22& intro$ucing a

new rovision for the governance of !uroean integration:3 Art: ;& GG a$$resse$not only the constitutional recon$itions for the continuing articiation in theZ$eveloment of the !uroean Union[ but restructure$ the internal cooeration of%undesregierung ? %undestag an$ %undesrat in !uroean matters:

, will not $irect your attention to $etails of this constitutional rovision excetone section that is relevant for our aca$emic interest in information as basicresource for arliamentary resonsibility: .he %undestag  receive$ the constitutionalright to state its osition before the German Government articiates in legislativeacts of the !U KArt: ;&K& GG: .his right? of course? can only be exercise$roerly if Parliament is in ossession of all relevant information beyon$ what is(nown to everybo$y from rea$ing newsaers thoroughly: ence? accor$ing tothe #asic Law? the government shall (ee the %undestag   Zinforme$?comrehensively an$ at the earliest ossible time[ KArt: ;&K; GG:

Details of the $uty to inform are regulate$ by a law K Geset= üAer dieusa''enarAeit /on %undesregierung und Deutsche' %undestag in 9nge-egenheiten der

&  For $etails of the legislative rocess an$ the reliminary $eveloments see chor(of? in"Dol7erC=al$hoffC6ahlCGraWhoff Ke$s:? #onner 6ommentar? ;9**? Article ;& aras *:

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,nformation as the #asis of Parliamentary 'esonsibility for !uroean ,ntegration &+

olitical $ecisions interreting an$ a$vancing the treaty rovisions: 6eeing thearliament involve$ in the evolutionary rocess the lac( in re$ictability of such

treaty-base$ $eveloments shoul$ be comensate$: ,f the legitimi7ation ofsuranational secon$ary acts cannot be constructe$ $irectly? at least the institution with the greatest base of legitimacy shoul$ be involve$ in$irectly to a maximum:

 .he resonsibility for integration ta(es u the thought of $emocraticresonsiveness: .he $elegates are electe$ $irectly by the eole an$ are answerableto the eole in the olitical rocess an$ in elections:

 .he #isAon Case   intro$uce$ the resonsibility for integration into Germany>sforeign relations law that is focusse$ on !uroe: !very constitutional bo$y?inclu$ing the Fe$eral %onstitutional %ourt? has the resonsibility to assume its owninstitutionally secific resonsibility in the integration rocess: .he %ourt

exlaine$" H,t is aime$ to ensure? regar$ing the transfer of sovereign owers an$the elaboration of the !uroean $ecision-ma(ing roce$ures? that in an overall

 view? the olitical system of the Fe$eral 'eublic of Germany as well as that of the!uroean Union comly with $emocratic rinciles un$er the #asic Law:I

,n the centre of the %ourt>s reasoning is the %undestag" .he %ourt $eclare$ theimlementation law to the .reaty of Lisbon incomatible with the #asic Lawbecause the envisione$ arliamentary articiation $i$ not rovi$e a sufficientlevel of resonsibility: .he legislative bo$ies can only actuali7e their cometences

 with a law or a constituent $ecision: .he legislative organs must $eci$e whetherthe level of $emocratic authentication is sufficient or whether the rimary lawmust be change$ accor$ingly? or whether it is not ossible at all to act on a!uroean level:

 .he resonsibility for integration lies with the constitutional bo$ies? whichmust ursue it in line with their cometence in sura-national affairs: .he %undestag  is substantially strengthene$ by a$$itional reservations in $ecision-ma(ing: An$ itloo(s as if the #isAon Case   has strengthene$ the osition of the %undestag   at theexense of the Fe$eral Government: ,t will certainly be notice$ with concern inthe %hancellery an$ in articular in the Foreign

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 .a(ing into regar$ the aramount osition of the government? the fear isunfoun$e$ that foreign ower will become a matter of concerte$ actions of

arliament an$ government: ,t is uncertain whether this ath will result in $ifferent$ecisions or in a higher accetance of !uroean actions: .he outcome $een$s on whether the members of the %undestag   will venture an$ $eman$ what isconstitutionally ossible: .he arliamentary system of government @ with itsstructural combination of government an$ arliamentary maBority @ has the abilityto counteract arliamentary self-confi$ence an$ in$een$ence:

 =hat $i$ Parliament $o after the Lisbon Bu$gmentM .he %undestag  has a$ote$a new accomanying law at once: ,n etember ;992 it enacte$ @ almost withoutgovernmental suort? as was mentione$ with some ri$e @ a new Act on'esonsibility for ,ntegration K 1ntegrations/erantwortungsgeset=  :5 .he law imlemente$

the %ourt>s fin$ings in $etail: Legal an$ olitical resonsibility of Parliament is notrestricte$ to a single act of aroval but exten$s to its further execution: ilence onthe art of the %undestag  an$ the %undesrat  is therefore not sufficient for exercisingthis resonsibility: 0evertheless? the recon$ition to assume Parliament>sresonsibility is rai$ an$ comrehensive information on !uroean affairs:

IV6 Nat(onal Pa&l(a*ents (n EU Ma'+(ne&. of oe&n*ent

 A secon$ maBor new instrument? that is constructe$ by !U law itself? is the

involvement of national arliaments in the control of how !uroean cometencesare execute$: .he national arliaments Zcontribute actively to the goo$ functioningof the Union[ KArt: *; .!U:

Draft legislative acts of the !uroean Union must be ma$e available to thenational arliaments eight wee(s before they are lace$ on the %ouncilʼs agen$aKArt: / of Protocol no: * on the 'ole of 0ational Parliaments in the !U: ,n thecontext of what is (nown as the early warning system rovi$e$ for by so calle$ubsi$iarity Protocol to the Lisbon .reaty? any national arliament or any chamberof a national arliament may? within this eight-wee( erio$? state in a reasone$oinion why it consi$ers that the $rafts in 8uestion $o not comly with therincile of subsi$iarity KArt: 4 ubsi$iarity Prot::6 

uch reasone$ oinions? however? only establish an obligation to review the$rafts where they reresent a certain roortion of all the votes allocate$ to thenational arliaments: Furthermore? any national arliament Kor a chamber thereof

+  Geset7 Eber $ie =ahrnehmung $er ,ntegrationsverantwortung $es #un$estages un$ $es#un$esrates in Angelegenheiten $er !uroäischen Union? #G#l: ;992 ,? &9;; - as amen$e$ by law of* December ;992? #G#l: ,? &5;;:4  von Danwit7? Der )ehrwert $es gemeinsamen an$elns? Fran(furter Allgemeine Xeitung? ;&

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,nformation as the #asis of Parliamentary 'esonsibility for !uroean ,ntegration &J

may bring an action to have $eclare$ an act voi$ via their )ember tates if they$eem a legislative act incomatible with the rincile of subsi$iarity:

 .his roce$ure gaine$ some attention in autumn ;9*9: .he #un$estag $eci$e$to trigger the early warning mechanism for the first time: .he %ommission utforwar$ a roosal for harmonising the $eosit rotection: .he lanne$ law woul$$iminish the level of rotection as rovi$e$ by the German scheme in force: .heolitical grous in the #un$estag were not able to organise the re8uire$ number ofcritical voices an$ terminate$ the roce$ure:7 

)oreover? the national arliaments are involve$ in the olitical monitoring ofthe !uroean #ureau of ,nvestigation K!urool an$ the !uroean 3u$icial%ooeration #o$y K!uroBust KArt: *; lit c .!U Art: 55:;K;? Art: 5+:*K& .F!U:

 .hey are also entitle$ in what is (nown as the bri$ging roce$ure? a treaty

amen$ment roce$ure generally intro$uce$ by the .reaty of Lisbon? to ma(e(nown their oosition to the treaty amen$ment roose$ by the %ommission

 within six months after their being notifie$ of it KArt: /5:JK& .!U Lisbon Art: 5*:&K& .F!U:

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over-bur$ene$: A constitutional lawyer might @ at this oint of my argument @$raw our attention to the fact that arliaments are able to organise their wor(

in$een$ently: Parliaments $o not nee$ to as( the government or anybo$y else toestablish new committees? to heir a$$itional staff or to reshae the roce$ures of$ecision ma(ing: #eeing the master of the bu$get they are even entitle$ to allocatethe necessary financial means:

 .he German %undestag   has acte$ resectively: .he ouse intro$uce$ a%ommittee on the !uroean Union KArt: /+ GG that can be authorise$ toexercise the rights of the %undestag  un$er Art: ;& vis-\-vis the Fe$eral Government:#ut the lenary has not $eci$e$ in this $irection yet: .he tra$itional committees onthe one han$ see( to maintain their olitical osition? on the other han$ they arere8uire$ to engage as many bo$ies as ossible in or$er to $ivi$e wor(loa$ an$ to

rovi$e the legislative rocess with well-informe$ olitical characters: ,n the ast? , was tol$? the !uroean %ommittee was more or less the reservoir of !uroeanise$tal(ative bac(benchers: , thin( the self-ercetion of institutionalise$ !uroeanolitics has alrea$y change$:

 .he %undestag  also establishe$ a bureau at #russels staffe$ with cler(s from thearliamentary a$ministration in or$er to collect information at the source? to$eliberate? to a$minister the !uroean olitical lan$scae:8  For many ubliccommentators this ste was irritating because it ma$e obvious that the formalmechanism of $isseminating information from #russels to the caitals of )embertates is not sufficient in olitical $ay-to-$ay business: .he time factor might layan imortant role? as you nee$ insight into the thin(ing of the %ommission an$ the!uroean Parliament before a $ocument is $rafte$: .he information mechanismsare all base$ on aer information an$ therefore ten$ to be behin$ time? causingroblems as in the evaluation of information? to mention only one:

 =hat is or shoul$ be imortant to a national arliament is a olitical 8uestion$een$ing on the current state of affairs an$ $een$ing on a resective $ecision bymembers of arliament: .hese members are locate$ at home? bac( in #erlin? Paris?

 =arsaw or Lon$on? involve$ in national olitics an$ reson$ing to the $eman$sof re$ominantly national me$ia: .he classification of information is carrie$ out

by cler(s i:e: civil servants that have to be neutral: .heir functioning as agentsrather than as ersonal assistants lea$s to a rising ti$e of $ocuments coming on toof the ieces alrea$y $istribute$ by the government:

5 For further information about the establishment of the bureau see Deutscher #un$estag? #un$estagun$ !uroa? : ;4? available at htts"CCwww:btg-bestellservice:$eC$fC*9929999:$f:

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 VI6 Con'l-s(on

,nformation as the #asis of arliamentary resonsibility for !uroean integrationhas been $isregar$e$ for $eca$es: ince the foun$ation of the !uroean Union in*22& the roblem has been sotte$ an$ solutions have been un$erta(en:

 An abun$ance of constitutional law has been create$? namely the Grundgeset=amen$ment of *22& that intro$uce$ Art: ;& an$ its !xten$ing Acts? but this hasrimarily increase$ the amount of aer transferre$ to the German %undestag : .heroblem of classifying information accor$ing to its relevance for the nationalolitical sace is unsolve$: .o my min$ this roblem is built in the structure of the!uroean olitical rocess an$ it shall be comensate$ not by strengthening thenational but by strengthening the !uroean Parliament: .he latter is been regar$e$

as the roer reresentative of !U citi7ens: owever? as long as this institution isnot roote$ in the ublic shere the same way national arliaments are? an$ is nota$$resse$ by citi7ens as olitical bo$y resonsible for the common goo$? we haveto imrove the mechanisms an$ institutions $isseminating information toParliament:

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T+e R()+t to I)no&an'e (n Me5('(ne∗

 

Gunnar Duttge

I6 A*b(alen'e of !no/le5)e

H6nowle$ge is PowerI* @ H6nowle$ge liberatesI;" Following this cre$o? resent$ay mo$ern society still to$ay oints one on a Bourney towar$s a Hway out of self-inflicte$ sheeishnessI&  with incessant otimism: 0othing less shall aly to anin$ivi$ual than alies to the Henlightene$I ublic as an in$ication of their$een$able HrogressI/" 0ew $iscoveries? lately increasingly regar$ing our  ownsecies Konly thin( about the research an$ exloration of D0A or recently of thebrain? inventions? an$ new technical innovations? which ma(e life easier Ke:g: $rugsin the context of me$icine or broa$en the natural-given scoe of action Ke:g: in-

 vitro-fertili7ation following utoias of an Hunblemishe$I worl$ Kesecially in thearea of regenerative me$icine an$ regar$ing relentless wor( towar$s these utoiasas a matter of course:

%orreson$ingly? mo$ern society sees merely ositive otential in the

ersistent an$ life-long strive for more information an$ the wi$ening of one>s own∗ .his is a revise$ version of the aer ublishe$ in the 3ournal Datenschut= und Datensicherheit vol: &/?no: *? &/-&5 K3an: ;9*9:* .he hrase of #acon in his 0ovum

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 .he 'ight to ,gnorance in )e$icine /&

 .hus? Hwaiving of informationI an$ Hinformational escaeI? as the centralhyothesis oints out? may not be one-si$e$ly un$erstoo$ as a $eficit but instea$ @

 when closer examine$ on a realistic level @ as a rincile which allows an$ securesfree$om in the first lace Kimitis2 an$ therefore nee$s to be save$ an$ rotecte$:owever? is there actually such a H'ight to ,gnoranceIM

II6 !no/n an5 -nno/n f(el5s of a88l('at(on

,n the recent ast? one area-secific fiel$ of alication? in which recognition of anin$ivi$ual Hright to informational isolationI*9  is no longer genuinely $enie$? hasreache$ the center of attention in Germany:

 .he Law of Gene Diagnostics**

? essentially inure$ on February *st

 ;9*9? fulfillsthe $eclare$ urose of securing Hthat no one shall against their will be force$ tota(e note of their genetic $isositionsI an$ tolerate Hsuch restriction of freeersonality $evelomentI*;: .he erson that has agree$ to me$ical examination isto be exlicitly notifie$ about this in or$er to allow for infor'ed consent:

 A$$itionally? the erson also has to learn that they $o not nee$ to ta(e note ofalrea$y available results an$ therefore may at any time re8uest to have them$estroye$:

,n the context of wor( an$ insurance olicies? this basic un$erstan$ing formsthe fun$amental notion for worries regar$ing secific genetic $iscrimination as

 well as far reaching rohibition of $etermination? cogni7ance? an$ exloitation ofsuch information:,nterreting the fun$amental right of everyman? which grants Hbio ethical self-

rulingI*&? roves to be consi$erably $ifficult to imlement an$ substantiate whenHbio informationalI interests of multile eole colli$e: ,n the context of a humangenetic me$ical examination? it is unavoi$able to concurrently ac8uire genetic$ata*/  of one>s relatives? without them being aware of such rocee$ings: .his is

 where the in$ivi$ual>s right to attain information clashes with the right to secrecyan$ later @ when ositive results have come in an$ are subse8uently asse$ on tothe family members @ with their Hright to be let aloneI*+: ow $oes the new law

solve this conflictM ,t $oes not regar$ the rosect of affecting others as a reason why claiming of genetic examination shoul$n>t haen: ,t also $oesn>t stiulate any

2 Si'itis ? in" 6ro(erCDechams Kissuer? ,nformation @ eine $ritte =ir(lich(eitsart neben )aterie un$Geist? *22+? : *+& et se88:*9 (aupit=  in" =iese-Festschrift *225? : +5&? +5+:** Geset7 Eber genetische Untersuchungen bei )enschen v: 9J-&*-;992 K#G#l: ,? ;+;2:*; %f: .he exlicit reasons of the $raft law roose$ by the faction #En$nis 29CDie GrEnen from**-&-;994? #.-Druc(s: *4C&;&&? : & the bill of the #un$esregierung from 95-;2-;995 K#'-Druc(s:4&&C95 is unchange$ in comarison to this i$ea:*& Detaile$ Koppernock? Das Grun$recht auf bioethische elbstbestimmung? *22J:*/ Accor$ing to & 0r: ** i:1:m: 0r: / GenDG $ata Kgaine$ through genetic analysis about geneticroerties? i:e: inherite$ or $uring insemination or until nativity gaine$ genetic information:*+ Detaile$ Duttge ? in" Der taat &4 K*22J? ;5*? &9* with further suorting $ocuments

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(in$ of notification of relatives concerning the lanne$ Kin$irect assembly of theirgenetic ma(e-u: houl$? of course? analysis reveal genetic 8ualities significant to

an avoi$able an$ treatable $isease? then human genetic a$vice shall inclu$e ana$$itional recommen$ation? namely for the examine$ erson Hto a$vocate agenetic consultation to these relativesI K *9 ,,, : / GenDG:

s (nowle$ge or ermissionI: As a result? the relatives> right toinformational self-ruling woul$ be infringe$ by allowing for the challenge of

*4  to the ineligible ]escae into rivate lawH in a $ifferent context Kmission of contact ersons$etaile$ Duttge ? 3X *224? ++4 et se88:*J  Pharisee-excuses" we $o not transfer information? which is moreover not having any concrete

content an$ which is in articular not mentioning the ositive $iagnostic fin$ings the fin$ings aregetting announce$ after abi$ance of the commen$ation an$ in with it authorise$ by the wish ofinformation of the affilate$:

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coing with the aforementione$ collision of fun$amental rights to be HsubBect tothe $iscretion of one in$ivi$ualI*5:

 .his surely $oes not mean that the family members are essentially han$e$ aright of veto since that woul$ mean long-ranging revention of future genetic$iagnostics an$ woul$ rob the in$ivi$ual of any ossibility of foresighte$ lifelanning:

,n ancestry cases? a $oubting father>s claim to information must yiel$ to evenKonly anticiate$ reBu$ice of the chil$>s interests in the integrity of the currentfamily structure an$ in avoi$ing of unwante$ confrontation with existentialinsecurities*2  Kcomare now *+25a #G# in conBunction with *J GenDG: ,fthis law is recogni7e$? then the right to (now one>s own genetic constitution shallcertainly not be thwarte$ by the relatives> interest in secrecy as long as their right to

information Kregar$ing the examination as such as well as their free$om of choiceKregar$ing the awareness of the me$ical results are grante$ an$ rotecte$:

 .he thereof resulting 8uestion is" ,s the recognition of a Kbasic right toignorance secific to genetic $ata or relevant to all Khealth relate$ informationM

 .he i$ea of HexcetionalismI;9? which? $esite all criticism? lays the foun$ation forthe new Law of Gene Diagnostics? coul$ suggest the first assumtion:;* German$eveloment of law? however? has long been $isregar$ing this $rawn line?exemlifie$ by the $iscussion on the reform of the Law of Pregnancy %onflict;;?

 which was also enacte$ last year: ,t states that $ue to the sychologicallyexcetional situation? in which a regnant woman fin$s herself after consicuousresults of a renatal $iagnosis? it is re8uire$ not only to offer secific consulting K;a? but also to reviously notify the atient about the Hsychological an$ ethicalotential for conflictI KXiff: ;:;: of the P0D gui$eline of the country>s me$icalassociation;&  which may re8uire aroval regar$ing the collection of renatal$iagnostics:

 A Hright to ignoranceI is un8uestionably ac(nowle$ge$ in this situation? an$that is? by no means? with limitation to genetic fin$ings? howbeit the me$icalractice noticeably ten$s to systematically frustrate this right by giving insufficientinformation an$ by a$vertising the necessity of a Hremature $etection of high-ris(

regnancyI ;/

:

*5 #1erfG 03= ;99J? J+&? J+/ et se8: @ 0otabene" beyon$ that it seems to be a legal contra$iction in valuation? that in the lea$-u to the genetic analysis there is attache$ great imortance to an informe$consent concerning the erson getting analyse$? whereas the affilate$ are not even getting informe$:*2 ,n this regar$ the #G so(e about a ]right to ignoranceH? cf: in" 03= ;99+? /2J? /25:;9 .o this $etaile$ Da''K&nig ? )e$' ;995? 4; et se88: Kiehntopf2age- ? )e$' ;995? &// et se88:;*  cetical to a general right of lac( of (nowle$ge e:g: Si'itis ? in" chwei7erisches ,nstitut fEr'echtsvergleichung Kissuer? Genanalyse un$ Persönlich(eitsschut7? *22/? : *9J? *;* et se88:;; Act from 95-;4-;992 K#G#l: ,? ;229:;& Deutsches `r7teblatt *225? A-&;&4 et se88:;/  Accor$ing to the general urose of a P0D as it is $escribe$ in the so-calle$ ]maternity-

gui$elinesH of the fe$eral commission of $octors an$ health fun$s Kavailable at" www:g-ab:$eCinformationenCrichtlinienC*2 it is significant? that the claim for consultancy an$ a$vice in thelea$-u to the P0D-roce$ure is exresse$ 8uite vaguely Kcf: chater A? cyher *:

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 Another? nowa$ays un$isute$ fiel$ of alication? is the unauthori7e$ ,1test in conBunction with the $isclosure of the results? which? above an$ beyon$ the

intervention into the integrity of the bo$y by vein uncture? is consi$ere$ amanifest violation of the right to self-$etermination:;+ Accor$ing to the revailingoinion? the atient may generally forego owe$ exlanations if they $o not wish to$eal with the ris(s an$ ossible si$e effects of the $esignate$ theray: ,t is?however? rightfully ointe$ out that a $octor must not assume such a waiver ofinformation hastily or ever conclu$e con$uct imlying intent: ,n oint of fact? it isto be imlie$ that one wants to be informe$: .he information on $iagnosis? or$erof events? an$ ris(s? nevertheless? is of such high relevance to one>s ownersonality that it is Bustifiable to allow artial or comlete informationalabstinence to those? who wish not to be bothere$: ;4 

%ertainly there are also fiel$s of alication? in which recogni7ing a right toignorance is out of the 8uestion" .hat is? in cases of en$angerment of secificothers or even the general oulation as for examle in the event of infectious$iseases or when somebo$y>s suitability to $rive a motor vehicle is in 8uestion:

 =hen such a threat exists? which is to be $etermine$ by means of a me$ical-sychological testing? the un$oubte$ riority of the oose$ interests call for the$enial of a right to ignorance:

 Alarming? however? are those circumstances? in which the $octor rocee$s in aaternalistic way Hfor the goo$I of the atient>s health without first giving them achoice in the matter: .he across the boar$ HscreeningI of newborns by means oftan$em-mass-sectrometry seems to be such a recent instance in which the nee$for arental aroval as well as the nee$ for limitation to treatable illnesses isincreasingly emhasi7e$:

 =ith this last mentione$ restriction to reme$iable symtoms? *4 GenDGnow allows Hgenetic mass screeningI? i:e: systematically exercise$ me$icalexaminations within the entire oulation for me$ical uroses Kcomare & 0o:2 GenDG: .he regulation? unfortunately? $oes not Kat least not exlicitly inclu$ethe seemingly natural re8uirement of voluntary articiation on the basis of broa$information: .he exlanatory statement of the law nebulously mentions that the

;+ ,n this sense e:g: LG 6öln 03= *22+? *4;* et se88: with review (eichner  )e$' ;99+? /92 et se88:.h-enAruck? )e$' *224? ;94 et se8: to the contemt of an exlicit refusal of a atient" !uG 03=*22/? &99+ et se88:;4 .he concet of the PD Ksocial $emocratic arty for a so-calle$ ]atient-rightsH an$ accor$ingly]atient-rotect-billH exlicitly sea(s about a ]right to lac( of (nowle$geH Kcf: coalition agreementfrom *9-;5-;995? : 29H K!c(un(te eines Patientenrechtegeset7es from )ay ;992? : &? available at" www:s$:fra(tion:$e the former oinion? after what an effective relin8uishment assume$ at least a vague i$ea of the contures of the obBect of the relin8uishment K RoIner ? 03= *229? ;;2*? ;;2/ similarFengerK-ot=Hoff'eier ? D)= ;99+? ;2*9 et se8:? $e facto imlicates a force$ a$vice: .he Bu$gement#GX *9J? ;;; et se88: 03= *252? ;&*5 et se88:? which was mislea$ingly mentione$ in favour of

an obligation of informing? however regar$s the $ifferent case of a $octor aternalistically Kbecause ofsuose$ ]mental labilityH avoi$ing to give a$vice to the affilate$? although there was no in$ication?that the atient coul$ be averse$ to a consultancy:

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Hublic interest in mass screening is value$ suerior to the in$ivi$ual interest ofthe examine$ ersonI;J such a way of thin(ing? however? Bust as(s for abuse

 .he right to ignorance with consi$eration to a ossible HbenefitI is8uestionable in yet another context" .he utili7ation of imaging rocesses within thescoe of mo$ern neuroscience intro$uces the ossibility of so calle$ Hchancefin$sI in ersective to theray as well as research: .he hysician>s main roblemsuse$ to be the ris( of facing criminal or liability charges when such consicuousfeatures were not sotte$? moreover? the struggle of fin$ing the boun$aries of hisinvestigative $uties:;5 eemingly ta(en for grante$? on the other han$? was @ evenin the context of research stu$ies @ the $isclosure of fin$ings Ke:g: of anacci$entally $iscovere$ brain tumor to the erson affecte$ for reasons ofconsi$eration towar$s the erson>s wellbeing: lowly now the un$erstan$ing