82 Robotics

8/8/2019 82 Robotics

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101seminartopics.com

Contents


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1. Who am I? 2. Laws of Robotics

3. Sixth sense & AI

4. Rise of machines

4 Generation of Robots

5. Robot systems

Controller Sensor Transformation MATRIX

6. Advantages

7. Impacts of Robotics on society

8. Termination


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Abstract ROBOT---Mechatronic device consists of Brain (computer) and sensors and mechanical parts. There are four laws to be followed for Robo implimentation

Robots predict l ike Human by applying ARRTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE concept to them.

Then they can think like Humans that i s they acquire SIXTH SENSE.

RISE OF MACHINES that is ROBOT has undergone four types of step by step Generation.

Robot is a combination of many systems such as Controller, Mobility, Sensor etc

The robot Hands are moved using the MATRIX Transformation techniques.

Robots have advantage over many fields such as medical, space, agriculture etc

There are some dangerous things may happen by robots when they do dangerous jobs.

Robot The TERMINATOR which can terminate the given job without failure.

"Robotics is a tool for learning through experience and discovery." - Jeneva Westendorf


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Introduction to Robots

"We don't remember a world without robots.For us, a robot is a robot. Gears and metal; electricity and positrons. Mind and iron! Human-made! If necessary, human-destroyed! But we haven't worked with them, so we don't know them. They're a cleaner better breed than we are."

Who am I?

The word "robot' was coined by Karel Capek who

wrote a play entitled "R.U.R." or "Rossum's

Universal Robots" back in 1921. The base for this

word comes from the Czech word 'robotnik' whichmeans 'worker'.

But even before that the Greeks made movable

statues that were the beginnings of what we would call robots.

For the most part, the word "Robot" today means any man-made

machine that can perform work or other actions normally

performed by Humans.

A robot is a machine that imitates the actions orappearance of an intelligent creature- usually ahuman & gathers information about its environment(senses) and uses that information (thinks) to followinstructions to do work (acts)

To qualify as a robot, a machine has to be able to do two things:

1) Get information from its surroundings

2) Do something physicalsuch as move or manipulate objects.

This is the working definition of robots that Robotics exhibitdevelopers used for this exhibit. Today technology is changing at incredible rates makingthe identification of a robot somewhat difficult. Things that we use everyday incorporatefeatures beyond those of early robots.


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Robots are ideal for jobs that require repetitive, precise movements. Human workers need a safe working environment, salaries, breaks, food and sleep.Robots dont. Human workers get bored doing the same thing over and over,which can lead to fatigue and costly mistakes. Robots dont get bored.

What are Robots Made Of?

Robots have 3 main components:

Brain - usually a computerActuators and mechanical parts - motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, gearsSensors - vision, sound, temperature, motion, light, touch, etc.

With these three components, robots can interact and affect their environment to

become useful.

What Do Robots Do?

Most robots today are used in factories to build products such as

cars and electronics. Others are used to explore underwater and even on other planets.

Laws of RoboticsLaws of Robotics:

# A robot must not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being tocome to harm.

# A robot must always obey orders given to it by a human being, except where it

would conflict with the first law.


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# A robot must protect it's own existence, except where it would conflict with the

first or second law.

Later, this "Zeroth Law" is added:# A robot must not injure a humananity or, through inaction, allow a humananity to cometo harm.

Once the robots are used to fight wars, they turn on their human owners and take over the world.

SIXTH SENSE:ROBOT SENSING:

The use of external sensing mechanisms allows a robot to interact with itsenvironment in a flexible manner. This is in contrast to preprogrammed operations inwhich a robot is taught to perform repretitive tasks via a set of preprogrammedfunctions.

The use of sensing technology to endow machines with a greater degree of intelligence in dealing with their environment is indeed an active topic of research anddevelopment in the robotics field.

The function of robot sensors may be divided into two principal categories:1. Internal state.2. External State.

Internal state sensors deal with the detection of variables such asarm joint position, which are used for robot control. External state sensors , on the other hand, deal with the detection of

variables such as range, proximity and touch.

External sensing is used for robot guidance as well as for objectidentification and handling. Although proximity,, touch, vision is recognized as the mostpowerful of robot sensory capabilities, Robot vision may be defined as the process of extraction, characterizing, and interpreting information from images of a three-dimensional world. The process, also commonly referred to as machine or computervision, may be subdivided into six principal areas:

1. Sensing.2. Preprocessing.3. Segmentation.4. Description.


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5. Recognition.6. Interpretation.

It is convenient to group these various areas of vision according to thesophistication involved in their implementation. We consider three levels of processing:low, medium and high level vision.

Here, we shall treat sensing and preprocessing as low-level visionfunctions . This will take us from the image formation process itself to compensationssuch as noise reduction, and finally to the extraction of primitive image features such asintensity discontinuities.

By 2050 robot "brains" based on computers that execute 100 trillioninstructions per second will start rivaling human intelligence

In terms of our six subdivisions, we will treat segmentation, description, andrecognition of individual objects as medium-level vision functions .

High-level vision s refer to processes that attempt to emulate cognition.

Artificial Intelligence:

SensingLearn about human and robotic vision systems, explore three modes

of robotic sensing, and apply a robotic sensory mode to a specific task.

ThinkingHuman thinking (heuristic) and robotic thinking (algorithmic) will beexplored as you gain an understanding of why a robot needs specificinstructions.

Rise of the RobotsNervous Tissue and Computation

If we accept that computers will eventually be come powerful

enough to simulate the mind, the question that naturally arises is: What

processing rate will be necessary to yield performance on a parallel with the

human brain?

By comparing how fast the neural circuits in the retina

perform image-processing operations with how many instructions per second it


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takes a computer to accomplish similar work, believe it is possible to at least

coarsely estimate the information-processing power of nervous tissue and by

extrapolation, that of the entire human nervous system.

Motion detection in retina, if performed by efficient software,

requires the execution of at least 100 computer instructions. Thus, to accomplish

the retina's 10 million detections per second would require at least 1,000 MIPS.

The entire human brain is about 75,000 times heavier than

the 0.02 gram of processing circuitry in the retina, which implies that it would

take, in round numbers, 100 million MIPS (100 trillion instructions per second) to

emulate the 1,500-gram human brain. Personal computers in 1999 beat certain

insects but lose to the human retina and even to the 0.1-gram brain of a goldfish.

A typical PC would have to be at least a million times more powerful to perform

like a human brain.

Certain dangerous jobs are best done by robots. Guided remot ely usingvideo cameras, the Min i -An d ros can investigateand defusebombs .

A Sense of Space

Robots that chart their own routes emerged from laboratories

worldwide in the mid 1990s, as microprocessors reached 100 MIPS. Most build

two-dimensional maps from sonar or laser rangefinder scans to locate and route

themselves, and the best seem able to navigate office hallways for days beforebecoming disoriented.

Too often different locations in the coarse maps resemble

one another. Conversely, the same location, scanned at different heights, looks


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different, or small obstacles or awkward protrusions are overlooked. But sensors,

computers and techniques are improving, and success is in sight.

Fast Replay

Income and experience from spatially aware industrial robots

would set the stage for smarter yet cheaper ($1,000 rather than $10,000)

consumer products, starting probably with small robot vacuum cleaners that

automatically learn their way around a home, explore unoccupied rooms and

clean whenever needed.

Commercial success will provoke competition and accelerateinvestment in manufacturing, engineering and research.

Vacuuming robots ought to beget smarter cleaning robots

with dusting, scrubbing and picking-up arms, followed by larger multifunction

utility robots with stronger, more dexterous arms and better sensors.

Programs will be written to make such machines pick up

clutter, store, retrieve and deliver things, take inventory, guard homes, opendoors, mow lawns, play games and so on.

New applications will expand the market and spur further

advances when robots fall short in acuity, precision, strength, reach, dexterity,

skill or processing power. Capability, numbers sold, engineering and

manufacturing quality, and cost-effectiveness will increase in a mutually

reinforcing spiral.

Perhaps by 2010 the process will have produced the first

broadly competent "universal robots," as big as people but with lizard like 5,000-

MIPS minds that can be programmed for almost any simple chore.


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Robots also can go into dangerously polluted environments, like chemical spills orradioactive "hot zones" in nuclear power plants.

A first-generation universal robots will handle only contingencies explicitly covered in their application programs. Unable to adapt to

changing circumstances, they will often perform inefficiently or not at all. Still, so

much physical work awaits them in businesses, streets, fields and homes that

robotics could begin to overtake pure information technology commercially.

A second generation of universal robot with amouselike 100,000 MIPS will adapt as the first generation does not and will even

be trainable. Besides application programs, such robots would host a suite of

software "conditioning modules" that would generate positive and negative

reinforcement signals in predefined circumstances.

For example, doing jobs fast and keeping its batteries charged

will be positive; hitting or breaking something will be negative. There will be other

ways to accomplish each stage of an application program, from the minutely

specific (grasp the handle underhand or overhand) to the broadly general (work

indoors or outdoors). As jobs are repeated, alternatives that result in positive

reinforcement will be favored, those with negative outcomes shunned. Slowly but

surely, second-generation robots will work increasingly well.

A third generation of robots to learn very quickly from

mental rehearsals in simulations that model physical, cultural and psychologicalfactors. Physical properties include shape, weight, strength, texture and

appearance of things, and how to handle them. Cultural aspects include a thing's

name, value, proper location and purpose.


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endeavor, intellectual or physical. Inevitably, such a development will lead to a

fundamental restructuring of our society. Entire corporations will exist without any

human employees or investors at all. Humans will play a pivotal role in

formulating the intricate complex of laws that will govern corporate behavior.

Ultimately, though, it is likely that our descendants will

cease to work in the sense that we do now. They will probably occupy their days

with a variety of social, recreational and artistic pursuits, not unlike today's

comfortable retirees or the wealthy leisure classes.

Robot SystemsRobots are comprised of several systems working together as a

whole. The type of job the robot does dictates what system elements it needs. Thegeneral categories of robot systems are:

ControllerBodyMobilityPower

SensorsTools

ControllerThe controller is the robot's brain and controls the robot's

movements. It's usually a computer of some type which is used to store informationabout the robot and the work environment and to store and execute programswhich operate the robot.


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The control system contains programs, data algorithms, logicanalysis and various other processing activities which enable the robot to perform.

The picture above is an AARM Motion control system. AARMstands for Advanced Architecture Robot and Machine Motion and it's a commercialproduct from American Robot for industrial machine motion control.Industrial controllers are either non-servos, point-to-point servos or continuous

path servos.A non-servo robot usually moves parts from one area to another and

is called a "pick and place" robot. The non-servo robot motion is started by thecontroller and stopped by a mechanical stop switch. The stop switch sends a signalback to the controller which starts the next motion.

A point-to-point servo moves to exact points so only the stops in thepath are programmed.

A continuous path servo is appropriate when a robot must proceedon a specified path in a smooth, constant motion.Mobile robots can operate by remote control or autonomously. A remote controlrobot receives instructions from a human operator. In a direct remote controlsituation, the robot relays information to the operator about the remoteenvironment and the operator then sends the robot instructions based on theinformation received. This sequence can occur immediately (real-time) or with atime delay.

Autonomous robots are programmed to understand theirenvironment and take independent action based on the knowledge they posses.Some autonomous robots are able to "learn" from their past encounters. This meansthey can identify a situation, process actions which have producedsuccessful/unsuccessful results and modify their behavior to optimize success. Thisactivity takes place in the robot controller.


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Body

The body of a robot is related to the job it must perform.Industrial robots often take the shape of a bodyless arm since its job requires it toremain stationary relative to its task. Space robots have many different bodyshapes such as a sphere, a platform with wheels or legs, or a ballon, depending onit's job.

The free-flying rover, Sprint Aercam is a sphere to minimizedamage if it were to bump into the shuttle or an astronaut.Some planetary rovers have solar platforms driven by wheels to traverseterrestrial environments. Aerobot bodies are balloons that will float through theatmosphere of other worlds collecting data. When evaluating what body type is

right for a robot, remember that form follows function.

Mobility

How do robots move? It all depends on the job they have to doand the environment they operate in.

In the Water : Conventional unmanned, submersible robots areused in science and industry throughout the oceans of the world. You probably sawthe Jason AUV at work when pictures of the Titanic discovery were broadcast. Toget around, automated underwater vehicles (AUV's) use propellers and rudders tocontrol their direction of travel.

One area of research suggests that an underwater robot likeRoboTuna could propel itself as a fish does using its natural undulatory motion. It'sthought that robot that move like fish would be quieter, more maneuverable andmore energy efficient.

On Land: Land based rovers can move around on legs, tracks orwheels. Dante II is a frame walking robot that is able to descend into volcano


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craters by rapelling down the crater. Dante has eight legs; four legs on each of twoframes. The frames are separated by a track along which the frames slide relativeto each other. In most cases Dante II has at least one frame (four legs) touchingthe ground.

An example of a track driven robot is Pioneer, a robotdeveloped to clear rubble, make maps and acquire samples at the Chornobyl NuclearReactor site. Pioneer is track-driven like a small bulldozer which makes it suitablefor driving over and through rubble. The wide track footprint gives good stabilityand platform capacity to deploy payloads.Many robots use wheels for locomotion.

In the Air/Space :Robots that operate in the air use engines and thrusters to

get around.One example is the Cassini, an orbiter on its way to Saturn. Movement and

positioning is accomplished by either firing small thrusters or by applying a force tospeed up or slow down one or more of three "reaction wheels." The thrusters andreaction wheels orient the spacecraft in three axes which are maintained withgreat precision.

TRANSFORMATION MATRIX:Robot arm kinematics deals with the analytical study of the geometry

of motion of a robot arm with respect to the fixed reference coordinate system withoutregard to the forces/moments that cause the motion.

Thus, kinematics deals with the analytical description of the spatial

displacement of the robot as a function of time, in particular the relations between the joint variable space and the position and orientation of the end-effector of a robot arm.

There are two fundamental problems in robot arm kinematics.The first problem is usually referred to as the direct (or forward)

kinematics problem,Second problem is the inverse kinematics (or arm solution) problem.

Since the independent variables in a robot arm are the joint variables, and a task isusually stated in terms of the reference coordinate frame, the inverse kinematics problemis used more frequently.

Denavit and Hartenberg [1955] proposed a systematic and generalizedapproach of utilizing matrix algebra to describe and represent the spatial geometry of thelinks of a robot arm with respect to a fixed reference frame. This method uses a 4*4homogeneous transformation matrix to describe the spatial relationship between twoadjacent right mechanical links and reduces the direct kinematics problem to finding anequivalent 4*4 homogeneous transformation matrix that relates the spatial displacementof the hand coordinate frame to the reference coordinate frame.


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Power

Power for industrial robots can be electric, pneumatic orhydraulic. Electric motors are efficient, require little maintenance, and aren't verynoisy. Pneumatic robots use compressed air and come in a wide variety of sizes. Apneumatic robot requires another source of energy such as electricity, propane orgasoline to provide the compressed air.

Hydraulic robots use oil under pressure and generallyperform heavy duty jobs. This power type is noisy, large and heavier than the otherpower sources. A hydraulic robot also needs another source of energy to move thefluids through its components.

Pneumatic and hydraulic robots require

maintenance of the tubes, fittings and hoses that connect thecomponents and distribute the energy.Two important sources of electric power for mobile

robots are solar cells and batteries.

SensorsSensors are the perceptual system of a robot and measure physical

quantities like contact, distance, light, sound, strain, rotation, magnetism, smell,temperature, inclination, pressure, or altitude.

Sensors provide the raw information or signals that must beprocessed through the robot's computer brain to provide meaningful information.Robots are equipped with sensors so they can have an understanding of theirsurrounding environment and make changes in their behavior based on theinformation they have gathered.

Sensors can permit a robot to have an adequate field of view, arange of detection and the ability to detect objects while operating in real or near-real time within its power and size limits.

Additionally, a robot might have an acoustic sensor to detectsound, motion or location, infrared sensors to detect heat sources, contact sensors,

tactile sensors to give a sense of touch, or optical/vision sensors. For most anyenvironmental situation, a robot can be equipped with an appropriate sensor. Arobot can also monitor itself with sensors.

Tools


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As working machines, robots have defined job duties and carryall the tools they need to accomplish their tasks onboard their bodies. Many robotscarry their tools at the end of a manipulator.

The manipulator contains a series of segments, jointed or slidingrelative to one another for the purpose of moving objects.

The manipulator includes the arm, wrist and end-effector. Anend-effector is a tool or gripping mechanism attached to the end of a robot arm toaccomplish some task.

It often encompasses a motor or a driven mechanical device.An end-effector can be a sensor, a gripping device, a paint gun, a drill, an arcwelding device, etc. There are many examples of robot tools that you will discoveras you examine the literature associated with this site. To get you going, two goodexamples are listed below.

Tools are unique to the task the robot must perform.Advantages of Robotics The advantages are obvious - robots can do things we humans

just don't want to do, and usually do it cheaper.

Robots can do things more precise than humans and allow

progress in medical science and other useful advances.

Educational GoalsRobotics was designed to introduce the science behind the design and operation ofrobots, and after interacting with the exhibit, you will be able to:

1. Define a robot as a machine that gathers information about its environment(senses) and uses that information (thinks) to follow instructions to do work(acts).

2. Recognize the advantages and limitations of robots by comparing how robotsand humans sense, think, and act and by exploring uses of robots inmanufacturing, research, and everyday settings.

3. Understand your connection with technology and create an excitement about

science and math that will prepare you for a workplace in which computer,robotics, and automation are common and essential.

Each major thematic area of the exhibit has specific educational goals accomplishedusing hands-on activities that compare how human and robotic systems sense, think,and act.


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Current Activities:

Visible features of plants enable humans to distinguish weedsfrom crops, and to see individual parts of plants. A machine vision and image processingsystem capable of extracting and classifying these same features could be used to initiatea spot sprayer or other control technology.

The general objective of this research is to develop sensortechnologies which permit chemicals to be applied site-specifically on plants in a mannerwhich minimizes the quantity required to control crop pests.

The specific objectives are:

1. Develop machine vision hardware and image processing software to locate

small seedlings, distinguish weeds from the cultivated crop, and measure

parameters which affect the quantity and location of chemical to be applied;

2. Develop image processing and pattern recognition algorithms which caninterpret the sensed data in real-time, and;

3. Develop artificial intelligence algorithms (expert systems, neural networks,

etc.) capable of making real-time decisions concerning when and how much

chemical to apply, based on perceived conditions.

The first step to complete these objectives is to create a database of multi-

spectral, digital, images of plants which contain the desired features. Thisdatabase of plant images is currently being created, and will become accessible

to cooperators over the World Wide Web to test and evaluate the performance of

image processing and pattern recognition algorithms.


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Todays Robotics:Today, robots are enjoying resurgence. Faster and cheaper

computer processors make robots smarter and less expensive. Meanwhile, researchers

are working on ways to make robots move and "think" more efficiently. Although mostrobots in use today are designed for specific tasks, the goal is to make universal robots,robots flexible enough to do just about anything a human can do.

Problems with Robotics As with any machine, robots can break and even cause

disaster.

They are powerful machines that we allow to control certain

things.

When something goes wrong, terrible things can happen.Luckily, this is rare because robotic systems are designed

with many safety features that limit the harm they can do.

There's also the problem of evil people using robots for evil

purposes. This is true today with other forms of technology

such as weapons and biological material.

Of course, robots could be used in future wars. This could be

good or bad. If humans perform their aggressive acts by

sending machines out to fight other machines, that would be

better than sending humans out to fight other humans.

Steams of robots could be used to defend a country against

attacks while limiting Human casualties. Either way, human

nature is the flawed component that's here to stay.


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CONCLUSIONROBOT THE TERMINATOR:

The ROBOT which terminates every job within a shortest period has no termination.Human brain has boundaries up to which it thinks, but for Computers nolimitations .That is we have to use the brain up to the capacity of neurons in our brain.

But there is no limit to computer memory.

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82 Robotics