African-Americans in Education through History Justin Barnhart, Alysia Martin, Amy Bargiel, Jennifer Bennedict, Shannon Murphy

African-Americans in African-Americans in Education through Education through

HistoryHistoryJustin Barnhart, Justin Barnhart, Alysia Martin, Alysia Martin, Amy Bargiel, Amy Bargiel,

Jennifer Bennedict, Jennifer Bennedict, Shannon MurphyShannon Murphy

African American Population as of African American Population as of 2000 Census2000 Census

There are 34,658,190 African There are 34,658,190 African Americans living in the United StatesAmericans living in the United States

African Americans Comprise 12% of African Americans Comprise 12% of the total U.S. Populationthe total U.S. Population

Ohio Total Population 11,353,140 Ohio Total Population 11,353,140 Ohio African American Population Ohio African American Population

1,301,307 1,301,307 11.5% of Ohio’s Population is African 11.5% of Ohio’s Population is African

AmericanAmerican

Where The African American Where The African American Population LivesPopulation Lives

Educational Attainment 25+Educational Attainment 25+

73% African Americans High School 73% African Americans High School Diploma or HigherDiploma or Higher

80% Total U.S. Population High 80% Total U.S. Population High School Diploma or HigherSchool Diploma or Higher

14% African Americans Bachelor’s 14% African Americans Bachelor’s Degree or HigherDegree or Higher

24% Total U.S. Population Bachelor’s 24% Total U.S. Population Bachelor’s Degree or HigherDegree or Higher

Income According to 2000 CensusIncome According to 2000 Census

Median Family Income African Median Family Income African Americans $33,255Americans $33,255

Median Family Income Total U.S. Median Family Income Total U.S. Population $50,046Population $50,046

African Americans Below the Poverty African Americans Below the Poverty Level 54%Level 54%

Total U.S. Population Below the Total U.S. Population Below the Poverty Level 24%Poverty Level 24%

33rdrd Grade Reading Proficiency in Grade Reading Proficiency in Ohio 2007-2008Ohio 2007-2008

Racial Gaps Begin at an Early AgeRacial Gaps Begin at an Early Age African American Children Had The African American Children Had The

Lowest Percentage of Passage on 3Lowest Percentage of Passage on 3rdrd Grade Reading Achievement TestGrade Reading Achievement Test

African American 56.4% Passing Rate African American 56.4% Passing Rate Across OhioAcross Ohio

White Non-Hispanic 82.7% Passage White Non-Hispanic 82.7% Passage on the Same Teston the Same Test

Source: The Ohio Department of Education

You Have to See it to Believe it!You Have to See it to Believe it!

2007-2008 Ohio Achievment Results for Reading by Race

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

90.00%

100.00%

3rd Grade

Asian or Pacific Islander ProficientPercentage

Black, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage

Hispanic Proficient Percentage

American Indian or Alaskan NativeProficient Percentage

Multiracial Proficient Percentage

White, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage

1010thth Grade OGT Reading Results in Grade OGT Reading Results in Ohio 2007-2008Ohio 2007-2008

African American Students Still African American Students Still Struggle More Than Any Other Race of Struggle More Than Any Other Race of StudentStudent

Only 68.9% PassedOnly 68.9% Passed Asian Students Were The Highest With Asian Students Were The Highest With

91% Passage 91% Passage White Students Achieved Second White Students Achieved Second

Highest With 88.8% PassageHighest With 88.8% Passage African Americans Lagged Far Behind African Americans Lagged Far Behind

All Other RacesAll Other Races

You Have to See it to Believe it 2!You Have to See it to Believe it 2!

Reading Proficiency

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

90.00%

100.00%

10th Grade







Standardized Testing and African Standardized Testing and African American StudentsAmerican Students

African Americans are Trailing Behind African Americans are Trailing Behind All Other Races in Every Tested All Other Races in Every Tested CategoryCategory

The Most Challenging Subjects are The Most Challenging Subjects are Math and ScienceMath and Science

Both in High School and Elementary Both in High School and Elementary African Americans are Falling BehindAfrican Americans are Falling Behind

Results for the Elementary Grades Results for the Elementary Grades Ohio Achievement TestOhio Achievement Test

Ohio Achievement Results for Elemantary 2007-2008 by Race

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

90.00%

100.00%

Reading Math ReadingWriting Math Reading Math S.S. Science

3rdGrade

3rdGrade

4thGrade

4thGrade

4thGrade

5thGrade

5thGrade

5thGrade

5thGrade







Ohio OGT Results 2007-2008 by Ohio OGT Results 2007-2008 by RaceRace

2007-2008 Ohio OGT Results by Race

0.00%10.00%20.00%30.00%40.00%50.00%60.00%70.00%80.00%90.00%

100.00%

Reading Writing Mathematics SocialStudies

Science

10th Grade 10th Grade 10th Grade 10th Grade 10th Grade







Minority Students are Responding Minority Students are Responding to Intervention in High Numbersto Intervention in High Numbers

When Looking At The Improvement in When Looking At The Improvement in Passing Rates Minorities are Out Passing Rates Minorities are Out Performing the Dominant CulturePerforming the Dominant Culture

African Americans are Third in African Americans are Third in Improvement at 4.75%Improvement at 4.75%

American Indians Lead the Way at American Indians Lead the Way at 5.55%5.55%

White and Asian Americans Lag White and Asian Americans Lag Behind With Less Than a 2% Growth Behind With Less Than a 2% Growth From the Previous YearFrom the Previous Year

You Have to See it to Believe it 3!You Have to See it to Believe it 3!

2006-2007 Reading Proficiency Response to Intervention

00.10.2

0.30.40.50.60.7

0.80.9

1

Reading Reading Reading

10th Grade 11th Grade Response toIntervention







Why Do You Think Minorities Are Why Do You Think Minorities Are Responding Better to Intervention?Responding Better to Intervention?

http://centralresidentscouncil.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/images/IMG_0002.191150314_std.JPG

2006-2007 Reading Proficiency Response to Intervention

00.10.2

0.30.40.50.60.7

0.80.9

1

Reading Reading Reading

10th Grade 11th Grade Response toIntervention







Kelly Miller, the first African American to attend John Hopkins

University

““Successful strivings of Negros for enlightenment Successful strivings of Negros for enlightenment under the most adverse circumstances.”under the most adverse circumstances.”

Slaves needed to be taught, but question…Slaves needed to be taught, but question… How far would their education go?How far would their education go?

1760-struggles for rights aroused1760-struggles for rights aroused Many could not look past the horrendous acts Many could not look past the horrendous acts

done to slavesdone to slaves Many believed they were at least entitled to Many believed they were at least entitled to

freedom of body.freedom of body. Eventually Baptists and Methodists allowed Eventually Baptists and Methodists allowed

access to the Negro population both bond and access to the Negro population both bond and free.free.

Three advocates for educationThree advocates for education Masters of SlavesMasters of Slaves Sympathetic personsSympathetic persons MissionariesMissionaries

The growth and expansion led to rapid The growth and expansion led to rapid educational development in African educational development in African Americans.Americans.

Masters felt that educated slaves…Masters felt that educated slaves… proved useful and trustworthyproved useful and trustworthy were better laborers and artisanswere better laborers and artisans good at administrative abilitiesgood at administrative abilities

Able to manage the large plantations and Able to manage the large plantations and business establishmentsbusiness establishments

Added to poetry, math, science, and Added to poetry, math, science, and philosophy, especially with the free in philosophy, especially with the free in the Norththe North

Some were employed to teach the white Some were employed to teach the white childrenchildren

Certain educateos advocated to Certain educateos advocated to establish special, “colored schools”.establish special, “colored schools”.

They were not meant to separate, but They were not meant to separate, but rather a movement to meet the needs rather a movement to meet the needs of people just emerging from slavery.of people just emerging from slavery.

Educators saw the need to move Educators saw the need to move beyond just religion.beyond just religion. Courses in industries, literature, mathCourses in industries, literature, math Girls specialized in swing and FrenchGirls specialized in swing and French

Education now radically segregatedEducation now radically segregated It was the law in many places especially It was the law in many places especially

the Souththe South African Americans often lived in the African Americans often lived in the

poorest parts of the communitiespoorest parts of the communities Neighborhood schools suffered inability to raise Neighborhood schools suffered inability to raise

funds to pay teachers salaries and maintenancefunds to pay teachers salaries and maintenance African Americans unrepresented on school African Americans unrepresented on school

boardsboards Unable to push for better school fundingUnable to push for better school funding

Average pupil expenditure: $80Average pupil expenditure: $80

African Americans:$15African Americans:$15

Nationally 25% of all students were Nationally 25% of all students were African American, but they only African American, but they only received 12% of all educational received 12% of all educational revenue and only 3% of funds revenue and only 3% of funds budgets for transportation .budgets for transportation .

Schools defined as “equal”, but the African American Schools defined as “equal”, but the African American schools were far inferior to the white counterparts.schools were far inferior to the white counterparts.

Topeka, Kansas-Linda BrownTopeka, Kansas-Linda Brown NAACP-National Association for the Advancement of NAACP-National Association for the Advancement of

Colored PeopleColored People 1951-NAACP requested injunction that would forbid the 1951-NAACP requested injunction that would forbid the

segregation of Topeka’s public schoolssegregation of Topeka’s public schools

District Court for the District of KansasDistrict Court for the District of Kansas Heard case June 25-26, 1951Heard case June 25-26, 1951 NAACP argued the segregated schools sent the message NAACP argued the segregated schools sent the message

to black children that they were inferior to whites.to black children that they were inferior to whites. Board of Education defense…Board of Education defense… Plessy v. FergusonPlessy v. Ferguson

Appealed to Supreme Court on Oct. 1Appealed to Supreme Court on Oct. 1stst 1951 and heard 1951 and heard December 9, 1952December 9, 1952 1414thth Amendment Amendment Supreme Courts decision…Supreme Courts decision…

18561856-Wilberforce University, the first black -Wilberforce University, the first black school of higher learning owned and operated school of higher learning owned and operated by African Americans, founded by the African by African Americans, founded by the African American Episcopal Church. American Episcopal Church.

18691869 –Howard University’s law school becomes –Howard University’s law school becomes the country's first black law school. the country's first black law school.

18761876-Meharry Medical College, the first black -Meharry Medical College, the first black medical school.medical school.

18811881-Spelman College, the first college for black -Spelman College, the first college for black women.women.

19441944-Frederick Douglass Patterson establishes -Frederick Douglass Patterson establishes the United Negro College Fund to help support the United Negro College Fund to help support black colleges and black students. black colleges and black students.

1954-Brown vs. Board of Education1954-Brown vs. Board of Education

19571957 President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends federal troops to ensure integration of the all-federal troops to ensure integration of the all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Ark. The white Central High School in Little Rock, Ark. The Little Rock Nine were the first black students to Little Rock Nine were the first black students to attend the school.attend the school.

19681968-San Francisco State University becomes -San Francisco State University becomes the first four-year college to establish a black the first four-year college to establish a black studies department. studies department.

20032003-In -In GrutterGrutter v. v. BollingerBollinger, the Supreme Court , the Supreme Court (5-4) upholds the University of Michigan Law (5-4) upholds the University of Michigan Law School's affirmative action policy, ruling that race School's affirmative action policy, ruling that race can be one of many factors considered by can be one of many factors considered by colleges when selecting their students because it colleges when selecting their students because it furthers “a compelling interest in obtaining the furthers “a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body.” student body.”

Does affirmative action policies Does affirmative action policies still force that segregation in still force that segregation in

the minds of decision makers?the minds of decision makers?

Legal Decisions for Legal Decisions for African-Americans in African-Americans in

EducationEducation

1849: 1849: Robert vs. City of BostonRobert vs. City of Boston

1896: 1896: Plessy v. Ferguson Plessy v. Ferguson

““separate but equal”separate but equal”

1908: 1908: Private schools required to be Private schools required to be segregatedsegregated

Early CasesEarly Cases

Cumming v. Richmond (GA) Cumming v. Richmond (GA) County Board of EducationCounty Board of Education

18991899 The Supreme Court allows a state to The Supreme Court allows a state to

levy taxes on black and white levy taxes on black and white citizens alike while providing a public citizens alike while providing a public school for white children only. school for white children only.

1952-1954: 1952-1954: Brown v. Board of Brown v. Board of EducationEducation

1955-1960: 1955-1960: Federal judges hold Federal judges hold more than 200 desegregation more than 200 desegregation hearingshearings

DesegregationDesegregation

1940: 1940: Equal pay for African-Equal pay for African-American and American and white teacherswhite teachers

1964: 1964: Civil Rights Act of 1964Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Right DirectionThe Right Direction

Enforcing BrownEnforcing Brown

1968: 1968: Court orders to dismantle Court orders to dismantle segregated school systemssegregated school systems

1969: 1969: “All deliberate speed” no “All deliberate speed” no longer longer constitutionalconstitutional

1971: 1971: Court allows busing, magnet Court allows busing, magnet schools, compensatory education schools, compensatory education

1972: 1972: “Splinter districts” refused“Splinter districts” refused

Keyes v. Denver School District No. Keyes v. Denver School District No. 1 1

De jure: state mandated segregation De jure: state mandated segregation (unconstitutional)(unconstitutional)

De facto: segregation that is the De facto: segregation that is the result of private choices (not result of private choices (not unconstitutional)unconstitutional)

Still Finding the Right DirectionStill Finding the Right Direction 1982:1982: Court rejects tax exemptions for Court rejects tax exemptions for

private schools that discriminateprivate schools that discriminate

1986:1986: Once a school reaches the Green Once a school reaches the Green factors, it can return to local controlfactors, it can return to local control

1992:1992: Court rules that schools can meet Court rules that schools can meet these factors in an incremental fashionthese factors in an incremental fashion

More Recent DevelopmentsMore Recent Developments

““A report from Harvard's Civil Rights A report from Harvard's Civil Rights Project concludes that America's Project concludes that America's schools are resegregating.” schools are resegregating.” 20022002

““A study by Harvard's Civil Rights A study by Harvard's Civil Rights Project finds that schools were more Project finds that schools were more segregated in 2000 than in 1970 when segregated in 2000 than in 1970 when busing for desegregation began.” busing for desegregation began.” 2003 2003

Question:Question:

Why do you think schools are Why do you think schools are more segregated now than they more segregated now than they

were in 1970?were in 1970?

Comparing and Contrasting the Comparing and Contrasting the Education of African Education of African

Americans With the education Americans With the education of the dominant Groupof the dominant Group

Education from Slavery to Present DayEducation from Slavery to Present Day

Slavery was made a lifelong system.Slavery was made a lifelong system. There were “massive hegemonic There were “massive hegemonic

structures operating at all levels.”structures operating at all levels.” These structures included These structures included

“philosophical abstractions claiming “philosophical abstractions claiming racial and intellectual superiority of racial and intellectual superiority of whites; through legal controls, work whites; through legal controls, work scheduling, and resident patterns; down scheduling, and resident patterns; down to micro level policies of interactions to micro level policies of interactions between whites and blacks.”between whites and blacks.”

It was believed by white Southerners It was believed by white Southerners that everyone should have access to that everyone should have access to the Christian Bible.the Christian Bible.

Planters would educate the slaves Planters would educate the slaves from revised Bible passages that from revised Bible passages that supported “capture and involuntary supported “capture and involuntary servitude.”servitude.”

Enslaved children learned from their Enslaved children learned from their parents and they learned numbers, parents and they learned numbers, counting, the alphabet and spelling counting, the alphabet and spelling from white children while playing from white children while playing school.school.

““Education of white children was Education of white children was largely in the hands of private largely in the hands of private groups.” While, “education of groups.” While, “education of Negroes was almost non existent.”Negroes was almost non existent.”

The education of African Americans The education of African Americans was even forbidden in some states.was even forbidden in some states.

The segregation in education was The segregation in education was viewed as resulting in, “the Negro viewed as resulting in, “the Negro children, as a class, receiving children, as a class, receiving educational opportunities which are educational opportunities which are substantially inferior to those available substantially inferior to those available to white children otherwise similarly to white children otherwise similarly situated.”situated.”

This led to the view of “separate but This led to the view of “separate but not equal” regarding conditions of not equal” regarding conditions of education and schools of African education and schools of African Americans to the schools of white Americans to the schools of white children.children.

Today there are still messages in Today there are still messages in education that reinforce “white education that reinforce “white supremacy.”supremacy.”

““Acting white” is term used in the Acting white” is term used in the African American community. This is African American community. This is used to define African Americans who used to define African Americans who act out the “norms that are generated, act out the “norms that are generated, imposed, and maintained by the larger, imposed, and maintained by the larger, dominant community.”dominant community.”

Early on, students are taught Early on, students are taught hegemonic values of white supremacy hegemonic values of white supremacy by the way we teach.by the way we teach.

Unfortunately, stories and texts fail to Unfortunately, stories and texts fail to “publicly acknowledge a multiplicity of “publicly acknowledge a multiplicity of voices” and this “negates the idea of a voices” and this “negates the idea of a multiple ethic that includes the black multiple ethic that includes the black self.”self.”

Educational ConcernsEducational Concernsand Controversiesand Controversies

African Americans tend to be African Americans tend to be over-represented in:over-represented in:

Special Education ProgramsSpecial Education Programs Juvenile Justice system as offendersJuvenile Justice system as offenders Incarceration ratesIncarceration rates Poverty ratesPoverty rates Unemployment Unemployment Discipline referrals resulting in Discipline referrals resulting in

suspension or expulsionsuspension or expulsion

African Americans tend to be African Americans tend to be under-represented in:under-represented in:

Programs for the Gifted and other Programs for the Gifted and other advanced coursesadvanced courses

School activities other than sportsSchool activities other than sports Teaching; counselors, administratorsTeaching; counselors, administrators Graduation ratesGraduation rates Science and Technology classesScience and Technology classes Higher level MathematicsHigher level Mathematics

African American students are African American students are getting left behindgetting left behind

In 1997 Washington State gave the In 1997 Washington State gave the first Washington Assessment of first Washington Assessment of Student Learning to students.Student Learning to students. 73% of African American students did 73% of African American students did

not meet the standard in Reading.not meet the standard in Reading. 95% did not meet the standard in Math.95% did not meet the standard in Math. 69% did not meet the standard in Writing69% did not meet the standard in Writing 55% did not meet the standard in 55% did not meet the standard in

ListeningListening

Years later, African American Years later, African American students still strugglestudents still struggle

In 2004-2005 only 37.7% of 4In 2004-2005 only 37.7% of 4thth grade grade African American students met the African American students met the standard in Math; leaving more than 63% standard in Math; leaving more than 63% who did not.who did not.

23.5% of723.5% of7thth grade students met the grade students met the standard in Math, 74.7% did notstandard in Math, 74.7% did not

Only 14% of 8Only 14% of 8thth graders met the standard graders met the standard in science, 86% did not.in science, 86% did not.

53.3% of 1053.3% of 10thth graders met the standard in graders met the standard in reading. reading.

Achievement GapsAchievement Gaps

Before children even enter Before children even enter Kindergarten, there is an achievement Kindergarten, there is an achievement gap between African Americans and gap between African Americans and Caucasians. This achievement gap Caucasians. This achievement gap continues through adulthood.continues through adulthood.

Research shows that when African Research shows that when African Americans and Caucasians attend Americans and Caucasians attend schools together, African Americans schools together, African Americans typically achieve lower gradestypically achieve lower grades

A Slight DecreaseA Slight Decrease

Between 1970 and 1990 the Between 1970 and 1990 the Achievement Gap decreased by about Achievement Gap decreased by about 40% and then stopped.40% and then stopped.

Possible reasons for this sudden stop:Possible reasons for this sudden stop: Biased testingBiased testing DiscriminationDiscrimination Anxiety Anxiety Disparities in income and family structureDisparities in income and family structure Cultural differencesCultural differences

The Later Years of the The Later Years of the Achievement GapAchievement Gap

A Recent study of upper-middle class A Recent study of upper-middle class community Shaker Heights, Ohio community Shaker Heights, Ohio found that about 80% of white found that about 80% of white students and fewer than 3% of students and fewer than 3% of African American students pass with African American students pass with honors (3.0 GPA or above)honors (3.0 GPA or above)

Also known asAlso known as

EbonicsEbonics

or Black Englishor Black English

African American African American Vernacular EnglishVernacular English

Deficient TheoryDeficient Theory

This theory proposes that the minds This theory proposes that the minds of minority children are lacking a of minority children are lacking a quality that makes them unable to quality that makes them unable to speak Standard English.speak Standard English.

Standard English would be Standard English would be considered English that is commonly considered English that is commonly accepted among a society.accepted among a society.

Black EnglishBlack English

Black English was supposedly Black English was supposedly considered the attempt of African considered the attempt of African Americans to speak Standard Americans to speak Standard English.English.

It was considered an inferior dialect.It was considered an inferior dialect. However, African Americans were not However, African Americans were not

the only ones to use this dialect.the only ones to use this dialect.

Amended Resolution of the Amended Resolution of the Oakland School Board on EbonicsOakland School Board on Ebonics

The original Resolution was written in The original Resolution was written in December of 1996. The amended December of 1996. The amended version was written a month later in version was written a month later in January of 1997.January of 1997.


States that it is based on studies that States that it is based on studies that believed that African Americans possessed believed that African Americans possessed and utilized their own languageand utilized their own language

Recognized that some African American Recognized that some African American students used Ebonics as their primary students used Ebonics as their primary speech, and therefore qualified for ESL.speech, and therefore qualified for ESL.

Wanted to remedy the low stat and national Wanted to remedy the low stat and national norms by creating a program featuring norms by creating a program featuring African American Language Systems to move African American Language Systems to move them from their initial language to traditional them from their initial language to traditional EnglishEnglish


Wanted to create a program for teachers and Wanted to create a program for teachers and instructional assistants to certify them in a instructional assistants to certify them in a methodology of African Language Systems to methodology of African Language Systems to help students move onto English.help students move onto English.

Wanted to implement the best possible Wanted to implement the best possible program for combined purpose of acquisition program for combined purpose of acquisition and mastery of English skills while respecting and mastery of English skills while respecting and embracing the legitimacy and richness of and embracing the legitimacy and richness of the language patterns of Ebonics or African the language patterns of Ebonics or African Language Systems.Language Systems.

Teaching Techniques that will Teaching Techniques that will benefit African American students benefit African American students

as well as your other studentsas well as your other students Link Classroom Content with the Link Classroom Content with the

students’ past experiences.students’ past experiences. Focus on the whole child rather Focus on the whole child rather

than just cognitive growththan just cognitive growth Use and get to know your Use and get to know your

students cultural norms and students cultural norms and patterns.patterns.

Use cultural relevant teaching.Use cultural relevant teaching.

Have high expectations to help form self-Have high expectations to help form self-efficacy.efficacy.

Stretch the borders of the classroom. Stretch the borders of the classroom. (Reach out to the community)(Reach out to the community)

““Pedagogy must provide a way for students to Pedagogy must provide a way for students to maintain their cultural integrity while maintain their cultural integrity while succeeding academically.”succeeding academically.”

ReferencesReferences Gundanker, Grey (2007). Hidden education among Gundanker, Grey (2007). Hidden education among

African Americans during slavery. African Americans during slavery. Teachers College Teachers College Record, Vol.109 Issue 7, Record, Vol.109 Issue 7, 1591-612. Retrieved 1591-612. Retrieved Academic Search Premier.Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Bowling Green EBSCO. Bowling Green St. Univ. Lib., OH. 23 October 2008 <http://0-St. Univ. Lib., OH. 23 October 2008 <http://0-web.ebscohost.com. maurice.bgsu.edu/ehost>.web.ebscohost.com. maurice.bgsu.edu/ehost>.

(1997). (1997). Brown et al. v. Board of Education Topeka Brown et al. v. Board of Education Topeka et al., Vol.1 Issue 1,et al., Vol.1 Issue 1, 1-10. Retrieved 1-10. Retrieved Academic Academic Search Premier.Search Premier. EBSCO. Bowling Green St. Univ. EBSCO. Bowling Green St. Univ. Lib., OH. 23 October 2008 <http://0-Lib., OH. 23 October 2008 <http://0-web.ebscohost.com. maurice.bgsu.edu/ehost>.web.ebscohost.com. maurice.bgsu.edu/ehost>.

Watkins, William H., Lewis, James H., & Victoria Watkins, William H., Lewis, James H., & Victoria Chou. (2001). Chou. (2001). Race and education: the roles of Race and education: the roles of history and society in education African American history and society in education African American students.students. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Holladay, Jennifer (Spring 2004, Updated 2007). Holladay, Jennifer (Spring 2004, Updated 2007). BROWN V. BOARD: Timeline of School Integration BROWN V. BOARD: Timeline of School Integration in the U.S. . in the U.S. . Teaching TolerenceTeaching Tolerence, , 2525, Retrieved , Retrieved Octocer 23, 2008, from Octocer 23, 2008, from http://www.tolerance.org/teach/magazine/featurehttp://www.tolerance.org/teach/magazine/features.jsp?p=0&is=34&ar=487 s.jsp?p=0&is=34&ar=487

Willoughby, Brian (Spring 2004). Brown v. Board: Willoughby, Brian (Spring 2004). Brown v. Board: An American Legacy. An American Legacy. Teaching ToleranceTeaching Tolerance, , 2525, , Retrieved October 23, 2008, from Retrieved October 23, 2008, from http://www.tolerance.org/teach/magazine/featurehttp://www.tolerance.org/teach/magazine/features.jsp?cid=485s.jsp?cid=485

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Woodson, Carter (2004). The education of the Woodson, Carter (2004). The education of the negro prior to 1861 – A history of the education of negro prior to 1861 – A history of the education of the colored people of the united states from the the colored people of the united states from the beginning of slavery to the civil war. Retrieved beginning of slavery to the civil war. Retrieved October 18, 2008. Ebook of The Education of the October 18, 2008. Ebook of The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861. Negro Prior to 1861. http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~natalieb/The_Educahttp://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~natalieb/The_Education_Of_The_Negro_P.pdftion_Of_The_Negro_P.pdf

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Documents

African-Americans in Education through History Justin Barnhart, Alysia Martin, Amy Bargiel, Jennifer Bennedict, Shannon Murphy