《中国文化概论》 An Introduction to Chinese Culture

第一章：中国历史 Chapter One Chinese History:

China, representing one of the earliest civilizations in the world, has a recorded history of

about 3,600 years. It possesses rich historical documents as well as ancient relics. The founding of

the People's Republic in 1949 marked China's entry into the socialist stage.

During the long period of historical development, the industrious, courageous, and

intelligent Chinese people of all nationalities collectively created a great civilization. They made

great contributions to all of mankind.

A Summary of Chinese Culture History Classics:

A Chronological Table of Chinese History

Dynasty Era Dynasty Era

Prehistoric Times 1.7 million years - the

21st century BC

Sui Dynasty 581-618

Xia Dynasty

21st -16th century B.C. Tang Dynasty 618-907

Shang Dynasty

16th–11th century B.C. Five Dynasties 907-960

Zhou Dynasty 1100-771 B.C.

770-265 B.C.*

Song Dynasty* North 960-1127

South 1127-1279

Qin Dynasty

221-206 B.C. Yuan Dynasty 1271-1368

Han Dynasty

206 B.C.-220 A.D. Ming Dynasty 1368-1644

Three Kingdoms

220-280* Qing Dynasty 1644-1911

Jin Dynasty

265-420 Republic of China 1912-1949

Southern&.Northern

Dynasties*

South 420-589

North 386-581

People’s Republic of

China

1949-

1-- For thousands of years, questions regarding the origin of the heavens, the earth and man have puzzled people

all over the world. In western countries, the Judaic tradition taught that "God created the heaven and the earth and

created man in his own image." While in China, myths such as that of Pangu creating the heavens and the earth

and Nvwa creating man are widely known to everyone. However, none of these gave us an irrefragable answer of

how the earth came into being and how mankind appeared.

2-- The picture on the right portrays a legendary hero in prehistoric myth, Xing Tian.

3--- Huangdi is considered to be the founder of Chinese civilization as well as its first ancestor. During that period

many tribes clashed with each other over land disputes as each tribe sought to have more farmland. Since the

constant warring caused much suffering to the people, Huangdi decided to put an end to this chaotic situation.

With his army, after warring 56 battles against other tribes, Huangdi conquered a wide area along the Yellow

River and was made chief of the tribal union. Because his tribe honored the virtue of earth, he was given the title,

Yellow Emperor, after the yellow color of earth, the symbol of farming.

4---As the Yellow Emperor he is remembered as having done many great things. The story goes that when

Huangdi was 110 years old, a yellow dragon appears in the sky, summoning the emperor to heaven on behalf of

the king of heaven. When the emperor riding on the back of the dragon is about to leave, his subjects who were

reluctant to let him go, drag him back by his clothes.

The Book of History

The early history of China is complicated by the lack of a written language during this period.

Note:

① “尽信书则不如无书

It would be worse than without books if you took them for granted totally. ” said by Mencius (《孟子·尽心下》) .

In fact that in Mencius’ original words, “书” means “尚书” which is a history book recorded some China’s ancient

history from 尧 Yao (a fabulous ancient king) to 秦 Qin Dynasty. But Chinese people now almost take the

character “书” as the collective noun to understand the whole sentence.)

②CLASSICAL HISTORIOGRAPHY FOR CHINESE HISTORY

http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/history/elman/ClassBib/

Yu the Great（大禹） is still remembered and respected as the ruler who got the Yellow River back under

control. He lived about 4000 years ago. At that time, people suffered from a big flood of the Yellow River. King

Shun（舜）, the ruler before Yu, initially assigned Yu‘s father Gun（鲧） to handle the problem. Gun tried out a

method that consisted of blocking up the water wherever the flooding occurred.

King Shun was impressed by Yu‘s endeavors and passed his throne to Yu later on. Yu the Great was the last

legendary leader of the primitive society, in which the election of the leader followed the merit system. It was Qi

（启）, the son of Yu, who violated this practice. He killed the person Yu the Great had appointed and succeeded

his father's power. Qi founded the Xia Dynasty (21st-16th century BC) and initiated the hereditary system of

monarchy.

Nine years later, the situation had become even worse with the river overflowing everywhere. King Shun was

very angry about what Gun had done, and ended up dismissing Gun and appointing Yu. Yu learned techniques

from his father and adopted a new way of dredging water channels and conducting the river to the sea. He went

into this project of water control with all his heart, and it was said that during this period of time, he passed by his

house three times but never went inside. It took him 13 years to tame the river. The story of Yu's battle against the

flood speaks of the fearless spirit of ancient people faced with natural disaster.

From Sima Qian on, historians in later dynasties mostly regarded Yu the Great as the founder of the Xia

Dynasty. The Xia Dynasty lasted over 400 years from the 21st century BC to the 17th century BC. In total there

were seventeen kings over fourteen generations.

Although the ideal Society of Great Harmony was replaced with an autocratic regime, the establishment of

the Xia Dynasty represents a huge advancement in the evolution of China.

Due to a lack of historical records, there had been some doubt about the existence of the Xia Dynasty.

However, discoveries relating to the Longshan Culture and the Erlitou Culture (龙山文化和二裏头文化) provide

rich references for the study of the mysterious Xia.

The Shang was the second hereditary dynasty in China. It lasted almost six hundred years with thirty-one

kings over seventeen generations. Shang used to be an old tribe living in the lower reach of the Yellow River. It

was a tributary of the Xia Kingdom. At the end of the Xia, the last ruler Jie（桀） was a tyrant who made his

people live in misery. The chief of the Shang tribe, Tang, led an insurgent army and overthrew the Xia Dynasty.

Tang then established the Shang Dynasty and made Bo (亳) ① his capital city.

The Golden Age of Wuding（武丁） did not continue for very long after his death. During the following

reigns, especially while the last monarch Dixin（帝辛，即纣））, normally known as King Zhou, was in power,

internal social conflict became more serious and neighboring states began to rebel.

In the 11th century BC, a frontier state called Zhou gained prominence. Under the rule of King Wen（文王）, the

kingdom of Zhou soon became powerful. When King Wen died, his son Jifa（姬发）, known as King Wu （武王）

succeeded him. In 1122 BC, King Wu launched a punitive attack against King Zhou of the Shang. Having suffered

much during the reign of King Zhou, the Shang army turned coat and led the Zhou army to the Shang capital.

King Zhou committed suicide and the Shang Dynasty collapsed.

The Shang was followed by a new dynasty named Zhou, also spelled Chou. The Zhou Dynasty is

traditionally divided into two periods: the Western Zhou with Haojing（镐京） as its capital and the Eastern Zhou

[Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC - 476 BC) Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 BC)*, when the capital

was moved east to present Luoyang.

Zhou reigned over 800 years and was the longest-ruling dynasty in Chinese history. It was especially noted

for it brilliant achievements in culture.

The king of the Qin state, Yinzheng（赢政）, conquered the other six dukes through ten years of wars

and brought an end to the riotous Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 BC) in 221 BC. He built up the Qin

Dynasty—the first unified, multi-national, autocratic and power-centralized state in Chinese history—by making

Xianyang, a city near Xian in the Shaanxi Province, his capital city. Although Qin is a short dynasty with a span of

only fifteen years, it started off a 2,000-year-long imperial history in China and exerted a far-reaching influence

on the subsequent dynasties. Except for frontiers in the west, southwest and northeast, Qin's territory has been

kept fairly intact up to the present-day. To protect the northern frontier, the first Qin emperor ordered the

construction of the Great Wall. He instituted centralism and a strict set of rules by which people lived in

oppression. An army of peasants overthrew the harsh Qin regime just one year after the death of the Emperor Qin

Shi Huang in 207 BC.

The tyranny of Emperor Qin Shi Huang and his successor resulted in wide opposition throughout the country.

Peasant uprisings continually struck the regime of the Qin. Finally, in 207 BC, Xiangyu‘s（项羽） army inflicted

heavy losses on the Qin army; and in the following year, Liu Bang（刘邦） broke Xianyang, the capital of Qin,

thus putting an end to the Qin Dynasty.

Later, in pursuit of the domination of the country, a four-year war known as the Chu-Han War broke out

between Xiangyu and Liu Bang. Finally, Liu Bang defeated Xiangyu in 202 BC and established the Han Dynasty

(206 BC - 24 AD), after which he proclaimed himself the emperor of the Han.

After four years war with his rival, Xiangyu, Liu Bang finally got command of the whole country and

established his reign—Han Dynasty in 202 BC.

The new dynasty has been divided into two historical periods. The first period is called the Western Han (206

BC - 24 AD) as the capital was Chang'an (the present city of Xian in Shaanxi Province). The second period is

known as the Eastern Han (25 AD - 220 AD) as Luoyang became the capital city.

The Han Dynasty ruled over the second unified Chinese empire. Based on the unification created by Emperor

Qin Shi Huang, a variety of different cultures were integrated. This laid the foundation for what became the

common culture of Han/Cathay. It was during this period that the Han ethnic group established itself as the core

nation of China. It was as a consequence of their more advanced civilization that the Han people assumed a

dominant position. This dominance still exists in China today, regardless of the many changes that have taken

place over the centuries.

王莽改制：Emperor Wu’s (汉武帝)expansionist policies strengthened the empire, nevertheless they

drained the imperial treasury. This resulted in sharp increases in taxes and tight control over the economy. In the

long term, this had the effect of undermining the dynastic influence.

When Emperors Zhao(昭帝) and Xuan(宣帝) were in power, potential social crises began to surface despite

economic growth. During the last decades of the Western Han Dynasty, a series of child emperors occupied the

throne. These necessitated regencies and power fell into the hands of eunuchs and empresses‘ relatives. This led to

corruption and greater class division resulting in frequent peasant uprisings. Ultimately, the Western Han Dynasty

fell after the Emperor Ai(哀帝) succeeded to the throne. In 8 AD Wang Mang, one of the empress's relatives,

deposed infant Emperor and proclaimed himself emperor of the Xin Dynasty (8-25).

光武中兴：Although condemned as a usurper, Wang Mang was a learned Confucian scholar. He wished to

retrieve the glory of Han by adopting policies described in the Confucian classics. He renamed offices, outlawed

slavery, limited land holdings and monopolized both industry and commerce. He also reduced court expenses.

However, Wang Mang's unpopularity due to the issue of new coins, nationalization of gold reserves and frequent

declarations of war finally led to more serious social turmoil. In 17 AD, a nationwide rebellion broke out. Six

years later, in 23 AD Wang Mang was killed by rebels.

Very soon after, Liu Xiu, a member of the Han imperial family, re-established Han supremacy through what

has become known as the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 - 220 AD).

After the quelling of the Yellow Turbans Uprising(黄巾之乱) of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), local

warlords and tyrants sprung up everywhere in struggle for the control over the country. Among them, the military

groups under Yuan Shao and Cao Cao in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River stood out as the

strongest. While to the south of the Yangtze River, Sun Quan and Liu Bei occupied the eastern and western areas

respectively. They stayed comparatively weaker in the first round of power struggle.

In 263, the Wei Kingdom conquered Shu, which only lasted forty-two years with two kings in the reign. Wei

Kingdom lasted for 46 years with five kings. In 265, Sima Yan, a top official of the Wei, usurped the power and

established his reign as Jin (265 - 420). Later, Jin overturned Wu, the last surviving kingdom in 280 and brought

an end to the Three Kingdoms Period.

Cao Cao was known as a famous politician, strategist and a great litterateur during the Three Kingdoms

Period. Cao Cao started his military career at the age of twenty. In the process of cracking down the Yellow

Turbans Uprising at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), he built up his force. After the rebellion, the

Eastern Han only reigned in name and the country fell apart into three confronting forces of Cao Cao, Liu Bei and

Sun Quan. Cao Cao outstripped the other two.

In 196 AD, Cao Cao had the Eastern Han capital relocated from Luoyang to Xu, (both in present Henan

Province). He proclaimed himself the prime minister and made the puppet emperor his trump card. After several

decisive battles with local forces in the north, he unified the region north of the Yellow River.

Meanwhile, he made accomplishments in poetry. Together with his two sons, they opened a new ear in the

history of Chinese literature.

At the end of the Three Kingdoms Period (220-260), Sima family became prominent in the Wei King. In 265

AD, Sima Yan usurped the power and founded a new dynasty Jin. Jin was historically divided into two periods:

the Western Jin (265 - 316) with Luoyang as its capital city and Eastern Jin as Jiankang (present Nanjing in

Jiangsu Province) became the capital city.

Jin Dynasty was the only period, which unified the country during the period between the Wei, the Jin and

the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 - 589), though this kind of achievement was not lasting.

Although Jin Dynasty was short and full of conflicts, the mix between nationalities was accelerated through the

long-term contacts and mutual influences.

After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, there concurred many rivaling regimes over the country. China was torn apart

into the confronting north and south. It was the time that saw the highest frequency of the ups and downs of the

different dynasties.

In the south, there were four consecutive dynasties, the Song, the Qi, the Liang and the Chen, with 160 years.

Since all the southern regimes established their capital in present Nanjing City, they got a general term the

Southern Dynasties. During this time, hereditary big families underwent their downfall after long-time social

prominence ever since the Western Jin Dynasty (265 - 316). Although they still held the noble status, they could

no longer meddle in the state affairs. Meanwhile the normal scholars enjoyed the most favorable opportunity and

were trusted important assignments by the ruling class. The emperors retrieved the real power over the country.

At the end of the chaotic period of the Sixteen States, a nomadic tribe, Xianbei, which was little civilized,

gradually became powerful. In 386, the chief of the Xianbei set up their regime of the Beiwei (the Northern Wei).

In 439, the Beiwei Empire unified the region north of the Yellow River and settled the capital in present Datong,

Shanxi Province, marking the beginning of the Northern Dynasties.

孝文改革：In 471, the Emperor Xiaowen of the Wei relocated his capital in Luoyang and vigorously

promoted the learning of the Han culture. He ordered his men to dress up like the Han people, speak their

language and adopt the surname of Han's. He also encouraged the intermarriage between the Xianbei people and

the Han and employed many Han officials in the court. Moreover, in economy, Emperor Xiaowen promulgated a

decree to implement the land equalization system. All this contributed to the development of the society and the

amalgamation of the Chinese nationalities.

However, the reform encountered strong objection from the conservative force among the Xianbei aristocrats.

After the Emperor Xiaowen died, his reform was revoked, which intensified the conflicts inside the ruling class

between the Xianbei and the Han aristocrats. Before long, the Wei Empire was broken up into two.

隋炀帝（杨坚）：By the end of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589), China had witnessed

disunity and chaos for about 270 years.

In 577, the Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi and reunified the North China. The Northern Zhou, known

as the reign of Yuwen family of the Xianbei ethnic group, continued for 24 years with five emperors over three

generations. In 581, Yang Jian, a relative of the royal family, usurped the throne and renamed the empire the Sui

Dynasty with Chang'an (present Xian City in Shaanxi Province) as his capital city. Yangjian was historically

called Emperor Wen.

After the founding of the empire, Emperor Wen quickly carried out a series of military plans to unify the country.

Finally in 589, Emperor Wen wiped out the Chen Dynasty and reunified the south and the north.

Sui Dynasty lasted for only 38 years with two generations. History shows it was one of the short-lived Chinese

dynasties.

大唐盛世：The Tang Dynasty, which maintained its rule for nearly 300 years, is probably the most

well-known dynasty in Chinese history. Successively witnessing three florescences, namely "the Prosperity of

Zhenguan", the reign of Empress Wu and "the Heyday of Kaiyuan" in its period, the Tang Empire justifiably

became the largest, richest and most sophisticated state in the world at that time. Greatly and widely admired

abroad, the Tang influence spread into Asia, Europe and Africa. Neighboring countries sought and established ties

with the empire and Chang'an became the center of cultural exchange between the East and the West.

This was an epoch that was unprecedented in China. Dominance in the fields of politics, economics, military

power and foreign relations exceeded all that had gone before. In terms of culture, the one thing that places the

Tang Dynasty above all others is the literature of the age. The brilliance of poetry during the period attests to an

unparalleled and glorious flowering of creativity

唐太宗："The waters can both float and capsize a vessel" — Zhuangzi (Circa 369 - 286 BC)

Taizong was the second of the Tang emperors. He was born as Li Shimin to the Empress Dou, the second son of

Emperor Gaozu. Taizong is his posthumous temple name and means "Supreme Ancestor." His rule lasted

twenty-three years (626-649) and he is considered to be one of the greatest of the Chinese emperors. His reign,

which is known as the Prosperity of Zhenguan, was outstanding as an era of peace and prosperity, one of the most

flourishing during the Tang period.

There are three important landmarks in his political career:

Raising an Army in Taiyuan

The Palace Coup of Xuanwumen

Prosperity of Zhenguan

The political reforms he introduced were designed to ensure the ship of state sailed on calm waters. There

were two main factors that ensured the political stability he sought to achieve. These can be summarized as (a) to

pick the right person for the task and (b) to seek the opinion of others before making a decision.

Following his death in 649 at the age of fifty-three, he was buried in the Zhaolin Tomb（唐 昭陵） that is located

near the present day city of Xi’an.

武则天：Empress Wu was the only female monarch of China, and remains the most remarkable, influential

and mysterious woman in Chinese history. Contrary to the teachings of Confucius, this was a woman who ruled

the empire for over half a century; while her actions have been a subject for debate for more than ten centuries.

Opinion is sharply divided between those who admire her for her many achievements and those who regard her as

a ruthless, merciless schemer and autocrat. Others will say merely that she did what she had to do and that her

actions were no different from those of male emperors of the period.

According to Confucius, having a female monarch is unnatural as “a hen crowing like a rooster at daybreak”

(牡鸡司晨). However, for what proved to be one of the most glorious periods during the Tang Dynasty, a woman

did rule the empire. What is more, she did so with more than fair measure of success. Down the ages, many have

described Wu as a ruthless, cruel and despotic autocrat. Others, with rather more pragmatic views, have said she

merely behaved as many men in her position had done, both before and since her reign.

The magnificent empire that had existed from 618AD under the rule of the Tang Emperors finally collapsed

in 907 AD. With the inevitable decline brought about through misrule, court intrigues and economic exploitation

the scene was set for the overthrow of Ai(哀帝李柷), the last of the Tang Emperors. Zhu Wen(朱全忠) seized

power and established a new dynasty that has come to be known as the Later Liang.

For the next fifty years, the empire was to become fragmented. Northern China was ruled during this period by

five short-lived military regimes, while the South became split into ten independent states. Hence the name given

to this era of history. During this half century, which was to prove one of China's bleakest, warfare and official

corruption were endemic.

The North was particularly affected as its canal and dam system fell into disrepair. This led to widespread

flooding and consequent famine. However, there was one outstanding accomplishment and this was the

widespread development of printing. Reunification of the empire was to commence under the Song Dynasty from

960 AD onwards.

宋朝：The Song Dynasty ranks alongside the Tang and also the Han (206 BC - 220 AD) in importance. For

a little under three and a quarter centuries under its rule, China enjoyed a period of economic growth coupled with

great artistic and intellectual achievement. It is for this reason that the period is referred to as the Chinese

Renaissance, comparing it with the Renaissance that spread through Europe.

When Zhao Kuangyin seized power by a coup in Chenqiaoyi(陈桥兵变) in 960 he was able to consolidate

and extend his control in a restrained and methodical manner. The Song Dynasty that he founded has been divided

into two periods. Firstly, the Northern Song when the capital was in Dongjing (present day Kaifeng City in Henna

Province) from 960 to 1127. Secondly, the Southern Song, with their capital in present day Hangzhou from 1127

to 1279.

元朝: During the 13th Century a great leader, Temujin, was to emerge from among the nomadic tribes of

the Mongolian steppes. These tribesmen occupied the area between the northern Daxing‘an Mountains and the

eastern bank of the Argun River（额尔古纳河）. As skilled horsemen, they were to become a formidable fighting

force once the tribes had united under Temujin's leadership. In 1206 Temujin was formally elected as ruler over

Greater Mongolia, encompassing the Mongolian Plateau and the Gobi Desert, and he adopted the name and title

of Genghis Khan. The newly elected Khan set about extending his empire and set his sights on China. In 1227 he

defeated the Western Xia and in 1234 he defeated the Jin. This was to open the way to unify the whole of China

for the first time under a non-Chinese regime, a people who eventually were to become an ethnic group.

Following Genghis' death, his grandson succeeded him and as Kublai Khan, the new leader established the

Yuan Dynasty in 1271, with his capital city at Dadu (present day Beijing). Kublai, who was known as Emperor

Shizu continued to annex Chinese territory and in 1279 the Yuan forces captured Hangzhou, the capital city of the

Southern Song

With their dynasty now firmly established in the Chinese empire, the Yuan found themselves rulers of a

complex group of peoples who inhabited the largest land based empire ever to exist, stretching from what is now

Korea and western Russia in the north and from Burma to Iraq in the south. But they were rulers with no

experience of administration. Consequently, they adopted Chinese political and cultural models.

明朝：Mongol rule in China was brought to an end after civil war among Mongol princes and an increasing

conversion to the sedentary Chinese way of life that robbed the Mongol military machine of much of its

effectiveness. Repeated natural disasters were followed by a massive peasant rebellion that the alien rulers could

not quell. The Mandate of Heaven now shifted to Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant leader who became eminent during

the rebellions. After eliminating his rivals, Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty in 1368, with his capital

city first in Nanjing and later in Beijing. Zhu Yuanzhang was historically known as Emperor Taizu.

The Ming Dynasty was the last native Chinese dynasty to rule the empire. Spanning almost three centuries

between the fall of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1271 - 1368) and the rise of the Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644 -

1911), the Ming reunited what is now called China proper after almost 400 years of foreign incursion and

occupation.

清朝：The Qing Dynasty, which was founded by the Jurchen (Manchu) people, was the second ethnic group

to rule the whole of China. It is also the last feudal dynasty in Chinese history. It was during this period that

imperial China reached its zenith of power and influence.

The Jurchen people, believed to be the ancestors of the Manchus, had been a nomadic tribe that lived adjacent to

the present Heilongjiang region. In the closing years of the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644), a great leader named

Nurhachi, emerged from the Jurchen tribe. Under his leadership, the Jurchen people rapidly united and in 1616,

established the Later Jin State which was independent from the Ming. In 1636, Nurhachi‘s son Abahai（皇太极）,

renamed the dynasty as Qing in Shenyang while formally declaring war on the Ming.

In 1644, when the peasant army led by Li Zicheng conquered Beijing, Emperor Chongzhen committed

suicide. Wu Sangui, a Ming commander stationed in Shanhaiguan Pass, led the Qing army through the pass. With

the assistance of Dorgan, one of his chancellors, Fulin, son of Abahai, captured Beijing in the same year and four

months later, moved his capital there. This marked the beginning of the Qing reign over China. For the next

decade or so the Manchu continued to suppress native resistance, finally destroying the last Ming pretender in

1659 and gradually unified the whole country.

康熙大帝：In its early years, the Qing Dynasty witnessed a flourishing that was unprecedented by any

other age. In order to mitigate class conflicts, the Qing pursued a policy of rewarding land cultivation coupled

with a reduction or exemption from taxation. These policies promoted economic growth in the hinterland and on

the frontiers of the country. During the reigns of Emperors Kangxi (1622-1723), Yongzheng (1723-1736) and

Qianlong (1736-1796) saw the Qing at its heyday. By the mid-18th century economic development reached a new

height. With this new prosperity power became more centralized, national strength increased, a well-maintained

social order and a population that amounted to some 300 million by the end of the century. During the reign of

Emperor Kangxi, Taiwan became part of the country and the Sino-Russian Treaty of Nerchinsk（尼布楚条约）

was signed determining the border between the two countries.

The Qing Dynasty was very successful as an ethnic group reign in China. It lasted for almost 300 years and

the duration of the regime was divided into two periods by the Opium War occurred of 1840.

Through its corrupt politics and conservatism, the Qing Dynasty rapidly declined. As its legitimacy waned al

most daily, the Qing government imposed more taxes in order to pay both the expenses of war and the indemnities

they had to bear. This action placed an unbearable burden on the people, especially the peasants. External

aggression and domestic oppression sparked off a series of anti-feudal and anti-imperialist movements such as the

Taiping Rebellion and the Nian Army Uprising. Under these circumstances, the Qing government was forced to

introduce reforms, such as the Self-strengthening Movement and the Hundred-Day Reform, in effort to save and

revitalize China. All measures that were doomed to fail. In the end the Revolution of 1911, led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen,

enabled the Chinese people to overthrow the Qing imperialists who had ruled China for 268 years.

The Qing Dynasty from 1644 had lasted 268 years, with a total of ten emperors when collapsed. With its

demise feudalism, which had lasted for more than two thousand years, was brought to a close. The nation had

entered a new era—Republic of China (1911 - 1949).

With the introduction of Marxism and Leninism into China and under the influence of the October

Revolution in Russia, the May 4th Movement broke out in 1919, and in 1921 the Chinese Communist Party was

founded, thus beginning a new period in Chinese history. Under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party,

the Chinese people fought three civil wars and Anti-Japanese War, and after twenty-eight years of bitter and

resolute struggles, finally overthrew the rule of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucratic capitalism, and

established the People’s Republic of China in 1949.

Questions for Chapter One：

Why do the Cathaysian people usually call themselves “the descendants of Yan and Huang”?

Why was China called “the Middle Kingdom”?

How did the book, I-Ching, Come into being?

When and how was the Silk Road opened?

Can you name two or three historical classics?

第二章：哲学与宗教：Chapter Two Chinese Philosophy & Religion

China is a country with a great diversity of religions, with over 100 million followers of the various faiths.

The main religions are Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, although it is true to say that Confucianism is a

school of philosophy rather than a religion. Generally speaking, Chinese people do not have a strong religious

inclination but despite this the three main faiths have had a considerable following.

Confucianism

The fact that Confucianism is a philosophy rather than religion meant that it became the orthodox doctrine

for Chinese intellectuals in the days of the feudalist society. However, these intellectuals did not stick to their

doctrine as a believer clings to his belief. Someone summarized the true attitude of Chinese intellectuals as - they

followed the teachings of Confucius and Mencius when they were successful but would turn to Taoism when they

were frustrated.

Confucianism is the cornerstone of traditional Chinese culture. It is a complete ideological system created by

Confucius, based on the traditional culture of the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Confucianism has dominated a

feudal society that in essence has lasted 2000 years and for that reason its influence over the history, social

structure and the people of China cannot be overlooked.

Confucius, Chinese philosopher, one of the most influential figures in Chinese history. The century that

Confucius lived in was one of the most extraordinary in the history of this planet. It was during this sixth century

BC that not only He lived, but also Buddha in India, Zoroaster in Persia, Jeremiah and Ezekial in Israel, Mahavira

in India (started Jainis religion) Pythagoras of Greece, Lao Tzu in China, a contemporary of Confucius.

Five different major religions were started in this century. The three main religions of china to this day are

Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, and they all began in the Sixth Century.

Confucius infused life into china's decaying religions history. His highest contribution came in the field of

ethics and His proverbs are quoted even to this day. A century after Confucius died, Mencius, arose to spread the

Confucius doctrine.

In Confucianism philosophy there are five great relationships that, if virtuous, make society work in perfect

order and harmony. These five relationships are between father and son, elder brother and younger brother,

husband and wife, elders and juniors, and lastly, between ruler and his subjects. A great deal of Confucius'

teachings dealt with the standards and moral codes of behavior that should be met in these five areas.

Confucius perceived that all people were inherently good at heart, and that salvation could be achieved

through the realization of this essential nature. Charity, righteousness, propriety, and moral consciousness were

not something that had to be drilled into us, but rather we had them within us at our birth, and creation.

Confucius saw character as the root of all civilization. Confucianism is very rational, orderly, practical, and

humanistic. Taoism, as you will see in a later chapter, is very romantic, intuitive, mystical and vague. Confucius

was not seen as a God, but rather as a sage or an ideal man.

The Master ① said, To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all ② a

pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To Remain unsoured even

though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman③?

学而第一 （1）

Notes: ①Here the English translation is made by Arthur Waley, slightly altered and annotated by Rex Khaw.

② The “after all” implies “even though one does not hold office”.

③ Though the Chün-tzu is clearly a highly advanced human being, he is still distinguished from the category of

sage (sheng-jen), who is, in the Analects more of a "divine being," usually a model from great antiquity.

The Master said, At fifteen I set my heart upon learning. At thirty, I had planted my feet firm upon the ground.

At forty, I no longer suffered from perplexities. At fifty, I knew what were the biddings of Heaven. At sixty, I

heard them with docile ear. At seventy, I could follow the dictates of my own heart; for what I desired no longer

overstepped the boundaries of right.

为政第二 （4）

The Master said, “He who learns but does not think, is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great

danger.”

为政第二 （15）

The “Duke of She” ① asked Tzu-lu about the Master. Tzu-lu did not reply. The Master said, Why did you

not say “This is the character of the man: so intent upon enlightening the eager that he forgets his hunger, and so

happy in doing so, that he forgets the bitterness of his lot and does not realize that old age is at hand ②. That is

what he is.”

述而第七 （18）

Notes: ①An adventurer known originally as Shen Chu-liang. The title was one which he had invented for himself.

He should be addressed as a Duke by no means.按《论语集注-述而》“叶公问孔子于子路, 子路不对。叶, 舒

涉反。叶公, 楚叶县尹沈诸梁,字子高,僭称公也。② According to the traditional chronology Confucius was

sixty-two at the time.

The Master said, Even when walking in a party of no more than three I can always be certain of learning

from those I am with. There will be good qualities that I can select for imitation and bad one that will teach me

what requires correction in my self.

述而第七 （21）

The Master said, A true gentleman is calm and at ease; the Small Man ①is fretful and ill at ease.

述而第七 （36）

Note:

① Here “Small Man” is translated in contrast to the English term “a Big Man”. If you could recall,

Shakespeare said something similar about “thin and pale”. Surely, he mainly talked about the appearance.

The Master said, You may not rob the Three Armies of their commander-in-chief, but you cannot deprive the

humblest peasant of his will.”

子罕第九 （25）

Notes:

①Remember Mel Gibson in Brave Heart? “…they may take our lives, but they'll. never take our freedom!”

When the Master was going to Wei, Jan Chi’iu drove him. The Master said, What a dense population! Jan Chi’iu

said, When the people have multiplied, what next should be done for them? The Master said, Enrich them. Jan

Chi’iu said, When one has enriched them ,what next should be done for them? The Master said, Instruct them.

子路第十三 （9）

The Master said, There is a difference ① in instruction but none in kind ②.

卫灵公第十五（38）

Note:

① Between us and the Sages. Any of us could turn into a Yao or Shun, if we trained ourselves as they did. Cf.

XVII,2(阳货第十七，2), and Mencius, II, A, 2.

② It’s interesting to find that Confucius said something in contrary, “It’s only the very wisest and the very

stupidest who cannot change.”

孟子：The “Meng-tzu”, meaning “Master Meng,” was written by the philosopher Mencius (a Latinized

form of the name Meng-tzu) in the 4th century BC. The work earned for its author the title of “second sage" in

China. The book deals with government and asserts that the welfare of the people comes before all else. When a

king no longer is good to the people, he should be removed--by revolution if necessary. Mencius, like Confucius,

declared that filial piety was the foundation of society. One unusual doctrine that Mencius supported was that of

the natural goodness of mankind, for which he found proof in the natural love children have for their parents.

Mother Mong Removed the Living Place Three Times to Provide the Son with a Good Environment（孟母三

易其居教子）

When Mencius was a boy, their house was near a graveyard. The boys played a game of grave-digging and

Mencius was most energetic at the game—building the tombs and burying the dead. “This is no place for my

child.” said Mother Meng, so she moved to live next to a market.

This time Mencius played with the boys to peddle（叫卖）the “goods”. Mother Meng said once more, “This is

no place for my child.”

Once again she moved to live near a school. This time Mercies played at reading and practiced rituals. “This

is truly a place for my child,” said the mother and she settled down. Mencius learned the six arts and became a

learned scholar. Mother Mong was a great mother who knew the significance of gradual transformation（潜移默

化）.

When Mencius was a boy, he was reciting his lessons one day while his mother was weaving. Suddenly he

stopped and then went on again. His mother knew that he could not remember the text. She called him to her and

asked, “Why did you stop?” The boy answeded, “I lost the thread, but I picked it up again.” His mother took out a

knife and cut what she had woven, saying “what you are doing is just like cutting apart the cloth.” From then on

Mencius never repeated the same mistake.

道教：Taoism is one of the three main religions of China (Confucianism, and Buddhism).

Taoism Taoism

In the Chinese language the word tao means "way," indicating a way of thought or life. In about the 6th

century BC, under the influence of ideas credited to a man named Lao-tzu, Taoism became "the way". like

Confucianism, it has influenced every aspect of Chinese culture.

Philosophical Taoism speaks of a permanent Tao in the way that some Western religions speak of God. The

Tao is considered unnamed and unknowable, the essential unifying element of all that is. Everything is basically

one despite the appearance of differences. Because all is one, matters of good and evil and of true or false, as well

as differing opinions, can only arise when people lose sight of the oneness and think that their private beliefs are

absolutely true. This can be likened to a person looking out a small window and thinking he sees the whole world,

when all he sees is one small portion of it. Because all is one, life and death merge into each other as do the

seasons of the year. They are not in opposition to one another but are only two aspects of a single reality. The life

of the individual comes from the one and goes back into it.

Communal religious Taoism is quite distinct from its philosophical counterpart. It emphasizes moral

teachings and collective ceremonies. Good moral conduct is rewarded with health and long life, while bad conduct

results in disease, death, and suffering in the afterlife. There is an array of gods who are administrators of the

universe, of which they are a part. From these gods come revelations of sacred texts. There is an order of married

priests who live in the communities they serve and perform exorcisms and complex rituals.

Folk religion Taoism is part of the everyday lives of the people. The gods are intimately connected with each

individual's life as bringers of calamities or givers of bountiful gifts. Each object of daily life has its presiding

spirit that must be consulted and appeased.

All types of Taoism have in common the quest for a harmonious, well-ordered universe. They emphasize the

individual's and the group's need for unity through mysticism, magic, and ceremony.

佛教：Although Buddhism first entered China from India during the Later Han, in the time of Han Ming Ti

(汉明帝, AD 58-76), it did not become popular until the end of the 3rd century. The prevailing disorders,

aggravated by barbarian invasions and the flight of northern Chinese to the south, heightened the attraction of

Buddhism with its promise of personal salvation, despite its lack of affinity with the society-oriented thought of

the Chinese. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, a prince of the Sakya kingdom on the

borders of what are now India and Nepal and a contemporary of Confucius. Intent on finding relief for human

suffering, he received a moment of enlightenment while meditating under a Bo tree. The Buddha taught that

desires are the source of pain, and that by overcoming desires, pain can be eliminated.

To this end, he advocated meditation and pursuing the Eightfold Path, similar to the Ten Commandments of

Judaism and Christianity. The objective was to reach Nirvana, the condition of serenity of spirit, where all

cravings, strife, and pain have been overcome, giving way to a merging of the spirit with eternal harmony.

At an early stage of its development, Buddhism split into two major trends, Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) and

Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle).

Hinayana remained closer to the original Buddhism and is still the religion of the Southeast Asian countries.

The Buddhism of China, Korea, Japan, Nepal, Tibet, and Vietnam, however, stems largely from Mahayana.

Mahayana Buddhism contained more popular elements, such as belief in repetitive prayers, heaven and

deities—bodhisattvas（菩萨）—who would help people gain salvation.

Mahayana Buddhism also readily adapted to the land and people it converted. In China, it split into several

schools, including Ch‘an (Zen in Japan，禅宗), T’ien-t‘ai (Tendai in Japan 天台宗), and Pure Land（净土宗）.

Zen (Ch'an in Chinese) is a Japanese term meaning "meditation." It is a major school of Chinese Buddhism

that claims to transmit the spirit of Buddhism, or the total enlightenment as achieved by the founder of the religion,

the Buddha.

Zen has its basis in the conviction that the world and its components are not many things. They are, rather,

one reality. The one is part of a larger wholeness to which some people assign the name of God. Reason, by

analyzing the diversity of the world, obscures this oneness. It can be apprehended by the nonrational part of the

mind—the intuition. Enlightenment about the nature of reality comes not by rational examination but through

meditation.

Meditation has been an integral part of Buddhism from the beginning. Nevertheless, a school of meditation

grew up in India and was taken to China by Bodhidharma about AD 520. When the meditation school arrived in

China, it had a strong foundation on which to build: Taoism, the ancient Chinese religion. Taoists, like the

followers of the meditation school, exalted intuition over reason. This Taoist tradition was easily absorbed by the

Chinese meditation school, the Ch'an.

易经：

Mythologically, the authorship of the I Ching, or at least of the eight trigrams, is attributed to a mythological

figure called Fu Hsi (伏羲), also Pao His（庖牺）, who was supposed to be half man half dragon, and lived about

10,000 years ago. One day he saw a dragon-horse rise from the Yellow River. On it‘s side were markings,

which were recorded as the Ho Tu(河图), or Yellow River map. Fu Hsi interpreted the four directions and four

diagonal directions of the Ho Tu in terms of the so-called Earlier Heaven (symmetrical) arrangement of the 8

trigrams（八卦）.

King Wen (who flourished about 1150 BC) is traditionally thought to have been author of the present

hexagrams. He was a powerful feudal lord who incurred the enmity of the last Shang Emperor,Dixin, and was

sentenced to death. While languishing in prison he meditated on the trigrams and combined them to form the

64 hexagrams, each of which he named and organized in their present arrangement. He is also said to have

written the basic text, thus adding moral counsel to the original divinatory function of the hexagrams.

[I-Ching] [Yi Jing] Hexagram Table upper

1 43 14 34 9 5 26 11

10 58 38 54 61 60 41 19

13 49 30 55 37 63 22 36

25 17 21 51 42 3 27 24

44 28 50 32 57 48 18 46

6 47 64 40 59 29 4 7

33 31 56 62 53 39 52 15

12 45 35 16 20 8 23 2

(First)

The rebellious cometh.

Late to arrive, he meets his end.

(8 Support)

《易经》第八卦 比 水地比 坎上下坤

比：吉。 原筮元永贞，无咎。 不宁方來，后夫凶。

此条出自《国语·鲁语》第 18，吴伐越章：“昔禹致群神于会稽之山，防风氏后至，禹杀而戮之……”

（first） （second）

（second）

The abandoned waif saw a pig in the mud,

And a cart full of demons.

He arched his bow at first,

But put it down in the end.

They were not robbers, only wife grabbers.

Going would be favorable if it rains.

(38 Abandoned)

《易经》第三十八卦 睽 火泽睽 离上兌下

睽：小事吉。

上九：睽孤， 见豕负涂，载鬼一车， 先张之弧，后说之弧，匪寇婚媾，往遇雨则吉。

象曰：遇雨之吉，群疑亡也。

（3)Third

Water laps at the king’s house.

It’s safe.

(59 flowing)

《易经》第五十九卦 涣 风水涣 巽上坎下

涣：亨。 王假有庙，利涉大川，利贞。彖曰：涣，亨。 刚來而不穷，柔得位乎外而上同。 王假有

庙，王乃在中也。 利涉大川，乘木有功也。

象曰：风行水上，涣；先王以享于帝立庙。

(3) (4)

(4)

Emperor Yi betrothed his daughter.

With her niece as consort.

(11 peace)

《易经》第十一卦 泰 天地泰 坤上乾下

泰：小往大來，吉亨。

六五：帝乙归妹，以祉元吉。

象曰：以祉元吉，中以行愿也。

(5)

Emperor Yi gave his daughter in marriage,

The Princess is not as beautiful as her consort.

(54 The Marrying Maiden)

《易经》第五十四卦 归妹 雷泽归妹 震上兌下

归妹：征凶，无攸利。

六五：帝乙归妹，其君之袂，不如其娣之袂良，月几望，吉。 象曰：帝乙归妹，不如其娣之袂良也。

其位在中，以贵行也。

(5) (6)

(6)

Imprisoned first, then set free,

The King makes offerings at West Mountain.

(17 The chase)

《易经》第十七卦 随 泽雷随 兌上震下

随：元亨利贞，无咎。

上六：拘系之，乃从惟之。 王用亨于西山。

象曰：拘系之，上穷也。

(7)

The King offers sacrifice at Mount Qi.

All goes well. No troubles.

(46 Ascendance)

《易经》第四十六卦 升，地风升 坤上巽下

升：元亨，用见大人，勿恤，南征吉。

六四：王用亨于岐山，吉无咎。

象曰：王用亨于岐山，顺事也。

(7) (8)

(8)

Serve not the mighty.

Keep your goals lofty.

(18 Worm)

《易经》第十八卦 蛊 山风蛊 艮上巽下

蛊：元亨，利涉大川。 先甲三日，后甲三日。

上九：不事王侯，高尚其事。

象曰：不事王侯，志可则也。

(9)

On the day of the public gathering,

A new order is proclaimed.

(49 Revolution)

《易经》第四十九卦 革 泽火革 兌上离下

革：己日乃孚，元亨利贞，悔亡。

彖曰：革，水火相息，二女同居，其志不相得，曰革。己日乃孚；革而信也。文明以说，大亨以正，革而

当，其悔乃亡。天地革而四时成， 汤武革命，顺乎天而应乎人，革之时义大矣哉！

(9) (10)

（10）

None will rally,

Some will attack.

If there is no determination in the heart,

Disaster will befall.

(42 Increase)

《易经》第四十二卦 益 风雷益 巽上震下

益：利有攸往，利涉大川。

上九：莫益之，或击之，立心勿恒，凶。

象曰：莫益之，偏辞也。 或击之，自外來也。

（11）

Expelled.

Returned.

Burned.

Died.

Abandoned (30 Fire)

《易经》第三十卦 离 离為火 离上离下 离：利贞，亨。

九四：突如其來如，焚如，死如，弃如。 象曰：突如其來如，无所容也。

（11） (12)

(12)

An egret sings in the shade

Its young harmonizing.

I have a good wine,

For you to share.

(61 Sincerity)

《易经》第六十一卦 中孚 风泽中孚 巽上兌下 中孚：豚魚吉，利涉大川，利貞。

九二：鸣鹤在阴，其子和之，我有好爵，吾与尔靡之。 象曰：其子和之，中心愿也。

(13)

Thick clouds and no rain

From my west field cometh.

The duke went shooting,

And got the bird in a cave.

(62 Small Excess)

《易经》第六十二卦 小过 雷山小过 震上艮下

小过：亨，利贞，可小事，不可大事。飞鸟遗之音，不宜上宜下，大 吉。

六五：密云不雨，自我西郊，公弋取彼在穴。

象曰：密云不雨，已上也。

（13）

（14） Refusing a fat plum,

The gentleman gains a carriage.

The common man loses his house.

(23 Loss)

《易经》第二十三卦 剥 山地剥 艮上坤下

剥：不利有攸往。

上九：硕果不食，君子得舆，小人剥庐。

象曰：君子得舆，民所载也。 小人剥庐，终不可

用也。

（15）

The gentleman loosened the rope.

Good for him.

The common folks got the punishment.

(40 Letting Loose)

《易经》第四十卦 解 雷水解 震上坎下

解：利西南，无所往，其來复吉。 有攸往，夙吉。

六五：君子惟有解，吉；有孚于小人。

象曰：君子有解，小人退也。

（14） （15）

Questions for Chapter Two：

Confucianism has left us a rich literary heritage known as the Four Books and Five Classics. Can you

name them?

What is the central doctrine of Confucius?

What’s the difference between Philosophical Taoism and Communal religious Taoism? What do you

know about folk religion Taoism?

Tell the development of Buddhism in Chinese history and main difference among the Buddhism schools.

Tell how I-Ching, Book of Changes came into being.

China possesses one of the world's major literary traditions. Its texts have been preserved for over 3,000

years. Reverence for the past has influenced the preservation of these cultural sources, and may have influenced

the invention of woodblock printing in the 9th century and moveable type printing in the 12th century.

A Summary of Chinese Literature

Ancient literature is a precious cultural heritage of China's several thousand years of civilization. The Book

of Songs, a collection of 305 folk ballads of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn period,

compiled in the sixth century B.C., is China's earliest anthology of poetry.

Qu Yuan of the Warring States Period, China's first great poet, write Li Sao (The Lament), and extended lyric

poem. The Book of Songs and Li Sao are regarded as classics in Chinese literary history. Later, different literary

styles developed in subsequent dynasties.

There were pre-Qin prose, magnificent Han fu (rhymed prose), and the Yuefu folk songs of the end of the

Han Dynasty. Records of the Historian, written by Sima Qian of the Han Dynasty, is respected as a model of

biographical literature, and The Peacock Flies to the Southeast represents the magnificent Yuefu folk songs. These

are all well known among the Chinese people.

The Wei and Jin Dynasties (220-420) were a great period for the production of poetry. The poems written by

Cao Cao, a statesman and man of letters of that time, and by his sons Cao Pi and Cai Zhi, are fervent and

vigorous. They are outstanding forerunners of the progressive literature of later generations. The Tang Dynasty

gave birth to a great number of men of letters. The Complete Tang Poems is an anthology of more than 50,000

poems.

Representative poets include Li Bai, Du Fu, and Bai Juyi, who are the pride of the Chinese people. The

Song Dynasty is well known for its ci (lyric). Song lyricists may be divided into two groups. The first, best

represented by Liu Yong and Li Qingzhao, is known as the "gentle school"; the second, the "bold and

unconstrained school," is best represented by Su Shi and Xin Qiji.

The most notable achievement of Yuan Dynasty literature was the Zaju, poetic drama set of music. Snow in

Midsummer by celebrated playwright Guan Hanqing and The Western Chamber written by another Zaju master,

Wang Shipu, are masterpieces of the ancient drama.

The Ming and Qing dynasties saw the development of the novel. The Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong,

Outlaws of the Marsh by Shi Nai'an, Journey to the West by Wu Cheng'en, and A Dream of Red Mansions by Cao

Xueqin are the four masterpieces produced in this form during this period. They have been celebrated for

centuries for their rich historical and cultural connotations and unique style.

The new cultural movement that emerged in the 1920s was an anti-imperialist and anti-feudal movement.

Progressive writers, represented by Lu Xun, gave birth to modern Chinese literature. The most outstanding

representative works of this era are the novels The Diary of a Madman and The True Story of Ah Q by Lu Xun,

the poetry anthology The Goddesses by Guo Moruo, the novel Midnight by Mao Dun, the trilogy novels Family,

Spring and Autumn by Ba Jin, the novel Camel Xiangzi by Lao She, and the plays Thunderstorm and Sunrise by

Cao Yu.

The history of Chinese literature begins with the Shih Ching or Book of Songs, an anthology of 305 lyrics of

various types, compiled ca. 600 B. C. Most of the songs probably were composed and sung between 1000 and 700

B. C., mostly at Chou court ceremonies (and thus provide a cross-section of early-Chou culture). Some Sinologists

have suggested, however, that certain lyrics from the Book of Songs may represent much earlier work, dating from

the Shang dynasty (as early as ca. 1700 B. C.).

Whatever the work's true dates of composition, two important traditions account for the origin and survival

of the Book of Songs. The first, recorded by a Chinese historian from the first century B. C., maintains that

Confucius personally selected these 305 poems from an earlier collection of over three thousand. Choosing poems

which exemplified his ideas about statecraft and harmonious personal relations, Confucius arranged them in their

present order, revising the musical scores to which the songs were customarily sung.

Though current scholarship now discounts much of this tradition, we do know that Confucius cherished the

songs, urged his disciples to study them carefully, and frequently referred to them as he taught. This endorsement

by the Master himself helped the Book of Songs survive--even a book burning mandated by the first Ch'in

Emperor. In addition, when Confucian principles later became the dominant Chinese social doctrine, many

individual lyrics from the Book of Songs were glossed as political allegories that interpreted, commented on, and

satirized significant events in Chou history. Even simple lyrics of courtship and celebration were read as veiled

political/social commentaries; for centuries thereafter, the poems remained sacred and potent vehicles of protest.

The second tradition, related to the first, dates from the third century B. C. According to this story, the songs

were collected by court officials sent out among the people by the Chou ruler. By listening to their poems, the

King hoped to gauge accurately whether his subjects lived well and happily under his reign. It was from this

earlier compilation, the tradition asserts, that Confucius chose the 305 songs that make up the work we possess

today.

The Book of Songs was originally divided into three major sections:

I. feng -- "Airs of the States"

II. ya -- "Courtly Songs"

A. hsiao ya -- "Lesser Courtly Songs"

B. ta ya -- "Greater Courtly Songs"

III. sung -- "Hymns"

The adoption of the expressive techniques of fu (descriptive prose interspersed with verse), bi (metaphor) and

Xing (evocation) greatly reinforce its illustrative power.

Poems in Ya (ode and epics) and Song (hymns) were used by the ruling class for specific occasions. Although they

could not match the poems in "The Book of Songs" in their ideological content, they reflected some aspects of

social life and therefore also had certain social meaning.

The sayings of Confucius were remembered by his followers and were later compiled in a book of Analects

(sayings), perhaps having been expanded on in the meantime. Through them we discover Confucius' notions of

the virtues, i.e., the positive character traits, to which we should aspire. Foremost among these is Filial Piety, the

respect which children owe to parents--and by extension, wives owe to husbands, sisters to brothers, and everyone

to ancestors. When such virtue is cultivated in the home, it is supposed to carry over into one's relations in affairs

of state as well.

In the history of Chinese literature, the Jian'an poems were a transition from the early folksongs into

scholarly poetry. The poet Cao Cao (155-220) was a statesman, strategist and king of Wei. His verse, mostly of

tetrasyllabic lines, bears a rich political coloring and is brimming over with power and enterprise. He and two of

his sons (Cao Pi and Cao Zhi), being outstanding representatives of the Jian'an style, are termed the Three Caos in

the history of Chinese poetry. While carrying forward the tradition of realism of the Han Music-Institute songs

and of the " Nineteen Ancient Poems “they had absorbed the good qualities of folk songs in their verse

composition and had spurred the development of the poetic form of pentasyllabic lines.

In A Short Song, one of his famous poems, which is believed to have been composed at banquet, the poet

expresses his ambition to unify the nation and his sincere yearning for talent by employing such artistic techniques

as simile, metaphor, metonymy and allusion.

曹操《短歌行》节选

对酒当歌，人生几何？

譬如朝露，去日苦多。

慨当以慷，忧思难忘。

何以解忧，唯有杜康。

青青子衿，悠悠我心。

但为君故，沉吟至今。

A Short Song

Cao Cao

I wonder,o'er the cup and in the song,

Whether the human life is short or long?

Perchance it is just like the morning dew,

Of whose limited time much much is gone.

Though a mellow quality the songs impart,

Th' pent-up thought refuses to with me part.

It is only Du Kang that can appease

This anxiety-laden secret heart.

Oh, talent of th' land, whose robes are deep green,

How my yearning for your presence is keen!

Some of his masterpieces include Gazing Out Across the Ocean and Though the Tortoise Lives Long.

李白：Li Bai (AD 7O1 -762), the most outstanding poet at the height of the Tang Dynasty, is one of the great

romantic poets after Qu Yuan. He was later called the "poetic genius" and Chinese poetry reached its efflorescence

in his time.

杜甫：The poems of Du Fu (AD 712-77o), the exemplary realist poet inthe history of Chinese literature,

mirror the social outlook of the once prosperous Tang Dynasty in decline.

白居易：Bai Juyi(AD 772-846) was another outstanding realist poet after DuFu. He was the most prolific

poet among Tang Dynasty poets .

Poetry of the mid-Tang Dynasty built on the creative output of the height of the Tang Dynasty. Works of this

period mainly spoke of social turbulence and people's sufferings. Bai Juyi is eminent as a realist poet of this

period. He carried on and developed the realist tradition of The Book of Songs and the Yuefu folksongs of the Han

Dynasty, and inspired an outpouring of realist poetry in terms of literary theory and .

Apart from the most famous Li Bai and Du Fu, many other poets also made enduring contributions in this

period. These poets fall roughly into two categories: the landscape poets represented by Meng Haoran and Wang

Wei and the frontier poets represented by Gao Shi and Cen Shen. Wang Wei was skilled at depicting natural

scenery in five-character lines and was considered to be the most talented literate in Tang dynasty.

四大名著：Major Fiction Writers & Their Works

Luo Guanzhong And The Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The Romance of the Three Kingdoms was written in the early Ming Dynasty It was based on folk legends,

storytelling scripts and dramas ......

Shi Nai'an And Outlaws of the Marsh

Outlaws of the Marsh was written in the early Ming Dynasty ......

Wu Cheng‘en And Journey To The West

Journey to the West, the most brilliant Chinese mythological novel, came out in the middle of the Ming

Dynasty ......

Jin Ping Mei (The Golden Lotus)

Jin Ping Mei is the first novel composed entirely by a scholar It is thought to have been completed during Wan

Li's reign of the Ming Dynasty ......

Cao Xueqin And A Dream of Red Mansions

A Dream of Red Mansions was written in the latter half of the 18thcentury. It is not only a great Chinese novel but

also a gem of world literature ....

Chinese calligraphy (Brush calligraphy) is an art unique to Asian cultures. Shu (calligraphy), Hua (painting),

Qin (a string musical instrument), and Qi (a strategic board game) are the four basic skills and disciplines of the

Chinese literati.

By controlling the concentration of ink, the thickness and adsorptive of the paper, and the flexibility of the

brush, the artist is free to produce an infinite variety of styles and forms.

In contrast to western calligraphy, diffusing ink blots and dry brush strokes are viewed as a natural

impromptu expression rather than a fault. While western calligraphy often pursue font-like uniformity,

homogeneity of characters in one size is only a craft. To the artist, calligraphy is a mental exercise that coordinates

the mind and the body to choose the best styling in expressing the content of the passage. It is a most relaxing yet

highly disciplined exercise indeed for one's physical and spiritual well being. Historically, many calligraphy artists

were well-known for their longevity.

Regarded as the most abstract and sublime form of art in Chinese culture, "Shu Fa" (calligraphy) is often

thought to be most revealing of one's personality. During the imperial era, calligraphy was used as an important

criterion for selection of executives to the Imperial court. Unlike other visual art techniques, all calligraphy

strokes are permanent and incorrigible, demanding careful planning and confident execution. Such are the skills

required for an administrator / executive. While one has to conform to the defined structure of words, the

expression can be extremely creative. To exercise humanistic imagination and touch under the faceless laws and

regulations is also a virtue well appreciated.

None of Wang Shizi’s original works remain today. Some of his best writings were preserved on carved stone

tablets, Stone rubbings taken from them have been reproduced and reprinted widely; they have been studied by

generations of students and used as examples to learn and practice the art of calligraphy.

Traditional Chinese Brush Painting

An important part of the country's cultural heritage, the traditional Chinese painting is distinguished from

Western art in that it is executed on xuan paper (or silk) with the Chinese brush, Chinese ink and mineral and

vegetable pigments.

To attain proficiency in this branch of art calls for assiduous exercise, a good control of the brush, and a feel and

knowledge of the qualities of xuan paper and Chinese ink.

Chinese traditional painting is highly regarded throughout the world for its theory, expression, and techniques.

According to the means of expression, Chinese painting can be divided into two categories: the xieyi school (free

hand brushwork) and the gongbi school (detailed brushwork). The xieyi school is marked by exaggerated forms

and freehand brush work. The gongbi school is characterized by close attention to detail and fine brush work.

Xieyi, however, is the fundamental approach to Chinese painting. It constitutes an aesthetic theory which,

above all, emphasizes the sentiments. Even in ancient times, Chinese artists were unwilling to be restrained by

reality. A famous artist of the Jin Dynasty Gu Kaizhi (c. 345-406) was the first to put forward the theory of

"making the form show the spirit".

Chinese calligraphy and Chinese painting are closely related because lines are used in both. Chinese people

have turned simple lines into a highly-developed form of art. Lines are used not only to draw contours but to

express the artist's concepts and feelings. For different subjects and different purposes a variety of lines are used.

They may be straight or curved, hard or soft, thick or thin, pale or dark, and the ink may be dry or running. The

use of lines and strokes is one of the elements that give Chinese painting its unique qualities.

Traditional Chinese painting is a combination in the same picture of the arts of poetry, calligraphy, painting,

and seal engraving.

The origin, Development and Artistic Features of Quyi

Quyi is a general name for a variety of spoken and Sung arts. It became a special art form after under going a

long period of development and evolution from oral literature and songs. The origin of quyi goes way back in

China's long history. In ancient times, both story telling and comic performances containing aspects of quyi were

widespread among the common people, while the most talented artists performed songs, dances and comedy

routines, accompanied by the music of stringed instruments, in the palaces of the rulers and the mansions of the

nobility. By the Tang Dynasty (618-907), stories old and new flowed from story tellers' lips. Then tales from

Buddhist scriptures, which were very popular, were added and sung to the prevalent daqu and folk tunes. All this

gave impetus to the development of the storytelling and singing arts. From that time on, quyi as an independent art

form, took shape.

Research has shown that there are 4O0 forms of Quyi (popular in different parts of China. Each has its own

background, but they all have original folk features, a broad mass basis and similar artistic characteristics.

- Popular Tales and Storytelling

- Xiangsheng(Comic Dialogue)

- Kuaishu and Kuaiban

- Dagu and Gushu

- Suzhou Pingtan

- Beijing Opera

- Northeast Er’renzhuan

- Yuequ,or Guangdong Melodies

- Sichuan Opera

- The Quyi of Ethnic Minority Groups in China

Questions for Chapter Three：

What is the earliest collection of songs in the history of Chinese literature?

What is the most important work of Confucian literary heritage?

Who is the representative of Jian'an literature and Jian'an style?

What is China's first book on literary criticism?

What are the four great novels of Ming and Qing dynasties?

List more forms of traditional arts other than operas.

For centuries, China was the world's most advanced civilization, and the cultural center of East Asia, with an

impact lasting to the present day. China is also home to many of the great technical inventions in world history,

some of the greatest inventions in the world were by made by the Chinese.

Paper Making (造纸术)

The invention of paper greatly contributed to the spread and development of civilization. Before the invention of

paper, bones, tortoise shells, and bamboo slips were all used as writing surfaces, but as Chinese civilization

developed they proved themselves unsuitable because of their bulk and weight. Hemp fiber and silk were used to

make paper but the quality was far from satisfactory. Besides, these two materials could be better used for other

purposes so it was not practical to make paper from them.

学富五车 is a Chinese idiom describing a learned man. The story behind it concerns a scholar named Hui

Shi who lived during the Warring States Period. He needed five carts to carry his books when he traveled around

teaching. Books at that time were made of wood or bamboo slips so they were heavy and occupied a lot of space.

Reading at the time needed not only brainwork but also physical strength.

In 105 A.D. Cai Lun, a eunuch during the Eastern Han Dynasty, invented paper from worn fishnet, bark and

cloth. These raw materials could be easily found at a much lower cost so large quantities of paper could be

produced.

The technique of paper making was exported to Korea in 384 A.D. A Korean Monk then took this skill with

him to Japan in 610 A.D.

During a war between the Tang Dynasty and the Arab Empire, the Arabs captured some Tang soldiers and

paper making workers. Thus, a paper factory was set up by the Arabs.

In the 11th Century the skill was carried to India when Chinese monks journeyed there in search of Buddhist

sutras.

Through the Arabs, Africans and Europeans then mastered the skill. The first paper factory in Europe was set

up in Spain. In the latter half of the 16th century, this skill was brought to America. By the 19th century, when

paper factories were set up in Australia, paper making had spread to the whole world.

Gunpowder（火药）

In Chinese, gunpowder is called huo yao, meaning flaming medicine. Unlike paper and printing, the birth of

gunpowder was quite accidental. It was first invented inadvertently by alchemists while attempting to make an

elixir of immorality. It was a mixture of sulphur, saltpeter, and charcoal. At the end of the Tang Dynasty,

gunpowder was being used in military affairs. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, frequent wars spurred the

development of cannons, and fire-arrows shot from bamboo tubes.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, gunpowder spread to the Arab countries, then Greece, other European

countries, and finally all over the world.

Black powder is a type of gunpowder invented in the 9th century and was practically the only known

propellant and explosive until the middle of the 19th century. It has been superseded by more efficient explosives

such as smokeless powders and TNT. It is still manufactured today but primarily for use in fireworks, model

rocket engines, and reproductions of muzzleloading weapons.

Printing Technique（印刷术）

Inspired by engraved name seals, Chinese people invented fixed-type engraved printing around 600 A.D. The skill

played an important role in the Song Dynasty but its shortcomings were apparent. It was time-consuming to

engrave a model, not easy to store, and not easy to revise errors.

During the reign of Emperor Ren Zong of the Northern Song Dynasty, Bi Sheng invented moveable, reusable

clay type after numerous tests.

Single types were made and picked out for printing certain books. These types could be used again and again

for different books. Because of the large number of different characters in the Chinese written language, this

technique did not have a dramatic impact at the time. However, today, this typesetting technique is regarded as a

revolution in the industry. About 200 years later, this moveable-type technique spread to other countries and

advanced the development of world civilization.

Compass（指南针）

During the Warring States period, a device called a Si Nan became the forerunner of the compass. A Si Nan was a

ladle-like magnet on a plate with the handle of the ladle pointing to the south. In the 11th century, tiny needles

made of magnetized steel were invented. One end of the needle points north while the other points south. The

compass was thus created. The compass greatly improved a ship's ability to navigate over long distances. It was

not until the beginning of the 14th century that compass was introduced to Europe from China.

The compass was for religious use. When a new houses was being built, the used it to see if the house was

faced in perfect harmony with nature (which meant they thought if you faced your house to magnetic north, you

and nature would get along).

The compass started out as a wooden circle with markings on it, and a magnetic spoon on top.

MEDICINE（中医）

Chinese had many natural remedies some of which included natural herbs and acupuncture.

The discovery of medicine in ancient China started more than 2,000 years ago. In Ancient China, the

Chinese's goal to make medicine was to make an elixir of life to make emperors immortal and help them live

eternally. Eventually, in their quest to make an elixir of life, they made series of medicines and remedies. That is

how China began the search for medicine.

About a century after the discovery of medicine, acupuncture was invented in China. Acupuncture is a

treatment, which doesn't involve any drugs. Needles are put in certain parts of the person's body. The Chinese

believed that if you put the needles in those specific spots, Yin and Yang would be balanced. When the forces

were balanced, it was believed to relieve your pain and you wouldn't get any diseases. That treatment was the

most commonly used one at the time.

About a century after the discovery of medicine, acupuncture was invented in China. Acupuncture is a

treatment, which doesn't involve any drugs. Needles are put in certain parts of the person's body. The Chinese

believed that if you put the needles in those specific spots, Yin and Yang would be balanced. When the forces

were balanced, it was believed to relieve your pain and you wouldn't get any diseases. That treatment was the

most commonly used one at the time.

李时珍 Li Shizen was a famous pharmacologist noted in Chinese records, too. He traveled through China to

find every medical achievement there was. He then summarized them from his time, and he listed the 1,892 herbs

and listed the 11,000 prescriptions in a book. He also corrected mistakes in some medicine uses and he classified

all the herbs used in medicine.

Paper money（纸币）

Chinese invented paper money at the end of the eighth or beginning of the ninth century AD. Its original

name was 'flying money' because it was so light and could blow out of one's hand. The first paper money was,

strictly speaking, a draft rather than real money. A merchant could deposit his cash in the capital, receiving a paper

certificate which he could then exchange for cash in the provinces.

When Marco Polo visited China, he was so impressed by paper money that he wrote a whole chapter about it,

describing everything about its manufacture and circulation. He described the manner in which it was issued:

All these pieces of paper are issued with as much solemnity and authority as if they were of pure gold or

silver; and on every piece a variety of officials, whose duty it is, have to write their names, and to put their seals.

And when all is duly prepared, the chief officer deputed by the Khan smears the Seal entrusted to him with

vermilion, and impresses it on the paper, so that the form of the Seal remains printed upon it in red; the Money is

then authentic.

Abacus（算盘）

The abacus as we know it today, appeared (was chronicled) circa 1200 A.D. in China; in Chinese, it is called

suan-pan. On each rod, this classic Chinese abacus has 2 beads on the upper deck and 5 on the lower deck; such

an abacus is also referred to as a 2/5 abacus. The 2/5 style survived unchanged until about 1850 at which time the

1/5 (one bead on the top deck and five beads on the bottom deck) abacus appeared.

Abacus is a Latin word that has its origins in the Greek words abax or abakon (meaning "table" or "tablet")

which in turn, possibly originated from the Semitic word abq, meaning "sand" .

Chinese Seismograph（地动仪）

Designed with a machine called the Earthquake weathercock, which was a contraption that told them when

and where an earthquake would come. This machine looked like a giant six-foot bronze pot that had dragon heads

lining the top, and ivory frogs under each dragon.

Zhang Heng, (78 AD - 139 AD), was born in Nanyang, Henan Province. He was a famous man of letters and

scientist in the East Han Dynasty in the Chinese history. His works include Ode to the West Capital, Ode to the

East Capital and 22 pieces of other literary works. He became a court official in 111 AD and was assigned as the

court historian afterwards. He invented the armillary sphere and the seismograph.

Joseph Needham was born on 9 December 1900. He was the single child of a middle-class family of Scottish

ascent living in London. Joseph Needham started studying chemistry at Cambridge University (England),

although being more interested in biology. He had his bachelor degree in June 1921, his master's degree in January

1925 and his PhD in October 1925.

His interest for Chinese culture was initiated by a visit to China in 1937, which produced his big project

Science and Civilisation in China. He received the Award of the George Sarton Medal of the History of Science

Society in 1968, and the Award of the Bernal Prize of the Society for the Social Studies of Science in 1984.

In his old age, Needham suffered increasingly from Parkinson's disease. He peacefully died at his home in

Cambridge on the evening of 24 March 1995, at the age of 94.

The Science and Civilisation in China series is the work of Joseph Needham and an international team of

collaborators.

Joseph Needham (1900-1995)

Questions for Chapter Four

What are the four great inventions in ancient China?

Name three or four scientific and technological classics in ancient China.

Name other inventions you have known in the history of China.

The ancient system of Confucian education prepared young men for work in government offices. The

founders of the People's Republic in 1949 prioritized education and focused upon expanding access beyond the

privileged elite to the proletariat.

Imperial Examinations

The Imperial Examination System exerted a great and far-reaching influence on China's ancient bureaucratic

politics, education, cultural, society and historical process. The Imperial Examination System of China also

profoundly influenced ancient Eastern Asian and modern Western civil service examination system. in dynastic

China determined positions in the civil service based on merit and education, which promoted upward mobility

among the population for centuries.

The exams usually tested the knowledge of the Confucian classics but also, at different points in the Dynastic

history, would test the students ability to compose specific forms of poetry, calligraphy style and even painting

style…

The degree types were as follows:

生员 [shēngyuán] , also called Xiucai (秀才), quasi-bachelor degree, administered at the local level each

year Anshou shēngyuán who ranked #1

举人 [jǔrén] quasi-masters degree, administered at the provincial level every three years

解元 Jieyuan jǔrén who ranked #1

进士[jìnshì] () quasi-doctoral degree, administered in the capital every three years

进士及第 (Jinshi jidi) Jinshi who ranked #1-#3

状元 (Zhuangyuan), jìnshì who ranked #1

榜眼 (Bangyan ), jìnshì who ranked #2

探花 (Tanhua), jìnshì who ranked #3

进士出身 (Jinshi Chushen ) jìnshì who ranked 2nd class

同进士出身 (Tong Jinshi Chushen ) jìnshì who ranked 3rd class

Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking

government official by passing the test, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were

excluded. In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly

(private tutors had to be hired), most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy

land-owning gentry. However, there are numerous examples in Chinese history in which individuals moved from

a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Under some dynasties the

imperial examinations were abolished and official posts were simply sold, which increased corruption and reduced

morale.

The system was finally abolished in the last few years of Qing Dynasty. According to the historical record of

China, from the start of the Sui Dynasty (605) to its abolition near the end of the Qing Dynasty (1905), the

Imperial Examination System had lasted continuously for 1300 years.

Educational institutions in ancient China consisted of National University, Directorate of Education, and

private schools. Private academy was a new form of educational institution that came into existence in the Song

Dynasty.

Though private academies were often established jointly by the government and civilians, they were where

private teachers taught. They emerged because the study of Confucianism was very active in the Song Dynasty.

They provided rostrums for scholars to discuss and spread their doctrines.

Under the influence of Zen Buddhism, private academies paid attention to an enriched spiritual life and the

cultivation of character. They taught according to the students' aptitude, avoiding teaching for the sole purpose of

passing imperial examinations. Nevertheless, they overlooked the training of skill and technique since they

concentrated on Confucian classics. Private academies developed in the Yuan and were further promoted in Ming

Dynasty.

The flourishing of private academies since the Song Dynasty embodied the cultural spirit of China's feudal

society in its later period. They are an important heritage of China. Their free educational institution, teaching

method and academic atmosphere are drawing more and more attention from various factors at home and abroad

in the present information era which places such importance on knowledge and education.

Modern Education

With the end of the Cultural Revolution and the economic liberalization of China that erupted with its

opening to the outside world in 1979, China's education sector experienced a rapid and much needed rally of

reinvestment.

The last twenty-five years has seen phenomenal improvement to educational infrastructure, teacher training,

course curriculum, and State attitude to education planning. The desire for education continues to be high; higher

education is being pursued in ever greater volume and an increasing number of Mainland students are traveling

overseas for both secondary and university education.

China's education system is traditionally defined along four major lines: basic education; higher education;

adult education; and vocational education. Basic and higher education are considered part of the core education

system.

Education is compulsory between the ages of seven and fifteen which encompasses primary school and

junior middle school—this is commonly known as the nine-year compulsory education system. Following junior

middle school students have the option of continuing through senior middle school and to university or pursing

vocational schooling. Students are able to leave the education system at the end of junior middle school.

By the end of 2003 national attendance within the nine-year compulsory system had reached 90% of all

available students; almost reaching the State's goal.

Basic Education

Pre-school education

Primary school (5 or 6 years)

Junior middle school (3 years)

Senior middle school (3 years)

Higher Education

College (2 or 3 years)

Undergraduate (4-5 yars)

Master (2-3 years)

Doctor (3 -4 years)

Post-doctoral ( 2 or 3 years)

Vocational Education

Specialized secondary schools

Technical secondary schools

Vocational secondary school

High professional vocational school

Adult Education

Adult primary education

Adult secondary education

Higher education for adults

University Matriculation System

China's university entrance system has been revised repeatedly since the current system was re-established in

1977. The system encompasses three core aspects: examinations, enrolment management, and students' university

selection and application.

The system was overhauled in 1987 with the introduction of the 3+1 model; this was replaced with the 3+2

model in 1995 and the 3+X model in 1998. The models encompassed the following:

3+1 Model: Students would be tested in three basic subjects: mathematics, Chinese, and a Foreign Language

(generally English), plus one subject chosen from physics, chemistry, history, geography, biology, or politics. The

selection was dependent upon the university and course to which the student was applying.

3+2 Model: Examination expanded to encompass the three core subjects of the 3+1 model plus two

additional subjects based upon art or science focus. Art students would also take history and politics, while

science students would take physics and chemistry.

3+X Model: Examination includes the three core subjects of the 3+1 Model plus one chosen from physics,

chemistry, politics, geography, history, and biology. Universities can dictate which subject is required for entrance

evaluation.

English as a Second Language

While English as a second language (ESL) is a frequently used term for English language instruction in

English speaking countries—in China the more accurate term and philosophy that guides English instruction is

English as a foreign language (EFL).

To strength foreign language instruction the government has established foreign language schools. Students

in these schools spend upward of twelve hours per week in English class—double that of ordinary middle school

students. Graduates of foreign language schools are expected to meet level nine.

While some schools claim to offer bilingual education in Chinese and English with carefully designed

curriculum that balances the two languages, there are few that have managed to come close.

The government's default position on the core educational provision (i.e. basic and higher education) is that it

should be supplied on a not-for-profit basis. In recent years, the private sector has begun to play an increasing role

in education and foreign educational institutions have been permitted a degree of market access. Nevertheless,

there is still an obligation for educational activities to be styled as not-for-profit.

Questions for Chapter Five：

Tell the imperial examinations in the history.

Comment on the government funding on education.

What do you think of the University Matriculation System?

What do you think of English as a second language for non-English majors

Folk customs practiced in China are rich and diverse, as can be expected from a country with such an ancient

history and a large population made up of many different ethnic groups. The various folk practices have their

origins in tribal traditions, mythology, seasonal changes and their effects on agriculture, or historical events. The

customs include special feasts or ceremonies which require specific foods, clothes, or ornaments.

China is known as the home town of tea. People throughout the country drink tea daily. Wherever Chinese go,

the custom of drinking tea follows. The Chinese were the first to discover the tea leaf, and have drunk tea for

uncounted ages.

Because of the geographic location and climate, different places grow various kinds of tea. In general, there

are five kinds of tea classified according to different technique involved in the making of tea. They are Longjin of

Hangzhou, Wulong of Fujian, Jasmine tea, Black tea and compressed tea.

Tea is an indispensable part of the life of a Chinese. A Chinese saying identifies the seven basic daily

necessities as fuel, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce, vinegar, and tea. The custom of drinking tea is deeply ingrained in

almost every Chinese, and has been for over a thousand years. During the mid-T'ang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.), a

man named Lu Yu entered the Buddhist monkhood early in life, but returned when older to secular life. He was

later best known for summarizing the knowledge and experience of his predecessors and contemporaries into the

first compendium in the world on tea--the Tea Classic (ch'a Ching). This work helped to popularize the art of tea

drinking all across China, making avid tea drinkers of everyone from emperor and minister to street hawker and

soldier. Even the neighboring countries of Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia came to adopt the tea drinking

custom.

In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company introduced Chinese tea for the first time to Europe.

By the mid-17th century, afternoon tea had become a standard ritual of the British nobility. It is interesting to note

that the two different pronunciations for "tea" most common in languages that borrowed the word from

Chinese-cha and tee-originate from different dialects of Chinese. Languages of countries that once imported the

leaves from the north of China, such as Turkey, Russia, and Japan, adopted some variation of the sound cha, such

as chay, chai, or chya. Countries on the southern maritime lines of China, such as Spain, Germany, and England,

borrowed the word in the forms of te, Tee, and tea respectively, based on the southern Chinese pronunciation.

The proportion of tea leaves to water also depends on the kind of tea leaves used. The teapot may be filled

from one-quarter to three-quarters full with tea leaves, depending mainly on how tightly curled the tea leaves are

as a result of the rolling and roasting processes. The teapot is then filled with water. Steeping time starts at one

minute, but varies from tea to tea. The time required for subsequent brews from the same leaves must be

proportionally lengthened. The best kind of teapot to use for most fermented teas is a purple clay ceramic pot. The

size of the pot should be in correct proportion to the size of the cups. Ideally, the cups should have white interiors,

to facilitate accurate assessment of the color of the tea.

People enamored of tea drinking also usually enjoy the beauty and feel of teapots. Small teapots are used to

steep tea in most homes in the Republic of China today. This particular method has been passed down to the

present day from the days of Ming Dynasty Emperor Shen Tsung in 16th century China, so it boasts a 400-year

history. The full aroma and sweetness of the tea can be brought out when using a small teapot to steep tea. During

the Ming (1368-1644) and Ch'ing (1644-1911) dynasties, the purple clay ceramic teapots of Yihsing, Kiangsu

were the most famous. Any pieces made by a master potter are sought after everywhere, and are worth their

weight in gold. While master potters in the Republic of China continue to produce traditional purple clay ceramic

teapots, they have also developed a number of creative new teapot designs which have received enthusiastic

public response. Collecting teapots has become a fashionable pastime.

Chinese Alcohol

Alcohol is part of Chinese folklore and in modern China alcohol still remains an important role in this

folklore, despite many social vicissitudes. It still appears in almost all social activities, the most common

occasions being birthday parties for seniors, wedding feasts and sacrifice ceremonies, where liquor must be the

main drink to show happiness or respect.

In ancient China, since alcohol was regarded as a sacred liquid it was only used when people made sacrificial

offerings to Heaven, Earth or significant ancestors. After the Zhou Dynasty, alcohol was deemed as one of the

Nine Rites and every Dynasty since, placed heavy emphasis on alcohol administration, setting up special

ministries to manage alcohol production and banqueting. Later, along with the development of zymotechnics（发

酵法）and brewery, alcohol became much more of an ordinary, everyday drink. Thus, many of the daily customs

involving alcohol evolved.

Classification: will give you an idea of Chinese alcohol family.

Alcohol and social activities: enables people of different cultural backgrounds to understand the Chinese

alcohol culture and folklore.

Drinking game (Jiuling): is a very traditional Chinese game. Learning the cultural facts of the game may

spark your interest for drinking in China. It is much more interesting than dicing.

Drinking vessels: made by the Chinese people across centuries, enable people to appreciate the exquisite

Chinese craftsmanship and acquire tips for drinking alcohol in China.

Food & Drink

The development and diversity of the delights of Chinese cuisine are also representative of China's long

history. With each dynasty new recipes were created until the art of food preparation reach its peak during the

Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911). The dinner called Man Han Quan Xi that incorporates all the very best of Man and

Han Cuisine is held in high esteem involving as it does countless dishes, each with its own distinctive flavor and

appeal. This veritable banquet in its preparation and presentation typifies all of the culture and culinary arts that

have been perfected over centuries and is a comprehensive amalgam of taste, instruments, and manners.

The diversity of geography, climate, costumes and products have led to the evolution of what are called the

'Four Flavors' and 'Eight Cuisines' but as catering is a living art sub-classifications continue to increase.

Sichuan cuisine which is hot and spicy, is based on red chili pepper and garlic. Dishes include Gungbao

chicken, Mother Ma's bean curd, aborigine with garlic sauce, minced chicken with Gingko nuts, and fried prawns

with pepper sauce. Fried breads make a nice change from rice.

Cantonese food is richer and sweeter than that of other regions. Dishes consist of fried shrimp with

cashews, beef with oyster sauce, onion-marinated chicken and sweet-and-sour pork. Pastries include buns, sweet

paste or preserves, steamed dumplings stuffed with meat, deep-fried spring rolls and tarts.

Pekinese cuisine is more mild, combining roast or barbecued meat (often cooked at the table), flat

pancake wrappers and vegetables. Dishes include Peking duck, carp cooked three ways, chicken-in-paper, eels

with pepper sauce, steamed prawns, diced chicken in heavy sauce and ham marrow sauce.

Shanghai cuisine is mostly seafood with rich salty sauces. Dishes include ningpo (fried eel), shark's fin in

chicken, mushroom with crab meat, West Lake fish and shark's fin soup.

Mongolian cooking consists of two basic dishes of Huoguo ('firepot' - meat dipped in a sauce based on

sesame paste, shrimp oil, ginger juice and bean paste) and barbecue (various slices of meat and vegetables cooked

on an iron grill and eaten in a sesame bun).

1. Spring Festival

Date: The first day of a year in lunar calendar, usually between late Jan and early Feb

Place: National wide

Activities: fireworks display, visiting and greeting, lion and dragon dancing, holding temple fairs and many

other great folklore-inspection events.

Remark: Spring Festival is the most important event in China, known as the Chinese New Year. It is the first

day of a lunar year and usually lasts weeks. Before the event, houses are thoroughly cleaned. Everybody gets

haircut and purchase new clothes. People burn incense at home or in the temples to pay respects to ancestors and

ask Gods for good health, peace and luck in the coming year. Red lanterns are hung everywhere and red scrolls

with antithetical couplets are pasted at every gate. On New Year's-Eve, families have a reunion feast of Jiaozi

(dumplings) and Niangao (a kind sticky rice cake), and then stay up all through the night, talking about the past

and the future

2. Lantern Festival

Date: 15th of the first lunar month

Place: National wide

Activities: Lanterns expositions, garden parties, firework displays and folk dances.

Remark: The festival falls on the 15th day of the first lunar month. During the event, various types of delicate

and splendid lanterns are exhibited and red lantern can be seen all around. Every family eats yuanxiao (a kind rice

ball stuffed with beans, sugar or others sweet things), which is a symbol of family reunion, unity, affection and

happiness.

3. Qingming Festival (Pure Brightness)

Date: 12th of the 3rd lunar month, usually around April 4th or 5th.

Place: National wide

Activities: Cleaning ancestors' graves and holding memorial ceremonies, spring outing, and flying kites

Remark: It was said this festival was set to memorialize Jie zitui, a loyal man in the Spring and Autumn Period,

who helped his liege lord when his lord was in jeopardy, and later refused to accept position offer after his lord

restored his crown and power. Mr. Jie escaped to a mountain with his mother and died in the fire his lord set to try

to force him out to accept his position. In order to commemorate Mr. Jie, his lord set the day he died as original

Qingming Festival.

People will clean their ancestors' graves and make offerings to pay their respects. Spring outing and flying kites

are popular during the festival.

4. Dragon Boat Festival

Date: 5th day of the 5th lunar month

Place: National wide

Activities: Dragon Boat races and eating Tzungtzu (pyramid shaped rice wrapped in reed or bamboo leaves)

Remark: The Chinese Dragon Boat Festival is a significant holiday celebrated in China, and the one with the

longest history. During the event, dragon boat races are held. In thunderous drumbeats, racing teams sprint

forward to reach the finish end.

The boat races during the Dragon Boat Festival are traditional customs to attempt to rescue a patriotic poet, Chu

Yuan. Chu Yuan drowned himself on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month in 277 B.C because his king did not

take his advice and his state was conquered. People drove boats and throw bamboo leaves filled with cooked rice

into the water to feed fishes in order to save his body. Later the custom of eating Tzungtzu and rice dumplings

came into being.

5. Mid-Autumn Festival

Date: 15th of the 8th lunar month

Place: National wide

Activities: Dragon Boat racing, enjoying moonlight and eating moon cakes

Remark: Mid-Autumn festival is also known as the Moon Festival. People will eat moon cakes-pastries filled

with gooey sesame, red bean and walnut during the festival with family members under moonlight.

There are other traditional festivals which are becoming aware nowadays, such as the Double seventh Day and

the Double Ninth Day. The former is traditional Chinese Valentine's Day and is the day when a cowherd and his

wife, a weaving maid and Jade Emperor's daughter, meet in the heaven on the Magpie Bridge. The later used to be

the day when people climb onto high mountains and miss their family members.

Mongolian People' s Nadam Fair

The Nadam Fair is a traditional festival celebrated in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in the 7th lunar

month. "Nadam" is the Mongolian word for "recreation" or "games"."

The Mongolians grow up on horseback and horses thus play an important part in their life. Horse racing vividly

expresses the Mongolian people's special way of life on the green grasslands. Before the race begins, an elderly

ma usually holds high a silver bowl of fresh milk and a Blue hada and chants something to bless the riders. This

eulogy before race is peculiar to the Mongolian people.

Wrestling is another important sports activity~ at the festival. The wrestler who wins the first prize gets a strip of

colorful cloth pinned on the chest. The brave Mongolian people, in this way, show their incomparable strength and

unwavering courage.

Archery, as the third of the "men's three events," provides people with a good chance to show their skill. Great

amusement is derived from this event.

Nadam is also a fair. The Mongolians, wearing their holiday best, come to attend the fair from all over Inner

Mongolia.

Corban

Corban, a festival celebrated by China's Muslims, falls on the l0th day of December in the Islamic calendar. There

are ten ethnic minorities whose religious faith is Islam. These ten peoples include the Hui, Uygur, Kazaks, Kirgiz,

Tajik, Tatars, Uzbek, Dongxiang, Salar, and Bonan.

"Corban" is an Arabic word for"sacrifice" or"dedication." The Chinese version for this word is ZaishengJie (the

festival of butchering animals), that is, the day to slaughter animals as an offering. Legend has it that Ibrahim, the

Prophet, on his way to Mecca for pilgrimage received in a dream an order from Allah that he should offer his son

Ismail to the God. But at the very moment Ibrahim was brandishing a sword to do so, Allah sent a special envoy to

bring him a sheep and inform him to sacrifice it instead of dedicating his son. Since then, this practice has been

continued and developed into today's Muslim Corban.

Questions for Chapter Six：

Tell briefly about the history of tea planting in China.

Tell some stories about famous Chinese in history in connection with wine.

Which Chinese cuisine do you love best, and why?

Describe other Chinese traditional festivals or festivals of ethnic minority groups which are not

mentioned in the coursebook.

China isn't a country—it's a different world. Unless you have a couple of years and unlimited patience, it's best to

follow a loose itinerary here, such as following the Silk Road, sailing down the Yangzi River, or exploring the Dr

Seuss landscape of Guangxi Province.

From shop-till-you-drop metropolises to the epic grasslands of Inner Mongolia, China is a land of cultural and

geographic schisms. It's not that it has completely done away with its Maoist past - it's more that the yin of

revolutionary zeal is being balanced by the yang of economic pragmatism.

Jacques Shirac, president of France, once said: "One can't claim to have visited China unless one has seen these

terracotta warriors." Shirac predicted that the Qin terracotta warriors would become a major historical site to

attract overseas tourists to China. The number of tourists to Shaanxi in Northwest China has increased steadily in

the past 23 years since terracotta figurines were first discovered. Examples of such figurines have been displayed

on five continents, thus arousing keen interest in the terracotta warriors. A report in the United Evening News of

Singapore said that all leaders from other countries who visit Beijing find it a great pleasure to go to Xi'an, capital

of Shaanxi Province, and see the terracotta warriors.

During the Shang and Zhou dynasties (16th to 3rd centuries B.C.), slaves were buried alive with the slave-owners

and aristocrats when they died. The number of such slaves immolated depended on the status of the deceased.

More than 60 slaves were sacrificed when Duke Wu, the ruler of the State of Qin, died in 678 B.C. Later, 177

slaves were immolated when Duke Mu of the State of Qin died in 621 B.C. This practice aroused indignation

among the people of Qin. Duke Xian banned this practice when he ascended the throne of the State of Qin in 384

B.C. While still regarding slaves as chattels, the slave-owners had to replace burying slaves alive with using

figurines as funerary objects.

North Pole and South Pole are known as the two extremities of the earth. But some people call Tibet the world's

third extremity, considering its height above sea level. Lured by this observation, we embarked to a trip to this

mysterious land of snow-covered mountains.

In the past one hundred years, countless people made an attempt to go to Tibet through the ancient "Musk Road"

but many failed to reach the destination and some even died on the long and tortuous way. Thanks to the

construction efforts over the past decades, travel to Tibet is no longer considered a perilous undertaking.

The Three Gorge Dam is the largest dam in the world, as wide as the Golden Gate Bridge and twice as tall,

capable of generating 18 gigawatts of hydro-electric power.

Additional Questions about the project:

What are the highest dams in the U.S.?

Where is the highest dam in the world?

Which countries have the most hydro power?

The highest dam in the Unites States is located near Oroville, California. The Oroville Dam rises 754 feet (230

meters) and is more than a mile (1.6 km) wide. This dam was built in 1968, 22 years after the Hoover Dam. The

Hoover Dam, on the Nevada-Arizona border controls the Colorado river. It is 726 (221 meters) feet high and

stores 21.125 million acre-feet (2.6 million hectare-meters) of water in the 115 mile (192 km) long Lake Mead

reservoir, behind the dam.

The highest dam in the world is Nurek Dam on the Vakhsh River in Tadzikistan, a country in central Asia. This

dam is 984 feet (300 meters) tall!

Canada, United States, Russia, Brazil, followed by China and Norway

China has numerous exquisite traditional arts and crafts. Among the most famous are carving and metalwork,

embroidery and painting, ceramics and porcelain, and cloisonné (a kind of finish) enamel inlay. Bamboo furniture,

woven bamboo and grass objects, paper cuts, lanterns, kites, and toys are popular traditional craft items, while

Chinese jade and ivory ornaments, cloisonné, and embroidery are treasured by people all over the world.

Embroidery is a traditional craft that has flourished over the ages. China's four main styles of embroidery

developed in Suzhou (Jiangsu), Hunan Province (Central China), Sichuan Province (Southwestern China), and

Guangdong Province (South China).

An embroidery artist may use several dozen different stitches to portray flowers, people, animals, scenery, or any

number of meticulously designed patterns.