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CONSTITUTIONAL LAW


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CONSTITUTIONAL LAW i.

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART ONE: POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

I. THE JUDICIAL POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A. ARTICLE III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1B. POWER OF JUDICIAL REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Review of Other Branches of Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1a. Separation of Powers and Finality of Court Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. Federal Review of State Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2C. FEDERAL COURTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1. Article III Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. Article I Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2D. JURISDICTION OF THE SUPREME COURT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1. Original (Trial) Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. Appellate Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

a. Statutory Application of Appellate Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31) Writ of Certiorari (Discretionary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32) Appeal (Mandatory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

b. Limitations on Statutory Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3E. CONSTITUTIONAL AND SELF-IMPOSED LIMITATIONS ON EXERCISE OF

FEDERAL JURISDICTION—POLICY OF “STRICT NECESSITY” . . . . . . . 41. No Advisory Opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

a. Compare—Declaratory Judgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42. Ripeness—Immediate Threat of Harm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43. Mootness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

a. Exception—Capable of Repetition But Evading Review . . . . . . . . . . 4b. Class Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5c. Distinguish Ripeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4. Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5a. Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1) Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5a) Injury Need Not Be Economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2) Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53) Redressability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4) Required at All Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6b. Common Standing Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1) Congressional Conferral of Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62) Standing to Enforce Government Statutes—Zone of Interests . . . . 73) Standing to Assert Rights of Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

a) Limitation—Family Law Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74) Standing of Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85) No Citizenship Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

a) Compare—Tenth Amendment Violation Claims . . . . . . . . . 8


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6) Taxpayer Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8a) Generally No Standing to Litigate Government Expenditures . . 8b) Exception—Congressional Measures Under Taxing and

Spending Power that Violate Establishment Clause . . . . . . . . 9

7) Legislators’ Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98) Assignee Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5. Adequate and Independent State Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10a. “Adequate” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10b. “Independent” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10c. Where Basis Is Unclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6. Abstention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10a. Unsettled State Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10b. Pending State Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1) Pending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112) Civil and Administrative Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113) Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7. Political Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11a. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11b. Compare—“Nonpolitical Controversy” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

8. Eleventh Amendment Limits on Federal Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12a. What Is Barred? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1) Compare—Sovereign Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12b. What Is Not Barred? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1) Actions Against Local Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132) Actions by the United States Government or Other State

Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133) Bankruptcy Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

c. Exceptions to Eleventh Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131) Certain Actions Against State Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13a) Actions Against State Officers for Injunctions . . . . . . . . . . 13b) Actions Against State Officers for Monetary Damages from

Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13c) Actions Against State Officers for Prospective Payments from

State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132) Congressional Removal of Immunity Under the Fourteenth

Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14a) Compare—Article I Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

d. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

II. LEGISLATIVE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14A. ENUMERATED AND IMPLIED POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141. Necessary and Proper “Power” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152. Taxing Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

a. Determining What Is a Tax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15b. Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15c. Direct Taxes—Must Be Apportioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15d. Taxes Are Generally Valid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15


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3. Spending Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16a. Regulation Through Spending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4. Commerce Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16a. Definition of Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1) Includes Basically All Activity Affecting Two or More States . . . . 162) Includes Transportation or Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

a) Vehicular Transportation Not Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16b. “Substantial Economic Effect” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1) Power Not Unlimited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17a) Intrastate Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

(1) Activity vs. Inactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175. War and Related Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

a. Economic Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171) During War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172) Postwar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

b. Military Courts and Tribunals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1) Judicial Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182) Court-Martial of Enemy Civilians and Soldiers Permitted . . . . . 18

a) Suspension of Habeas Corpus for Enemy Combatants . . . . . 183) Court-Martial of American Soldiers Permitted . . . . . . . . . . . . 184) Court-Martial of American Civilians Generally Prohibited . . . . . 18

c. Calling Forth the Militia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196. Investigatory Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

a. Authorized Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19b. Witnesses’ Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1) Fifth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192) Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3) Procedural Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19c. Enforcement of Investigatory Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197. Property Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

a. No Limits on Disposition of Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20b. Eminent Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

8. No Federal Police Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209. Bankruptcy Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2010. Postal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

a. Exclusive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20b. Scope of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

11. Power Over Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21a. Exclusion of Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1) Nonresident Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212) Resident Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

b. Naturalization and Denaturalization—Exclusive Control of Congress . . 211) No Loss of Citizenship Without Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

a) Proof of Intent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212) Rights of Children of Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

12. Admiralty Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21a. Exclusive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21b. Navigable Waterways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22


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13. Power to Coin Money and Fix Weights and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2214. Patent/Copyright Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

B. DELEGATION OF LEGISLATIVE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221. Broad Delegation Allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2. Limitations on Delegation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22a. Power Cannot Be Uniquely Confined to Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22b. Clear Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22c. Separation of Powers Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22d. Important Liberty Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23e. Criminal vs. Civil Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

C. THE SPEECH OR DEBATE CLAUSE—SPECIAL IMMUNITY FORFEDERAL LEGISLATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231. Persons Covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232. Scope of Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

a. Bribes Excluded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

b. Speeches Outside Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23c. Defamatory Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24D. CONGRESSIONAL “VETO” OF EXECUTIVE ACTIONS INVALID . . . . . . 24

III. THE EXECUTIVE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24A. VESTED IN PRESIDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24B. DOMESTIC POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1. Appointment and Removal of Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24a. Appointment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1) Appointment of “Independent Counsel” (Special Prosecutor) . . . 252) No Appointments by Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

b. Recess Appointments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

c. Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251) By President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252) By Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

a) Limitation on Removal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25b) Limitation on Powers of Removable Officers . . . . . . . . . . 25

2. Pardons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263. Veto Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

a. Congress May Override Veto by Two-Thirds Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26b. President Has Ten Days to Veto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26c. Line Item Veto Unconstitutional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4. Power as Chief Executive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

a. No Power to Impound and the Take Care Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27C. POWER OVER EXTERNAL AFFAIRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271. War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

a. Actual Hostilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27b. Military Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2. Foreign Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283. Treaty Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

a. Supreme Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281) Self-Executing vs. Non-Self-Executing Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . 28


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a) President Has No Power to Implement Non-Self-ExecutingTreaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2) Conflict with Congressional Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283) Conflict with Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

b. Other Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284. Executive Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

a. Conflicts with Other Governmental Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29b. Example—Power to Settle Claims of United States Citizens . . . . . . . 29

D. EXECUTIVE PRIVILEGE/IMMUNITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291. Executive Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

a. Extent of the Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291) National Security Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292) Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293) Civil Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294) Screening Papers and Recordings of Former President . . . . . . . 305) Screening by Judge in Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2. Executive Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30a. Absolute Immunity for President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30b. Immunity May Extend to Presidential Aides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

E. IMPEACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301. Persons Subject to Impeachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302. Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303. Impeachment by the House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304. Conviction by the Senate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

PART TWO: THE FEDERAL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

IV. RELATIVE SPHERES OF FEDERAL AND STATE POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31A. EXCLUSIVE FEDERAL POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1. Power of States Expressly Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312. Inherent Federal Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

B. EXCLUSIVE STATE POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31C. CONCURRENT FEDERAL AND STATE POWER—SUPREMACY CLAUSE . 32

1. Express Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322. Implied Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

a. Actual Conflict Between State and Federal Law Requirements . . . . . . 32b. State Prevents Achievement of Federal Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32c. Field Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3. Presumption Against Preemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

D. ABSENCE OF FEDERAL AND STATE POWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34E. INTERSTATE COMPACT CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34F. FULL FAITH AND CREDIT CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

V. INTERSOVEREIGN LITIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35A. SUITS BY THE UNITED STATES AGAINST A STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35B. SUITS BY STATE AGAINST UNITED STATES—UNITED STATES MUST

CONSENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35C. FEDERAL OFFICER AS DEFENDANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35


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1. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352. Specific Relief Against the Individual Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

D. SUITS BY ONE STATE AGAINST ANOTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

VI. INTERGOVERNMENTAL TAX AND REGULATION IMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . 35A. FEDERAL TAXATION AND REGULATION OF STATE OR LOCAL

GOVERNMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351. Tax or Regulation Applying to State and Private Entities—Valid . . . . . . . 352. Tax or Regulation that Applies Only to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

a. Exception—Civil Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36b. Exception—Spending Power Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1) What Is “Unduly Coercive”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363. Commandeering State Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

B. STATE TAXATION AND REGULATION OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT . . . 371. No Direct Tax on Federal Instrumentalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372. Nondiscriminatory, Indirect Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3. State Regulation of Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

VII. PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37A. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37B. ARTICLE IV—PRIVILEGES OF STATE CITIZENSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

1. Corporations and Aliens Not Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382. Only “Fundamental Rights” Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383. Substantial Justification Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384. Note—Relationship to Commerce Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

C. FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT—PRIVILEGES OF NATIONALCITIZENSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391. Corporations Not Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392. Bill of Rights Not Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393. Right to Travel and the Privileges and Immunities Clause . . . . . . . . . . . 39

PART THREE: STATE REGULATION OR TAXATION OF COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . 40

VIII. REGULATION OF FOREIGN COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40A. LIES EXCLUSIVELY WITH CONGRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40B. MINOR EXCEPTIONS WHERE STATE REGULATION PERMITTED . . . . . 40

IX. REGULATION OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40A. REGULATION OF COMMERCE BY CONGRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

1. Power of Congress to Supersede or Preempt State Regulation . . . . . . . . . 402. Power of Congress to Permit or Prohibit State Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . 40

a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41B. STATE REGULATION OF COMMERCE IN THE ABSENCE OF

CONGRESSIONAL ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411. Discriminatory Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

a. Generally Invalid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41b. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

1) Regulations Protecting Local Businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41


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2) Regulations Requiring Local Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413) Regulations Limiting Access to In-State Products . . . . . . . . . . 424) Regulations Prohibiting Out-of-State Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

c. Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1) Necessary to Important State Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422) State as Market Participant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

a) Limitation—Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause . . . 43b) Limitation—“Downstream” Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3) Favoring Government Performing Traditional GovernmentFunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2. Nondiscriminatory Laws—Balancing Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44a. Absence of Conflict with Other States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44b. State Control of Corporations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

C. TWENTY-FIRST AMENDMENT—STATE CONTROL OVER INTOXICATINGLIQUOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441. Intrastate Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2. Interstate Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453. Federal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

D. BAR EXAM APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

X. POWER OF STATES TO TAX INTERSTATE COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

1. Discriminatory Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46a. Finding Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1) Tax Singles Out Interstate Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462) Tax with In-State Subsidy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

b. Choosing the Proper Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461) Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472) Equal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

a) Where Congress Approves the Discrimination . . . . . . . . . 47b) Taxes Based on Suspect Classifications or Infringing on

Fundamental Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472. Nondiscriminatory Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

a. Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481) Substantial Nexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482) Fair Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483) Fair Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

B. USE TAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491. Permissible in Buyer’s State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2. State May Force Seller to Collect Use Tax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49C. SALES TAXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49D. AD VALOREM PROPERTY TAXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

1. No Tax on Commodities in the Course of Interstate Commerce . . . . . . . . 49a. When Is Property “in the Course of” Interstate Commerce? . . . . . . . 50

1) When Does Interstate Transportation Begin? . . . . . . . . . . . . 502) Effect of a “Break” in Transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503) When Does Interstate Shipment End? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

b. No Apportionment Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50


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2. Tax on Instrumentalities Used to Transport Goods Interstate . . . . . . . . 50a. Taxable Situs (“Nexus”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50b. Apportionment Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

1) Proper Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

E. PRIVILEGE, LICENSE, FRANCHISE, OR OCCUPATION TAXES . . . . . . . 511. Taxpayer Has Burden of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

XI. POWER OF STATES TO TAX FOREIGN COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52A. IMPORT-EXPORT CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

1. State Taxation of “Imports” Prohibited Absent Congressional Consent . . . 522. State Taxation of “Exports” Prohibited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

B. COMMERCE CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

PART FOUR: INDIVIDUAL GUARANTEES AGAINST GOVERNMENTAL ORPRIVATE ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

XII. LIMITATIONS ON POWER AND STATE ACTION REQUIREMENT . . . . . . . . 52A. CONSTITUTIONAL RESTRICTIONS ON POWER OVER INDIVIDUALS . . 52

1. Bill of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52a. Rights Applicable to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53b. Rights Not Applicable to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2. Thirteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53a. No Requirement of State Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53b. Involuntary Servitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53c. Congressional Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3. Fourteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54a. Requirement of State Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54b. Scope of Congressional Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4. Fifteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55a. Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5. Commerce Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56a. Civil Rights Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56b. Extent of Commerce Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

6. Rights of National Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56B. STATE ACTION REQUIREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

1. Exclusive Public Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56a. Must Be Traditional and Exclusive Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2. Significant State Involvement—Facilitating Private Action . . . . . . . . . . . 57a. Instances of Significant State Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

1) Official Encouragement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57a) Judicial Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57(1) Peremptory Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

b) Official Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57(1) Discriminatory Law Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57(2) Apparent Legal Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(3) Public Defenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

2) State Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583) The State as Lessor for a Racially Discriminatory Lessee . . . . . . 58


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4) Administration of Private Discriminatory Trust by Public Officials . 585) Entwinement of State and Private Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

b. Instances of Insignificant State Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591) Heavily Regulated Businesses and/or Granting of a Monopoly to a

Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59a) Electric Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59b) Nursing Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59c) School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2) Licensing and Provision of Essential Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593) Congressional Grant of Corporate Charter and Exclusive Name . . 604) No Government Duty to Protect Individuals from Harm by Private

Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60C. TIPS FOR BAR EXAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

1. State Must Be “Significantly Involved” in Private Entity . . . . . . . . . . . . 602. No Constitutional Mandate to Outlaw Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

XIII. RETROACTIVE LEGISLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60A. CONTRACT CLAUSE—IMPAIRMENT OF CONTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

1. Not Applicable to Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602. Only Applicable to State Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603. Basic Impairment Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

a. Private Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61b. Public Contracts—Stricter Scrutiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

B. EX POST FACTO LAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621. Two Ex Post Facto Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

a. What Is “Criminal” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62b. Retroactive Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

2. Distinguish—Procedural Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623. Indirect “Application” to Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

C. BILLS OF ATTAINDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631. Two Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632. Two Requirements Preclude Finding of Bill of Attainder . . . . . . . . . . . . 633. Nixon Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634. Draft Registration Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

D. DUE PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

XIV. PROCEDURAL DUE PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64A. BASIC PRINCIPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

1. When Is Individualized Adjudication Required? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

2. Intentional Deprivation vs. Negligent Deprivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64a. “Deprivation” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653. Fair, Neutral Decisionmaker—Judge Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654. Protection vs. Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

B. IS LIFE, LIBERTY, OR PROPERTY BEING TAKEN? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651. Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

a. Commitment to Mental Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661) Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662) Minor Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66


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b. Injury to Reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66c. Exercise of Fundamental Constitutional Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

1) Application—Government Employee’s Freedom of Speech . . . . . 662. Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

a. Public Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66b. Welfare Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67c. Continued Public Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

C. WHAT TYPE OF PROCESS IS REQUIRED? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671. Welfare Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672. Disability Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673. Public Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674. Public Education—Disciplinary Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

a. Corporal Punishment in Public School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685. Public Education—Academic Dismissal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686. Creditors’ Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687. Driver’s License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8. Parental Status Litigation and Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69a. Termination of Parental Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69b. Paternity Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69c. Hearings for Men Who Seek to Establish Paternity . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

1) Unmarried Father Living with Mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692) Father Who Never Tried to Establish Paternity . . . . . . . . . . . 693) Mother Married to Another Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

9. Detention of Citizen Enemy Combatants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6910. Notice of Adversary Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7011. Civil Forfeitures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

D. DUE PROCESS RIGHTS ARE SUBJECT TO WAIVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

E. ACCESS TO COURTS—INDIGENT PLAINTIFFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701. Fundamental Rights—Waiver Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702. Nonfundamental Rights—Waiver Not Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

XV. THE “TAKING” CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71A. IN GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

1. Not a Grant of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712. Scope of Taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

B. “PUBLIC USE” LIMITATION LIBERALLY CONSTRUED . . . . . . . . . . . 72C. “TAKING” VS. “REGULATION” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

1. Actual Appropriation or Physical Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72a. Exception—Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

b. Damage from Temporary Interference with Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732. Use Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73a. Denial of All Economic Value of Land—Taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

1) Temporary Denials of All Economic Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73b. Decreasing Economic Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

1) Building/Development Permits—Transfer of Occupation Rights . . 73a) Permit Denials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

2) Utility Rate Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743) Zoning Ordinances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74


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3. Remedy—Inverse Condemnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74a. Who May Sue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

D. “JUST COMPENSATION” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751. “Worthless” Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

XVI. INTRODUCTION TO SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS AND EQUALPROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75A. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL

PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751. Substantive Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752. Equal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764. Note—Clauses Not Necessarily Mutually Exclusive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

B. WHAT STANDARD OF REVIEW WILL THE COURT APPLY? . . . . . . . . . 761. Strict Scrutiny (Maximum Scrutiny) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

a. Burden of Proof on Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

2. Intermediate Scrutiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76a. Burden of Proof Probably on Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3. Rational Basis (Minimal Scrutiny) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76a. Burden of Proof on Challenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76b. Deference to Legislature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

XVII. SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77A. CONSTITUTIONAL SOURCE—TWO CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77B. APPLICABLE STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

1. Fundamental Right—Strict Scrutiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772. All Other Cases—Mere Rationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

a. Business and Labor Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78b. Taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78c. Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78d. Zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

1) Statutes Forbidding Nuisances or Promoting Community’sPreferred Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

2) Cannot Prohibit Traditionally Related Families from LivingTogether . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

e. Punitive Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781) Factors Considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782) Rule of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

f. Compare—Vagueness Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

C. A FEW IRREBUTTABLE PRESUMPTIONS MAY BE INVALID . . . . . . . . 79D. FAIR NOTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

XVIII. EQUAL PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80A. CONSTITUTIONAL SOURCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80B. APPLICABLE STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80C. PROVING DISCRIMINATORY CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

1. Facial Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80a. Facial Discrimination Absent Racial Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80


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2. Discriminatory Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813. Discriminatory Motive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

D. SUSPECT CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821. Race and National Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

a. School Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821) Remedying Intentional School Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

a) Order Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83b. “Benign” Government Discrimination—Affirmative Action . . . . . . . 83

1) Remedying Past Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832) Where There Has Been No Past Discrimination by Government . . 83

a) Remedial Justifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84(1) Local Private Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84(2) Diversity in Primary and Secondary Public Education . 84(3) Diversity in Post-Secondary Public Education . . . . . . 84

b) States May Eliminate Race-Based Preferences . . . . . . . . . 84c. Discriminatory Legislative Apportionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

d. Private Affirmative Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852. Alienage Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

a. Federal Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85b. State and Local Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

1) Exception—Participation in Self-Government Process . . . . . . . . 85c. Undocumented Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

1) Punitive Laws Against “Illegal” Alien Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862) Education Rights of Alien Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

a) Compare—Children Living Apart from Parents . . . . . . . . 86E. QUASI-SUSPECT CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

1. Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

a. Intentional Discrimination Against Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871) Government Interest Must Be Genuine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87b. Affirmative Action Benefiting Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87c. Intentional Discrimination Against Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

1) Invalid Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882) Valid Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

2. Legitimacy Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89a. No Punitive Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

1) Inheritance from Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892) Statute of Limitations on Paternity Suits May Be Discriminatory . . 89

b. Immigration Preference to Legitimate Children—Permissible . . . . . . 89F. OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

1. Age Not Suspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902. Wealth Not Suspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

a. Abortions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90b. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

XIX. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90A. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90B. RIGHT OF PRIVACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

1. Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91


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a. Special Test in Prisoners’ Rights Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912. Use of Contraceptives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913. Abortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

a. Pre-Viability Rule—No Undue Burdens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

1) Informed Consent—No Undue Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922) Waiting Period—No Undue Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923) Parental Consent—No Undue Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924) Compare—Spousal Consent Is Undue Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . 925) “Physician Only” Requirement—No Undue Burden . . . . . . . . . 926) “Partial-Birth Abortion” Ban—No Undue Burden . . . . . . . . . 927) Other Regulations Uncertain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

b. Post-Viability Rule—May Prohibit Abortion Unless Woman’s HealthThreatened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

c. Remedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93d. Financing Abortions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

4. Obscene Reading Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5. Keeping Extended Family Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946. Rights of Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

a. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94b. Visitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

7. Intimate Sexual Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948. Freedom from Collection and Distribution of Personal Data . . . . . . . . . . 94

C. RIGHT TO VOTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941. Restrictions on Right to Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

a. Residency Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951) Members of Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952) Compare—Nonresidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

b. Property Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95c. Poll Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95d. Primary Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

1) State Regulation of Party Primaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952) States May Subsidize Primaries of Major Parties . . . . . . . . . . 96

2. Dilution of Right to Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96a. One Person, One Vote Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

1) Establishing Voting Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96a) Congressional Elections—Almost Exactly Equal . . . . . . . . 96

(1) Compare—Apportionment Among the States . . . . . . . 96b) State and Local Elections—Variance Not Unjustifiably Large . 96c) Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

(1) Exception—Appointed Officials and Officials Elected “AtLarge” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

(2) Exception—Special Purpose Government Units (WaterStorage Districts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

2) Standardless Recount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97b. Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

1) Racial Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972) Political Gerrymandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

c. Multi-Member Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98


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3. Candidates and Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98a. Candidate Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

1) Fee Must Not Preclude Indigents as Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . 982) Restrictions on Ability of Person to Be a Candidate . . . . . . . . . 98

3) Required Resignation of Office Is Permissible . . . . . . . . . . . . 98b. Campaign Funding, Contributions, and Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . 98

4. Extraordinary Majorities—Referendum Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995. Replacement of Incumbent Legislators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

D. RIGHT TO TRAVEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991. Interstate Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

a. Nature of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99b. Standard of Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

1) Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99c. Distinctions Between Old and New Residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

2. International Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100E. RIGHT TO REFUSE MEDICAL TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

1. Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002. Refusal of Medical Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

a. Compare—No Right to Assisted Suicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101b. Compare—Criminal Defendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

PART FIVE: FIRST AMENDMENT FREEDOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

XX. FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

1. Government Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101a. Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102b. Public Monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102c. Compare—Government Funding of Private Messages . . . . . . . . . 103

1) Exception—Funding of the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032. Content vs. Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

a. Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031) Exception—Unprotected Categories of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . 103

a) Falsity in and of Itself Does Not Make Speech Unprotected . 1032) Content-Neutral Speech Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

b. Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043. Reasonableness of Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

a. Overbroad Regulation Invalid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104b. Void for Vagueness Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

1) Burden on Challenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052) Funding Speech Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105c. Cannot Give Officials Unfettered Discretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

1) Unlimited Discretion—Void on Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062) Statutes Valid on Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

4. Scope of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107a. Includes Freedom Not to Speak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

1) Mandatory Financial Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107a) Government Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107


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b) Compare—Private Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107(1) Exception—University Activity Fees . . . . . . . . . . . 107

2) State Can Require Shopping Center to Permit Persons to ExerciseSpeech Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

b. Includes Symbolic Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108c. Excludes Freedom to Bar Military Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

5. Prison Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109B. TIME, PLACE, AND MANNER RESTRICTIONS—REGULATION OF

CONDUCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091. Public Forums and Designated Public Forums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

a. Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091) Content Neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102) Narrowly Tailored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103) Important Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104) Alternative Channels Open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

b. Examples—Residential Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

1) Targeted Picketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102) Charitable Solicitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113) Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

c. Example—Buffer Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111) Content-Neutral/Important Government Interest . . . . . . . . . 1112) Narrowly Tailored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

d. Example—Designated Public Forum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112e. Injunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

1) Content Based—Necessary to a Compelling Interest . . . . . . . 1132) Content Neutral—Burdens No More Speech than Necessary . . . 113

2. Limited Public Forums and Nonpublic Forums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

a. Viewpoint Neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113b. Reasonableness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113c. Significant Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

1) Military Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142) Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143) Government Workplace or Charity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154) Postal Service Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155) Signs on Public Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156) Airport Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157) Candidate Debates on Public Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158) Mailboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

C. UNPROTECTED SPEECH—REGULATION OR PUNISHMENT BECAUSE

OF CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1161. Clear and Present Danger of Imminent Lawlessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

a. Allows for Sanctions Against Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117b. Compelling Justification Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

2. Fighting Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117a. True Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117b. States May Ban Words Likely to Incite Physical Retaliation . . . . . . 117c. Statutes Regulating Fighting Words Tend to Be Overbroad or Vague . 117d. Statutes Cannot Be Viewpoint-Based—Limits Hate Crime Legislation . 117


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1) Compare—Punishing Racially Motivated Conduct . . . . . . . . 1183. Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

a. Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1181) Appeal to Prurient Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

a) Average Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118b) Material Designed for Deviant Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

2) Patently Offensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118a) Community Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118b) National Standard Not Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3) Lacking in Serious Social Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194) Standard May Be Different for Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

a) Pictures of Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119b) Compare—Simulated Pictures of Minors . . . . . . . . . . . 119

b. Question of Fact and Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201) Jury Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

2) Independent Review by Appellate Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203) Evidence of Pandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204) Evidence—Similar Published Materials Not Automatically

Admissible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120c. Statutes Must Not Be Vague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

1) Sweeping Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202) Construction May Save Vague Statute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

d. Land Use Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121e. Liquor Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121f. Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121g. Private Possession of Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

1) Exception—Child Pornography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

4. Defamatory Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121a. Falsity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

1) Requirement of Factual Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122b. Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

1) Public Official or Public Figure—Actual Malice Required . . . . 122a) Actual Malice Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

(1) Actual Malice in False Quotation Cases . . . . . . . . . 123(2) Permitted Inquiries by Plaintiff . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123(3) Petition Clause Does Not Protect Defamatory Statement

Made with Actual Malice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123b) Two Ways to Become a Public Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

(1) General Fame or Notoriety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123(2) Involvement in Particular Controversy . . . . . . . . . . 123c) Examples of Persons Not Deemed Public Figures . . . . . . . 124

(1) Spouse of Wealthy Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124(2) Person Engaging in Criminal Conduct . . . . . . . . . . 124(3) Scientist in Federally Funded Program . . . . . . . . . . 124

2) Private Individual Suing on Matter of Public Concern—At LeastNegligence Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124a) No Liability Without Proof of at Least Negligence . . . . . . 124


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b) Presumed or Punitive Damages Allowed Only If ActualMalice Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

c) What Is a Matter of Public Concern? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125d) Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress . . . . . . . . . . 125

3) Private Individual Suing on Matter Not of Public Concern . . . . 125c. Procedural Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

1) Federal Summary Judgment Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1252) Judicial Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

d. Recovery for Depiction in a False Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126e. True Privacy Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

1) Publishing True Fact of Public Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262) Publishing Name of Juvenile Charged with Crime . . . . . . . . . 1263) Publishing Information on Judge’s Competency . . . . . . . . . . 126

f. Commercial Privacy—Disclosing a Private Performance Can Violate“Right to Publicity” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

g. Copyright Infringement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

5. Some Commercial Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126a. Complete Bans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

1) Commercial Sign Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128a) Blockbusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

b. Required Disclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128c. Special Attorney Advertising Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

D. PRIOR RESTRAINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281. Sufficiency of Governmental Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

a. National Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129b. Preserving Fair Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

1) Compare—Grand Jury Prior Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

c. Contractual Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129d. Military Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129e. Obscenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

2. Procedural Safeguards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293. Obscenity Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

a. Seizure of Books and Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1301) Single Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1302) Large Scale Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1303) Forfeiture of Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

b. Injunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131c. Movie Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131d. Burden on Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

E. FREEDOM OF THE PRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311. Publication of Truthful Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1312. Access to Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

a. Access to Voir Dire Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132b. Access to Other Pretrial Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132c. Compelling Interest in Protecting Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132d. Protective Order in Publishing Information Gained in Pretrial

Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323. Requiring Members of the Press to Testify Before Grand Juries . . . . . . . 133


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4. Interviewing Prisoners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335. Business Regulations or Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336. Monetary Damages for Failure to Keep Identity Confidential . . . . . . . . 1337. Broadcasting Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

a. Fairness Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1341) Compare—Grant of Equal Newspaper Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

b. Newspaper Ownership of Radio or TV Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134c. Prohibiting Indecent Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134d. Political Advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134e. Elimination of Editorial Speech from Stations Receiving Public Grants . 134

8. Cable Television Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134a. Compare—Content-Based Cable Broadcast Regulations . . . . . . . . 135

9. Internet Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

XXI. FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION AND BELIEF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135A. NATURE OF THE RIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

B. ELECTORAL PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1361. Ballot Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

a. Signature Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136b. Primary Voting Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137c. Single Party Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137d. “Nonpartisan” Blanket Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

2. Party Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137a. Judicial Candidate Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

3. Limits on Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138a. To Political Candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

1) Equalizing Large Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138b. To Ballot Referendum Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138c. Disclosure of Contributors or Recipients of Money . . . . . . . . . . . 138d. Aggregate Contribution Limits Unconstitutional . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

4. Limits on Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395. Compare—Regulations of Core Political Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

a. Prohibiting Any Election Day Campaigning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391) Compare—Hundred-Foot Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

b. Prohibiting Anonymous Campaign Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139c. Prohibiting Judge Candidates from Announcing Their Views . . . . . 139d. Distinguishing Political Speech from Candidate Advocacy . . . . . . . 140

C. BAR MEMBERSHIP AND PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401. Restraints on Speech Activities of Government Employees . . . . . . . . . . 140

a. Speech Made Pursuant to Official Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140b. Other Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401) Petition Clause Claims Treated Similarly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

c. Participation in Political Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141d. Bans on Receiving Honoraria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141e. Patronage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

2. Loyalty Oaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142a. Overbreadth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

1) Knowledge of Organization’s Aim Required . . . . . . . . . . . . 142


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2) Advocacy of Doctrine Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142b. Vagueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

1) Oaths Upheld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142a) To Support the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

b) To Oppose the Overthrow of the Government . . . . . . . . 1422) Oath Not Upheld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

3. Disclosure of Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143a. Fifth Amendment Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

4. Practice of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143a. Countervailing State Interest Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

D. SCHOOL SPONSORSHIP OF EXTRACURRICULAR CLUBS . . . . . . . . . 143

XXII. FREEDOM OF RELIGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144A. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144B. APPLICABILITY TO THE STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144C. FREE EXERCISE CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

1. No Punishment of Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144a. What Constitutes Religious Belief? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

1) Courts May Not Find Religious Beliefs to Be False . . . . . . . . . 144b. Religious Oaths for Governmental Jobs Prohibited . . . . . . . . . . . 145c. States May Not Exclude Clerics from Public Office . . . . . . . . . . . 145

2. No Punishment of Religious Conduct Solely Because It Is Religious . . . . 1453. States Can Regulate General Conduct—Criminal Laws and Other

Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145a. Generally No Exemptions Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

1) Federal Statutory Exemption—Outside the Scope of Exam . . . . 146b. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146c. Cases in Which Exemptions Were Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

1) Ministerial Exemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462) Unemployment Compensation Cases—Some Exemptions

Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147a) Need Not Belong to Formal Religious Organization . . . . . 147b) Limitation—Criminal Prohibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

3) Right of Amish Not to Educate Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148D. ESTABLISHMENT CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

1. Sect Preference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482. Cases Unconnected to Financial Aid or Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

a. State Legislature Can Employ a Chaplain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149b. Town Board Can Begin Town Meetings with a Prayer . . . . . . . . . 149

c. Displays of Ten Commandments on Public Property . . . . . . . . . . 149d. Some Holiday Displays Are Permissible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150e. Absolute Right Not to Work on a Sabbath Impermissible . . . . . . . 150f. Exemptions from Antidiscrimination Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

3. Cases Involving Financial Benefits to Church-Related Institutions . . . . . 150a. Recipient-Based Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

1) Compare—Tuition Tax Deductions or Credits Limited toReligious School Tuition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

b. Aid to Colleges, Hospitals, Etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151


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c. Aid to Religiously Affiliated Grade Schools or High Schools . . . . . . 1521) Aid Upheld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1522) Aid Invalidated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

d. Tax Exemption for Religious, Charitable, or Educational Property . . 153

e. Tax Exemption Available Only to Religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1534. Religious Activities in Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

a. Prayer and Bible Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153b. Posting Ten Commandments in Classroom Is Invalid . . . . . . . . . . 154c. Released-Time Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

1) In Public School Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1542) Nonpublic Building Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

d. Accommodation of Religious Students—On-Campus Meetings . . . . 154e. Curriculum Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154


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CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1.

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

PART ONE: POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

I. THE JUDICIAL POWER

A. ARTICLE IIIThe federal government is a government of limited powers, which means that for federal action tobe legitimate, it must be authorized. The Constitution is the instrument that authorizes the federalgovernment to act. Thus, whenever a question involves action by an entity of the federal govern-ment, the action will be valid only if it is authorized by the Constitution. The Constitution autho-rizes a federal court system in Article III, which provides that federal courts shall have judicialpower over all “ cases and controversies”:

1. Arising under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the United States;

2. Of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;

3. In which the United States is a party;

4. Between two or more states;

5. Between a state and citizens of another state;

6. Between citizens of different states;

7. Between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states; and

8. Between a state or citizens thereof and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.

B. POWER OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

1. Review of Other Branches of Federal GovernmentThe Constitution does not explicitly state that the Supreme Court may determine the consti-tutionality of acts of other branches of government. However, judicial review of otherbranches of the federal government was established in Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137(1803) (per Marshall, C.J.); the Constitution is “law” and it is the province and duty of the judiciary to declare what the law is.

a. Separation of Powers and Finality of Court Decisions

The Constitution separates governmental powers among the branches of government.This separation of powers doctrine prohibits the legislature from interfering with thecourts’ final judgments. However, Congress may change federal statutes and may directfederal courts to apply those changes in all cases in which a final judgment has not beenrendered. Example: The Supreme Court inferred a limitations period under an ambiguous

federal securities law. Because new Supreme Court rulings gener-ally apply to all pending cases, the limitations period imposed by theCourt resulted in the dismissal of many pending cases as time-barred.


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2. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

Congress amended the securities law to provide (i) a different limita-tions period and (ii) a special motion for reinstating the cases dismissedas time-barred by the Supreme Court’s ruling. Because the dismissedcases were final judgments, the statute providing for the reinstatement

violated the separation of powers doctrine under the Constitution. [Plautv. Spendthrift Farm, Inc., 514 U.S. 211 (1995)]

2. Federal Review of State ActsFederal review of state acts (executive, legislative, or judicial) was established by theMarshall Court in a series of decisions. Clear basis exists here in the Supremacy Clause ofArticle VI, which states that the Constitution, Laws, and Treaties of the United States takeprecedence over state laws and that the judges of the state courts must follow federal law,anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. [Fletcher v.Peck, 10 U.S. 87 (1810)]

C. FEDERAL COURTS

Only the actions of Article III courts are the subject of our outline, but you should know that thereare two types of federal courts.

1. Article III CourtsArticle III courts are those established by Congress pursuant to the provisions of Article III,Section 1. Congress has power to delineate the jurisdictional limits, both original and appel-late, of these courts, although it is bound by the standards of judicial power set forth inArticle III as to subject matter, parties, and the requirement of “case or controversy.” Thus,Congress cannot require these courts to render advisory opinions or perform administrativeor nonjudicial functions.

2. Article I Courts

Congress has created certain other courts, however, by way of implementing its variouslegislative powers; e.g., United States Tax Court, courts of the District of Columbia. Judgesof such Article I courts do not have life tenure or protection from salary decrease as doArticle III court judges. Article I courts are sometimes vested with administrative as well as judicial functions, and the congressional power to create such “hybrid” courts has beensustained by the Supreme Court. [Glidden v. Zdanok, 370 U.S. 530 (1962)]

a. LimitationCongress may not take cases of the type traditionally heard by Article III courts andassign jurisdiction over them to Article I courts. [Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v.Marathon Pipeline Co., 458 U.S. 50 (1982)—broad grant of jurisdiction to bankruptcycourts, including jurisdiction over contract claims, violates Article III]

D. JURISDICTION OF THE SUPREME COURT

1. Original (Trial) JurisdictionUnder Article III, Section 2, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction “in all casesaffecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shallbe a Party.” This provision is self-executing: Congress may neither restrict nor enlarge theSupreme Court’s original jurisdiction, but Congress may give concurrent jurisdiction to lowerfederal courts and has done so regarding all cases except those between states.


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CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 3.

2. Appellate JurisdictionArticle III, Section 2 further provides that “in all other Cases before mentioned [i.e., arisingunder the Constitution, Act of Congress, or treaty], the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as

the Congress shall make.”

a. Statutory Application of Appellate JurisdictionCongress has provided two methods for invoking Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction: appeal (where jurisdiction is mandatory), and certiorari (where jurisdiction is withinthe Court’s discretion). Very few cases fall within the Court’s mandatory appeal juris-diction; thus, appellate jurisdiction is almost completely discretionary.

1) Writ of Certiorari (Discretionary)The Supreme Court has complete discretion to hear cases that come to it by writ ofcertiorari. A case will be heard if four justices agree to hear it. The following cases

may be heard by certiorari:

a) Cases from the highest state courts where (i) the constitutionality of afederal statute, federal treaty, or state statute is called into question; or (ii) astate statute allegedly violates federal law [28 U.S.C. §1257]; and

b) All cases from federal courts of appeals [28 U.S.C. §1254].

2) Appeal (Mandatory)The Supreme Court must hear those few cases that come to it by appeal. Appeal isavailable only as to decisions made by three-judge federal district court panels thatgrant or deny injunctive relief. [28 U.S.C. §1253]

b. Limitations on Statutory Regulation Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. 506 (1868), has been read as giving Congress full power toregulate and limit the Supreme Court’s appellate jurisdiction. However, possible limita-tions on such congressional power have been suggested:

1) Congress may eliminate specific avenues for Supreme Court review as long asit does not

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