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授課教師:楊宏智教授
1
【本著作除另有註明外,採取創用 CC「姓名標示-非商業性-相同方式分享」台灣 3.0版授權釋出】
楊宏智(台大機械系教授)2
Chapter Outline1. Introduction2. Shearing3. Sheet-metal Characteristics and Formability4. Formability Tests for Sheet Metals5. Bending Sheets, Plates, and Tubes6. Miscellaneous Bending and Related Operations7. Deep Drawing8. Rubber Forming and Hydroforming9. Spinning10. Superplastic Forming11. Specialized Forming Processes12. Manufacturing of Metal Honeycomb Structures13. Design Considerations in Sheet-metal Forming14. Equipment for Sheetmetal Forming15. Economics of Sheetforming Operations
Introduction Products made of sheet metals are common Pressworking or press forming is used for general
sheet-forming operations, as they are performed on presses using a set of dies
Introduction A sheet-metal part produced in presses is called a
stamping Low-carbon steel has low cost and good strength and
formability characteristics Manufacturing processes involving sheet metal are
performed at room temperature
Sheet Metalworking Defined Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively
thin sheets of metal Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6 mm
(1/4 in) Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm Operations usually performed as cold working
Sheet and Plate Metal Products Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and industrial
products such as Automobiles and trucks Airplanes Railway cars and locomotives Farm and construction equipment Small and large appliances Office furniture Computers and office equipment
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts High strength Good dimensional accuracy Good surface finish Relatively low cost Economical mass production for large quantities
Sheet Metalworking Terminology Punch-and-Die - tooling to perform cutting, bending,
and drawing Stamping press - machine tool that performs most
sheet metal operations Stampings - sheet metal products
Three Basic Types of Sheet Metal Processes1.Cutting (Shearing)Shearing to separate large sheetsBlanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metalPunching to make holes in sheet metal2.BendingStraining sheet around a straight axis3.DrawingForming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
Sheet Metal Cutting (Shearing)
(1) Just before punch contacts work; (2) punch pushes into work, causing plastic deformation; (3) punch penetrates into work causing a smooth cut surface; and (4) fracture is initiated at opposing cutting edges to separate the sheet
Shearing Before a sheet-metal part is made, a blank is removed
from a large sheet by shearing The edges are not smooth and perpendicular to the
plane of the sheet
Punch and Die Sizes Die size determines blank size Db Punch size determines hole size Dh c = clearance
ShearingProcessing parameters in shearing are1.The shape of the punch and die2.The speed of punching3.Lubrication4.The clearance, c, between the punch and the dieWhen clearance increases, the zone of deformation becomes larger and the sheared edge becomes rougherExtent of the deformation zone depends on the punch speedHeight, shape, and size of the burr affect forming operations
Clearance in Sheet Metal CuttingDistance between punch cutting edge and die cutting edgeTypical values range between 4% and 8% of stock thicknessIf too small, fracture lines pass each other, causing double burnishing and larger forceIf too large, metal is pinched between cutting edges and excessive burr results
Clearance in Sheet Metal CuttingRecommended clearance is calculated by:
c = atwhere c = clearance; a = allowance; and t = stock thickness
Allowance a is determined according to type of metal
Sheet Metal Groups AllowancesMetal group a
1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all tempers 0.045
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass, 0.060 soft cold rolled steel, soft stainless steel
Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel, 0.075 half hard and full hard
Shearing Clearance Clearance control determine quality of its sheared edges which influence formability of the sheared part Appropriate clearance depends on:1. Type of material and temper2. Thickness and size of the blank3. Proximity to the edges of other sheared edges
When sheared edge is rough it can be subjected to aprocess called shaving
Shearing: Characteristics and Type of Shearing DiesPunch and Die Shape Punch force increases rapidly during shearing Location of sheared regions can be controlled by
beveling the punch and die surfaces
ShearingPunch Force Maximum punch force, F, can be estimated from
Friction between the punch and the workpiece can increase punch force
T = sheet thicknessL = total length sheared UTS = ultimate tensile strength of the material
ShearingEXAMPLE 16.1 Calculation of Punch ForceEstimate the force required for punching a 25-mm diameter hole through a 3.2-mm thick annealed titanium- alloy Ti-6Al-4V sheet at room temperature.
SolutionUTS for this alloy is 1000 MPa, thus
Blanking and Punching Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece
(called a blank) from surrounding stock Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is
scrap, called a slug
Shearing: Shearing Operations Punching is where the sheared slug is scrap Blanking is where the slug is the part to be used and the
rest is scrapDie Cutting Shearing operation consists of: Perforating: punching holes in a sheet Parting: shearing sheet into pieces Notching: removing pieces from the edges Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material
Shearing: Fine Blanking smaller clearance used pressure pad w/ v-shaped stringer locks the sheet
metal movement of punch, pressure pad, cushion are
controlled by triple-action hydraulic presses
Shearing Operations: Slitting Shearing operations are through a pair of circular
blades, follow either a straight line, a circular path, or a curved path
Shearing Operations: Nibbling A contour is cut by a series of overlapping slits or
notches Simple tools can be used to produce complex shape
Shearing: Tailor-welded Blanks Laser-beam butt welding involves two or more pieces of sheet
metal with different shapes and thicknesses The strips are welded to obtain a locally thicker sheet and
then coiled The welded assembly is then formed into a final shape.
Resulting in:1. Reduction in scrap2. Elimination of the need for subsequent spot welding 3. Better control of dimensions4. Improved productivity
Shearing: Tailor-welded BlanksEXAMPLE 16.2 Tailor-welded Sheet Metal for Automotive Applications Production of an outer side panel of a car body is by
laser butt welding and stamping
Shearing: Tailor-welded BlanksEXAMPLE 16.2 Tailor-welded Sheet Metal for Automotive Applications Some of the examples of laser butt-welded and
stamped automotive-body components.
Characteristics and Type of Shearing DiesTransfer Dies Sheet metal undergoes different operations arranged
along a straight line or a circular path
Tool and Die Materials Tool and die materials for shearing are tool steels and
carbides Lubrication is needed for reducing tool and die wear,
and improving edge quality
Characteristics and Type of Shearing DiesProgressive Dies a different operation is performed at the same station with each stroke of a series of punches
Characteristics and Type of Shearing Dies For high product production rates The part shown below is the small round piece that
supports the plastic tip in spray cans
Characteristics and Type of Shearing DiesCompound Dies Operations on the same sheet may be performed in
one stroke with a compound die Limited to simple shapes due to:1. Process is slow2. Complex dies is more expensive
Shearing: Miscellaneous Methods of Cutting Sheet Metal Other methods of cutting sheets1. Laser-beam cutting2. Water-jet cutting3. Cutting with a band saw4. Friction sawing5. Flame cutting
Sheet-metal Characteristics and FormabilityYield-point elongation having both upper and lower yield points.This behaviour results in Luder’s bands
Typically observed with mild-steel sheetsResults in depressions on the sheet surfaceCan be eliminated by temple rolling (but sheet must be formed within a certain time after rolling)
Sheet-metal Characteristics and FormabilityGrain Size Affects mechanical properties and surface appearance Smaller the grain size, stronger is the metal
Dent Resistance of Sheet Metals Dents caused by dynamic forces from moving objects that
hit the sheet metal Dynamic yield stress, instead of static yield stress, should
be the significant strength parameter
Formability Tests for Sheet Metals Sheet-metal formability is the ability of the sheet metal to
undergo the desired shape change without failure Sheet metals may undergo 2 basic modes of deformation: (1)
stretching and (2) drawingCupping Tests In the Erichsen test, the sheet specimen is clamped and round
punch is forced into the sheet until a crack appears The punch depth is a measure of formability of the sheet Easy to perform, but does not simulate exact conditions of actual
forming, and not reliable for complex parts.
Formability Tests for Sheet MetalsForming-limit Diagrams To develop a forming-limit diagram, the major and minor
engineering strains are obtained Major axis of the ellipse represents the major direction and
magnitude of stretching Major strain is the engineering strain and is always positive Minor strain can be positive or negative Curves represent the boundaries between failure and safe
zones
Formability Tests for Sheet MetalsForming-limit Diagrams Forming-limit diagrams is to determine the formability of
sheet metals
Forming-Limit Diagram (FLD) Blank stretched over a punch, deformation observed and
measured in the region where failure has occurred The curves represent the boundaries between failure and safe
zones Different mat'ls have different FLDs, and the higher the curve,
the better is the formability Compressive minor strain is associated with a higher major
strain than a tensile minor strain of the same magnitude The effect of sheet-metal thickness is to raise the curves Friction, lubrication at punch/sheet-metal interface, and surface
scratches, are important factors
Bending Sheets
Bending is a common industrial forming operation Bending imparts stiffness to the part by increasing its
moment of inertia Outer fibers are in tension, while the inner in
compression Poisson effect cause the width to be smaller in the
outer region and larger in the inner region
, Plates, and Tubes
Bending Sheets, Plates, and Tubes Approximate bend allowance is
For ideal case, k = 0.5,
Minimum Bend Radius Engineering strain during bending is
Minimum bend radius, R, is
Bending Sheets, Plates, and TubesMinimum Bend Radius Increase the bendability by increase their tensile
reduction of area Bendability also depends on the edge condition of the
sheet Improve resistance to edge cracking by removing the
cold-worked regions Cold rolling results in anisotropy by preferred
orientation or mechanical fibering
Bending Sheets, Plates, and TubesSpringback Plastic deformation is followed by elastic recovery when
the load is removed, called springback Springback can be calculated by
Bending Sheets, Plates, and TubesCompensation for Springback Springback is compensated for by overbending the part One method is stretch bending where the part is subjected
to tension while being bentBending Force Excluding friction, the maximum bending force, P, is
For a V-die, it is modified to
Miscellaneous Bending OperationsExamples of various bending operationsRoll BendingPlates are bent using a set of rolls.Curvatures can be obtained by adjusting the distance between the three rolls
V-Bending and Edge Bending V-Bending:Low productionPerformed on a press brakeV-dies are simple and inexpensive Edge-Bending:High productionPressure pad requiredDies are more complicated and costly
Miscellaneous Bending and Related OperationsBeading Periphery of the sheet metal is bent into the cavity of a
die The bead imparts stiffness to the part by increasing the
moment of inertia of that section
Miscellaneous Bending and Related OperationsFlanging In shrink flanging, the flange is subjected to
compressive hoop stresses and cause the flange periphery to wrinkle
Bending Operations
most common forming operation paper clip, file cabinet etc
Press Brakes – Bending Equipment
Sheet metal or plate can be bent easily with simple fixtures using a press
complex bends with long narrow bed and short adjustable strokes metal bent between interchangeable dies
Roll Forming Also called contour-roll forming or cold-roll forming Used for forming continuous lengths of sheet metal and
for large production runs Dimensional tolerances, springback, tearing and
buckling of the strip have to be considered
Bending of Tube Stock Stretch bending of tube: (1) start of process and (2)
during bending
Tube Bending Large dia. thin wall, with small bend radius tend to
cause wrinkle at inner side of the tube Oldest method of bending a tube is to first pack its
inside with loose particles and then bend it into a suitable fixture
Thick tube can be formed to a large bend radius without the use of fillers or plugs
Tube Forming tubular part placed in a split-female die and
expanded with a polyurethane or rubber plug punch retracted; plug returns to its original
shape and removed by knockout rod finished part removed by opening the split die
(water pitcher) production of fitting for plumbing
Manufacturing of Bellows(a) Bulged tube :Tube bulged at several equidistant locations
(b) Compressed tube :Bulged tube compressed axially to collapse bulged regions, thus forming bellows
Stretch Forming Sheet metal is gripped by two sets of jaws The jaws stretch the metal sheet and wrap it around
a form block (die) Most of deformation is induced by tensile stretching,
and forces on the form block are far less Very little springback results Form block often made of wood or low-melting metal Produce large parts in low or limited quantity
Sheet metal is clamped along its edges and then stretched over a male die
Die moves upward, downward, or sideways Used to make aircraft wing-skin panels, fuselages, and
boat hulls
Stretch Forming
Deep Drawing Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped, box-shaped,
or other complex-curved, hollow-shaped parts Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and then
punch pushes metal into opening Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells,
automobile body panels Also known as deep drawing (to distinguish it from wire
and bar drawing)
Deep Drawing- a punch forces a flat sheet metal into a die cavity- depth greater than diameter
Deep Drawing Material beneath punch remains unaffected and
becomes cup bottom Cup wall is formed by pulling the remainder of disk
inward the radius of die - Hoop stress tends to cause buckling or wrinkling - Pressure ring is used to suppress wrinkle
Deep Drawing Wrinkling can be reduced if a blankholder is loaded by
maximum punch force
The force increases with increasing blank diameter, thickness, strength and the ratio
Redrawing Cup becomes longer as it is redrawn to smaller
diameters since volume of the metal is constant If the shape change is too severe, more than one
drawing step is required. The second drawing step, and any further drawing step
is referred as redrawing
Ironing If the clearance between the punch and the die is large,
the drawn cup will have thicker walls Thickness of the cup wall can be controlled by ironing,
where drawn cup is pushed through one or more ironing rings
Deep Drawing: Deep DrawabilityEaring In deep drawing, the edges of cups may become wavy
and the phenomenon is called earing Earing is caused by the planar anisotropy Planar anisotropy of the sheet is indicated by
Deep-drawing PracticeEaring Too high a blankholder force increases the punch force
and causes the cup wall to tear Draw beads are needed to control the flow of the blank
into the die cavity and reduce the blankholder forces
Deep-drawing PracticeCASE STUDY 16.1Manufacturing of Food and Beverage Cans Aluminum beverage cans has excellent surface finish Detail of the can lid is shown
Rubber Forming Dies are made of solid materials, such as steels and
carbides The dies in rubber forming is made of a flexible material
(polyurethane membrane) In the bending and embossing of sheet metal, the
female die is replaced with a rubber pad
Hydroforming In the hydroform, or fluid-forming process, the
pressure over the rubber membrane is controlled throughout the forming cycle
Control of frictional conditions in rubber forming is a factor in making parts successfully
Rubber Forming and Hydroforming In tube hydroforming metal tubing is formed in a die
and pressurized internally by a fluid, usually water Rubber-forming and hydroforming processes have the
advantages of:1. Capability to form complex shapes2. Flexibility and ease of operation3. Low tooling cost
Tube HydroformingCASE STUDY 16.2Tube Hydroforming of an Automotive Radiator Closure Figure shows a hydroformed automotive radiator
closure Sequence of operations: (1) tube as cut to length; (2)afterbending; (3) after hydroforming
Spinning Spinning is a process that involves the forming of
axisymmetric parts over a mandrel A circular blank of flat sheet metal is held against a
mandrel (form block of desired shape) and rotated while a rigid tool deforms and shapes the material over the mandrel; Disk of sheet metal progressively shaped by localized pressure with small roller
Suitable for conical and curvilinear shapes
Shear Spinning (Forming) A simplified version of the spinning process in which
each element of the blank maintains its distance from the axis of rotation.
Metal flow is entirely in shear and no radial stretch has to take place to compensate for the circumferencial shrinkage
Shear Spinning Also known as power spinning, flow turning,
hydrospinning, and spin forging Use to produce an axisymmetric conical or curvilinear
shape while reducing the sheet’s thickness and maintaining its maximum (blank) diameter
Tube SpinningTube Spinning The thickness of hollow, cylindrical blanks is reduced
by spinning them on a solid, round mandrel using rollers
Can be carried out externally or internally Various external and internal profiles can be produced
from cylindrical blanks with constant wall thickness
SpinningIncremental Forming Simplest version is incremental stretch expanding A rotating blank is deformed by a steel rod with a
smooth hemispherical tip to produce axisymmetric parts CNC incremental forming uses a CNC machine tool to
follow contours at different depths across the sheet-metal surface
Advantages are low tooling costs and high flexibility in the product shapes
Explosive Forming Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) metal
into a die cavity Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose energy
is transmitted to force part into cavity Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace industry
(1) Setup, (2) explosive is detonated, and (3) shock wave forms part and plume escapes water surface
The peak pressure, p, is given by
The mechanical properties of parts similar to those made by conventional forming methods
The dies may be made of aluminum alloys, steel, ductile iron or zinc alloys
p = pressure, psiK = constant that depends on the type of explosive
Explosive Forming
Explosive used as a source of energy Rapid conversion of explosive charge into gas
generates a shock wave Pressure of shock wave is sufficient to form sheet
metal no limit to the size of the workpiece (suitable for low
quantity of large parts, ie aerospace application)
Explosively Formed Part
Electromagnetic Forming coil current rapidly discharged from capacitor bank eddy current generated in the tube (workpiece) repelling force between the coil and the tube forces generated collapse the tube Higher the electrical conductivity of the workpiece, the
higher the magnetic forces
Peen Forming Used to produce curvatures on thin sheet metals by
shot peening one surface of the sheet Surface of the sheet is subjected to compressive
stresses The process also induces compressive surface residual
stresses, which improve the fatigue strength of the sheet
Laser Forming Involves the application of laser beams as a heat
source in specific regions of the sheet metal Process produce thermal stresses, which can cause
localized plastic deformation of the sheet In laser-assisted forming, the laser acts as a localized
heat source, thus reducing the strength of the sheet metal at specific locations
Improve formability and increasing process flexibility
Superplastic Forming The behavior of superplastic are where tensile elongations were
obtained within certain temperature ranges Superplastic alloys can be formed into complex shapes by
superplastic forming Have high ductility but low strength Advantages:1. Complex shapes can be formed2. Weight and material savings3. Little residual stresses4. Tooling costs are lower
Superplastic Forming Limitations of superplastic forming:1. Part will undergo shape changes2. Must be formed at sufficiently low strain rates
Diffusion Bonding/Superplastic Forming Fabricating of complex sheet-metal structures by combining
diffusion bonding with superplastic forming (SPF/DB) Application for aerospace industry Improves productivity and produces parts with good dimensional
accuracy and low residual stresses
Specialized Forming ProcessesCASE STUDY 16.3 Cymbal Manufacture
Manufacturing of Metal Honeycomb Structures A honeycomb structure has light weight and high
resistance to bending forces, used for aircraft and aerospace components
2 methods of manufacturing honeycomb materials:1. Expansion process 2. Corrugation process
Manufacturing of Metal Honeycomb Structures A honeycomb structure consists of a core of
honeycomb bonded to two thin outer skins Has a high stiffness-to-weight ratio and is used in
packaging for shipping consumer and industrial goods
Design Considerations in Sheet-metal FormingBlank Design Poorly designed parts will not nest properly Blanks should be designed to reduce scrap to a
minimum
Equipment for Sheet-metal Forming Press selection for sheet-metal forming operations
depends on:1. Type of forming operation2. Size and shape of workpieces3. Number of slides4. Maximum force required5. Type of mechanical, hydraulic, and computer controls6. Features for changing dies7. Safety features
CNC Turret Press Parts Sheet metal parts produced on a turret press, showing
variety of hole shapes possible (photo courtesy of Strippet Inc.)
Economics of Sheet-forming Operations Sheet-forming operations are versatile and can
produce the same part The costs involved depend on die and equipment costs
and labor For small and simple sheet-metal parts, die costs and
lead times to make the dies are low Deep drawing requires expensive dies and tooling Equipment costs depend on the complexity of the
forming operation