Biodiversitate curs

8/9/2019 Biodiversitate curs

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BIODIVERSITATEA

Different texts adopt slightly different definitions

for the negative binomial distribution. They can

be distinguished by whether the support starts at

k = 0 or at k = r , whether p denotes the

probability of a success or of a failure, and

whether r represents success or failure,[1 so it is

crucial to identify the specific parametri!ationused in any given text.

"robability mass function

The orange line represents the mean, which is e#ual to 10in each of these plots$ the green line shows the standard

deviation.

Notation

Parameters

r % 0 & number of failures until the

experiment is stopped 'integer , but

the definition can also be extended

to reals(

p ∈ '0,1( & success probability ineach experiment 'real(

Supportk ∈ ) 0, 1, *, +, - & number of

successes

pmf inv

olving a binomial coefficient

CDFthe

regulari!ed incomplete beta

function

Mean

Mode

Variance

Skewness

Ex. kurtosis

MGF

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_binomial_distribution#cite_note-DeGrootNB-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_mass_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_coefficienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regularized_incomplete_beta_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regularized_incomplete_beta_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expected_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess_kurtosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment-generating_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Negbinomial.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_mass_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_coefficienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regularized_incomplete_beta_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regularized_incomplete_beta_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expected_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess_kurtosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment-generating_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_binomial_distribution#cite_note-DeGrootNB-1


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CF

PGF

Fisher

information

MEASUREMENTS OF BIODIVERSITY

A variety of objective measres !ave bee" create# i" or#er to em$irica%%y measre bio#iversity& T!e basic i#ea of a#iversity i"#e' is to obtai" a (a"titative estimate of bio%o)ica% variabi%ity t!at ca" be se# to com$are bio%o)ica%e"tities* com$ose# of #irect com$o"e"ts* i" s$ace or i" time& It is im$orta"t to #isti")is! +ric!"ess, from+#iversity,& Diversity sa%%y im$%ies a measre of bot! s$ecies "mber a"# +e(itabi%ity, -or +eve""ess,.& T!reety$es of i"#ices ca" be #isti")is!e#/

1. Species richness indices/ S$ecies ric!"ess is a measre for t!e tota% "mber of t!e s$ecies i" a comm"ity&0o1ever* com$%ete i"ve"tories of a%% s$ecies $rese"t at a certai" %ocatio"* is a" a%most "attai"ab%e )oa% i"$ractica% a$$%icatio"s&

A visa%i2atio" of t!e s$ecies ric!"ess/ 1it! res$ective%y 3 a"# 45 s$ecies&

2. Evenness indices/ Eve""ess e'$resses !o1 eve"%y t!e i"#ivi#a%s i" a comm"ity are #istribte# amo") t!e#i6ere"t s$ecies&

A visa%i2atio" of t!e eve""ess of 3 s$ecies&

3. Taxonomic indices: T!ese i"#ices ta7e i"to acco"t t!e ta'o"omic re%atio" bet1ee" #i6ere"t or)a"isms i" a

comm"ity& Ta'o"omic #iversity* for e'am$%e* re8ects t!e avera)e ta'o"omic #ista"ce bet1ee" a"y t1oor)a"isms* c!ose" at ra"#om from a sam$%e& T!e #ista"ce ca" be see" as t!e %e")t! of t!e $at! co""ecti") t!eset1o or)a"isms a%o") t!e bra"c!es of a $!y%o)e"etic tree&

T!ese t!ree ty$es of i"#ices ca" be se# o" #i6ere"t s$atia% 94:

• A%$!a #iversity refers to #iversity 1it!i" a $artic%ar area* comm"ity or ecosystem* a"# is sa%%ymeasre# by co"ti") t!e "mber of ta'a 1it!i" t!e ecosystem -sa%%y s$ecies %eve%.

• Beta #iversity is s$ecies #iversity bet1ee" ecosystems; t!is i"vo%ves com$ari") t!e "mber of ta'a t!atare "i(e to eac! of t!e ecosystems& For e'am$%e* t!e #iversity of ma")roves verss t!e #iversity ofsea)rass be#s&

•


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>ONTENTS

• 4 Diversity measreme"t is base# o" t!ree assm$tio"s

• ? Diversity measres

o ?&4 S$ecies ric!"ess i"#ices

o ?&? 0etero)e"eity measres

?&?&4 @arametric i"#ices

?&?&? No"$arametric i"#ices

o ?& Ta'o"omic i"#ices

o ?&C F"ctio"a% #iversity

• S$eciesAb"#a"ce #istribtio"s

• C S$eciesAb"#a"ce mo#e%s

• 3 Refere"ces

DIVERSITY MEASUREMENT IS BASED ON T0REE ASSUM@TIONS

9?:

1. All species are equal: t!is mea"s t!at ric!"ess measreme"t ma7es "o #isti"ctio"s amo")st s$ecies a"# t!reatt!e s$ecies t!at are e'ce$tio"a%%y ab"#a"t i" t!e same 1ay as t!ose t!at are e'treme%y rare s$ecies& T!e re%ativeab"#a"ce of s$ecies i" a" assemb%a)e is t!e o"%y factor t!at #etermi"es its im$orta"ce i" a #iversity measre&

2. All individuals are equal: t!is mea"s t!at t!ere is "o #isti"ctio" bet1ee" t!e %ar)est a"# t!e sma%%est i"#ivi#a%*i" $ractice !o1ever t!e sma%%est a"ima%s ca" ofte" esca$e for e'am$%e by sam$%i") 1it! "ets&

Ta'o"omic a"# f"ctio"a% #iversity measres* !o1ever* #o "ot "ecessari%y treat a%% s$ecies a"# i"#ivi#a%s ase(a%&

3. Species abundance has been recorded in using appropriate and comparable units. It is c%ear%y "1ise to se#i6ere"t ty$es of ab"#a"ce measre* sc! as t!e "mber of i"#ivi#a%s a"# t!e biomass* i" t!e samei"vesti)atio"& Diversity estimates base# o" #i6ere"t "its are "ot #irect%y com$arab%e&

DIVERSITY MEASURES

Species richness indices

• S$ecies ric!"ess S is t!e sim$%est measre of bio#iversity a"# is sim$%y a co"t of t!e "mber of #i6ere"ts$ecies i" a )ive" area& T!is measre is stro")%y #e$e"#e"t o" sam$%i") si2e a"# e6ort& T1o s$eciesric!"ess i"#ices try to acco"t for t!is $rob%em/Margalef’s diversity index/9:

• Menhinick’s diversity index/9C:

!ere N t!e tota% "mber of i"#ivi#a%s i" t!e sam$%e a"# S t!e "mber of s$ecies recor#e#&

Des$ite t!e attem$t to correct for sam$%e si2e* bot! measres remai" stro")%y i"8e"ce# by sam$%i") e6ort&No"et!e%ess t!ey are i"titive%y mea"i")f% i"#ices a"# ca" $%ay a sef% ro%e i" i"vesti)atio"s of bio%o)ica%#iversity&

eterogeneity meas!res

0etero)e"eity measres are t!ose t!at combi"e t!e ric!"ess a"# t!e eve""ess com$o"e"t of #iversity&0etero)e"eity measres fa%% i"to t1o cate)ories/ $arametric i"#ices* 1!ic! are base# o" a $arameter of a s$ecies

+

http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Diversity_measurement_is_based_on_three_assumptionshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Diversity_measureshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Species_richness_indiceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Heterogeneity_measureshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Parametric_indiceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Non-parametric_indiceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Taxonomic_indiceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Functional_diversityhttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Species-Abundance_distributionshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Species-Abundance_modelshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Referenceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Magurran-2http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Magurran-2http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Abundancehttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-3http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-4http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Diversity_measurement_is_based_on_three_assumptionshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Diversity_measureshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Species_richness_indiceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Heterogeneity_measureshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Parametric_indiceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Non-parametric_indiceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Taxonomic_indiceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Functional_diversityhttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Species-Abundance_distributionshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Species-Abundance_modelshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#Referenceshttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Magurran-2http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Abundancehttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-3http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-4


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ab"#a"ce mo#e%* a"# "o"$arametric i"#ices* t!at ma7e "o assm$tio"s abot t!e "#er%yi") #istribtio"s ofs$ecies ab"#a"ces&

"arametric indices

• The log series index 93:-see a%so %o)series #istribtio"s. is a $arameter of t!e %o) series mo#e%& T!e$arameter is i"#e$e"#e"t of sam$%e si2e& #escribes t!e 1ay i" 1!ic! t!e i"#ivi#a%s are #ivi#e# amo") t!es$ecies* 1!ic! is a measre of #iversity& T!e attractive $ro$erties of t!is #iversity i"#e' are/ it $rovi#es a)oo# #iscrimi"atio" bet1ee" sites* it is "ot very se"sitive to #e"sity 8ctatio"s a"# it is "orma%%y#istribte#* i" t!is 1ay co"#e"ce %imits ca" be attac!e# to &

T!e %o) series ta7es t!e form/

* * *&&&*

is t!e "mber of s$ecies to !ave o"e i"#ivi#a%* t!ose 1it! t1o i"#ivi#a%s* a"# so o"& Si"ce 5G G4a"# a"# are $resme# to be co"sta"t* t!e e'$ecte# "mber of s$ecies 1i%% be t!e !i)!est i" t!e rstab"#a"ce c%ass& is ca%c%ate# i"terative%y from/

A"# ca" be ca%c%ate# from t!e e(atio"/

#on$parametric indices

T!e rst t1o i"#ices are base# o" i"formatio" t!eory& T!ese i"#ices are base# o" t!e ratio"a%e t!at t!e #iversity i"a "atra% system ca" be measre# i" a simi%ar 1ay to t!e i"formatio" co"tai"e# i" a co#e or messa)e&

• T!e most 1i#e%y se# #iversity i"#e' i" t!e eco%o)ica% %iteratre is t!e Shannon$%iener diversity index&9H: 9:

It assme# t!at i"#ivi#a%s are ra"#om%y sam$%e# from a" i""ite%y %ar)e comm"ity* a"# t!at a%% s$ecies arere$rese"te# i" t!e sam$%e& T!e S!a""o" i"#e' is ca%c%ate# from t!e e(atio"/

is t!e $ro$ortio" of i"#ivi#a%s fo"# i" t!e it! s$ecies&

• !ere t!e ra"#om"ess ca""ot be )ara"tee#* for e'am$%e 1!e" certai" s$ecies are $refere"tia%%ysam$%e#* t!e &rillo!in index 9J:9: is t!e a$$ro$riate# form of t!e i"formatio" i"#e'& It is ca%c%ate# asfo%%o1s/

I" 1!ic! a"# t!e "mber of i"#ivi#a%s i" s$ecies i a"# N is t!e tota% "mberof i"#ivi#a%s i" t!e comm"ity&

• O"e of t!e best 7"o1" a"# ear%iest eve""ess measres is t!e Simpson ’s index9K: 1!ic! is )ive" by/

http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Fisher-5http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-6http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-6http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Pielou-7http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-8http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Pielou-7http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-9http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Fisher-5http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-6http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Pielou-7http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-8http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Pielou-7http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-9


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is t!e $ro$ortio" of i"#ivi#a%s fo"# i" t!e it! s$ecies T!is i"#e' is se# for %ar)e* sam$%e# comm"ities&Sim$so",s i"#e' e'$resses t!e $robabi%ity t!at a"y t1o i"#ivi#a%s #ra1" at ra"#om from a" i""ite%y %ar)ecomm"ity be%o") to t!e same s$ecies&

• The ill n!m'ers945: s!o1 t!e re%atio" bet1ee" t!e s$eciesric!"ess i"#ices a"# t!e eve""essi"#ices& 0i%%#e"e# a set of #iversity "mber of #i6ere"t or#er& T!e #iversity "mber of or#er a is #e"e# as/

1!ere t!e $ro$ortio"a% ab"#a"ce of s$ecies i i" t!e sam$%e a"# a t!e or#er i" 1!ic! t!e i"#e' is#e$e"#e"t of rare s$ecies&

T!e most 7"o1" are

-e'$o"e"tia% of S!a""o"ie"er #iversity i"#e'.

-t!e reci$roca% of Sim$so",s .Taxonomic indices

If t1o #atasets !ave i#e"tica% "mbers of s$ecies a"# e(iva%e"t $atter"s of s$ecies ab"#a"ce* bt #i6er i" t!e#iversity of ta'a to 1!ic! t!e s$ecies be%o")* it seems i"titive%y a$$ro$riate t!at t!e most ta'o"omica%%y varie##ataset is t!e more #iverse& As %o") as t!e $!y%o)e"y of t!e #ataset of i"terest is reaso"ab%y 1e%% reso%ve#*measres of ta'o"omic #iversity are $ossib%e&

• (larke and %ar)ick’s taxonomic distinctness index944:1!ic! #escribes t!e avera)e ta'o"omic#ista"ce L sim$%y t!e $at! %e")t! bet1ee" t1o ra"#om%y c!ose" or)a"isms t!ro)! t!e $!y%o)e"y of a%%t!e s$ecies i" a #ataset L !as #i6ere"t forms/ ta'o"omic #iversity a"# ta'o"omic #isti"ct"ess&

Ta'o"omic #iversity -P. ref%ects t!e avera)e ta'o"omic #ista"ce bet1ee" a"y t1o or)a"isms* c!ose" at ra"#omfrom a sam$%e& T!e #ista"ce ca" be see" as t!e %e")t! of t!e $at! co""ecti") t!ese t1o or)a"isms t!ro)! a$!y%o)e"etic tree or a Qi""ea" c%assicatio"& T!is i"#e' i"c%#es as$ects of ta'o"omic re%ate#"ess a"# eve""ess&

P

Ta'o"omic #isti"ct"ess -P. is t!e avera)e $at! %e")t! bet1ee" t1o ra"#om%y c!ose" bt ta'o"omica%%y#i6ere"t or)a"isms& T!is measre is measre of $re ta'o"omic re%ate#"ess&

P

!e" o"%y $rese"ceabse"ce #ata is co"si#ere# bot! P a"# P co"ver)e to t!e same statistic P* 1!ic! ca" besee" as t!e avera)e ta'o"omic $at! %e")t! bet1ee" a"y t1o ra"#om%y c!ose" s$ecies&94?:

P

*!nctional diversity

T!e $ositive re%atio"s!i$ bet1ee" ecosystem f"ctio"i") a"# s$ecies ric!"ess is ofte" attribte# to t!e )reater"mber of f"ctio"a% )ro$s fo"# i" ric!er assemb%a)es& @etc!ey a"#


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S@E>IESABUNDAN>E DISTRIBUTIONS

94C:

Near%y a%% #iversity a"# eve""ess i"#ices are base# o" t!e re%ative ab"#a"ce of s$ecies* t!s o" estimates of $i i"1!ic!/

1it! Ni t!e ab"#a"ce of t!e it! s$ecies i" t!e sam$%e a"#

1it! S t!e tota% "mber of s$ecies i" t!e sam$%e&

If o"e recor#s t!e ab"#a"ce of #i6ere"t s$ecies i" a sam$%e* it is i"variab%y fo"# t!at some s$ecies are rare*1!ereas ot!ers are more ab"#a"t& T!is featre of eco%o)ica% comm"ities is fo"# i"#e$e"#e"t of t!e ta'o"omic

)ro$ or t!e area i"vesti)ate#& A" im$orta"t )oa% of eco%o)y is to #escribe t!ese co"siste"t $atter"s i" #i6ere"tcomm"ities* a"# e'$%ai" t!em i" terms of i"teractio"s 1it! t!e biotic a"# abiotic e"viro"me"t&

Di6ere"t i"vesti)ators !ave visa%i2e# t!e s$eciesab"#a"ce #istribtio" i" #i6ere"t 1ays&

4& The rank+a'!ndance plot is o"e of t!e best 7"o1" a"# most i"formative met!o#& I" t!is s$ecies are ra"7e# i"se(e"ce from most to %east ab"#a"t a%o") t!e !ori2o"ta% -or '. a'is& T!eir ab"#a"ces are ty$ica%%y #is$%aye# i"a %o)45 format o" t!e y a'is* so t!at s$ecies 1!ose ab"#a"ces s$a" severa% or#ers of ma)"it#e ca" be easi%yaccommo#ate# o" t!e same )ra$!& I" a##itio" $ro$ortio"a% a"# or $erce"ta)e ab"#a"ces are ofte" se#&

?& The k$dominance plot s!o1s t!e cm%ative $erce"ta)e -t!e $erce"ta)e of t!e 7t! most #omi"a"t $%s a%%more #omi"a"t s$ecies. i" re%atio" to s$ecies -7. ra"7 or %o) s$ecies -7. ra"7&

& The ,oren-en c!rve is base# o" t!e 7#omi"a"ce $%ot bt t!e s$ecies ra"7 7 is tra"sforme# to -7S. ' 455 to

faci%itate com$ariso" bet1ee" comm"ities 1it! #i6ere"t "mbers of s$ecies&C& The collector’s c!rve a##resses a #i6ere"t $rob%em& !e" o"e i"creases t!e sam$%i") e6ort* a"# t!s t!e"mber of t!e a"ima%s N ca)!t* "e1 s$ecies 1i%% a$$ear i" t!e co%%ectio"& A co%%ector,s crve e'$resses t!e"mber of s$ecies as a f"ctio" of t!e "mber of s$ecime"s ca)!t& As more s$ecime"s are ca)!t* a co%%ector,scrve ca" reac! a" asym$totic va%e bt t!ey ofte" #o",t #e to t!e va)e bo"#aries of eco%o)ica% comm"ities/as sam$%i") e6ort i"creases* a%so t!e "mber of #i6ere"t $atc!es i"creases&

3& The species$a'!ndance distri'!tion $%ots t!e "mber of s$ecies t!at are re$rese"te# by r 5*4*?*i"#ivi#a%s a)ai"st t!e ab"#a"ce r& T!is ca" o"%y be #ra1" if t!e co%%ectio" is %ar)e a"# co"tai"s ma"y s$ecies&More ofte" t!a" "ot t!e s$ecies are )ro$e# i" %o)arit!mic #e"sities c%asses&

•

The rank+a'!ndance plot

•

http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-14http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/File:Kdom.jpghttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/File:Rank.jpghttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-14


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The k$dominance plot

•

The ,oren-en c!rve

•

The collector’s c!rve

•

The species$a'!ndance distri'!tion

S@E>IESABUNDAN>E MODEQS

9?:

A #iverse ra")e of mo#e%s !as a%so bee" #eve%o$e# to #escribe s$ecies ab"#a"ce #ata& T!e tti") of a mo#e% toe%# #ata is mea"i")f% if t!e $arameter estimates are to be se# i" frt!er a"a%ysis&

1. The niche preemption model or the geometric model.

It assmes t!at a s$ecies $reem$ts a fractio" 7 of a %imiti") resorce* a seco"# s$ecies t!e same fractio" 7 of t!eremai"#er a"# so o"& If t!e ab"#a"ces are $ro$ortio"a% to t!eir s!are of t!e resorce* t!e ra"7e# ab"#a"ces %istis )ive" by )eometric series/

7* 7-47.* * 7-47.-S?.* 7-47.-S4.

1!ere S is t!e "mber of t!e s$ecies i" t!e comm"ity&

T!e )eometric mo#e% )ives a strai)!t %i"e o" a $%ot of %o) ab"#a"ce a)ai"st ra"7 -s$ecies se(e"ce.& It is "ot veryofte" fo"# i" "atre* o"%y i" ear%y sccessio"a% sta)es or i" s$ecies $oor e"viro"me"ts&

2. The 'roken stick model or the negative exponential distri'!tion.

I" t!is mo#e% a %imiti") resorce is com$are# 1it! a stic7* bro7e" i" S $arts at S4 ra"#om%y %ocate# $oi"ts& T!e%e")t! of t!e $arts is ta7e" as re$rese"tative for t!e #e"sity of t!e S s$ecies sb#ivi#i") t!e %imiti") resorce& Ift!e s$ecies are ra"7e# accor#i") to ab"#a"ce* t!e e'$ecte# ab"#a"ce of s$ecies i* Ni is )ive" by/

T!e "e)ative e'$o"e"tia% #istribtio" is "ot ofte" fo"# i" "atre& It #escribes a too eve" #istribtio" of i"#ivi#a%sover s$ecies to be a )oo# re$rese"tatio" of "atra% comm"ities&

http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Magurran-2http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Magurran-2http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/File:Distri.jpghttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/File:Coll.jpghttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/File:Lorenz.jpghttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Magurran-2


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3. The log$series distri'!tion.

Fis!er,s %o)arit!mic series mo#e% 93:-see a%so t!e %o) series i"#e' . #escribes t!e re%atio"s!i$ bet1ee" t!e"mber of s$ecies a"# t!e "mber of i"#ivi#a%s i" t!ose s$ecies&

. The log$normal distri'!tion.

@resto" 943:rst s))este# to se a %o)"orma% #istribtio" for t!e #escri$tio" of s$eciesab"#a"ces #istribtio"s& T!e #istribtio" is tra#itio"a%%y 1ritte" i" t!e form/

it! S-R. t!e "mber of t!e s$ecies i" t!e Rt! octave to t!e ri)!t* a"# to t!e %eft of t!e symmetric crve; S5

t!e "mber of t!e s$ecies i" t!e mo#a% octave; a"# t!e i"verse 1i#t! of t!e #istribtio"

T!e for mai" s$ecies ab"#a"ce mo#e%s

REFEREN>ES

4& sca%es/!tt$/e"&1i7i$e#ia&or)1i7iBio#iversityMeasreme"tWofWbio#iversity

?& Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

& >%i6or# 0&T& a"# Ste$!e"so" & -4K3. A" i"tro#ctio" to "merica% c%assicatio"& Qo"#o"/ Aca#emicE'$ress& cited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#*U=&?3H $

C& !itta7er R&0& -4K.Evo%tio" of s$ecies #iversity i" %a"# comm"ities& Evo%tio"ary Bio%&45* 4H&cited in

Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

2

http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Fisher-5http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-15http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity#Measurement_of_biodiversityhttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/File:Abundance.jpghttp://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-Fisher-5http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Measurements_of_biodiversity#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity#Measurement_of_biodiversity


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3& Fis!er* R& A&* >orbet* A& S& a"# i%%iams* >& B& 4KC & T!e re%atio" bet1ee" t!e "mber of s$ecies a"# t!e"mber of i"#ivi#a%s i" a ra"#om sam$%e of a" a"ima% $o$%atio"& Xor"a% of A"ima% Eco%o)y 4? C? 3J& &cited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

H& S!a""o" >& E& a"# eaver & -4KCK. T!e mat!ematica% t!eory of comm"icatio"& Urba"a* IQ/ U"iversity foI%%i"ois @ress&cited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#*U=&?3H $

& @ie%o E&>& -4K3. Eco%o)ica% #iversity& Ne1 Yor7/ i%ey I"terscie"ce& cited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C*Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

J& @ie%o E&>& -4KHK. A" i"tro#ctio" to mat!ematica% eco%o)y& Ne1 Yor7/ i%ey&cited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C*Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

K& Sim$so" E&0& -4KCK. Measreme"t of #iversity& Natre 4H* HJJ&cited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri")bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

45& 0i%%* M&O& -4K.& Diversity a"# eve""ess/ a "ifyi") "otatio" a"# its co"se(e"ces& Eco%o)y 3C* C?LCcited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

44& ar1ic7 R&M& a"# >%ar7e =&R& -?554. @ractica% measres of mari"e bio#iversity base# o" re%ate"ess ofs$ecies& Ocea"o)r& Mar& Bio%& A""& Rev& K* ?5?4&cited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri") bio%o)ica%#iversity* B%ac71e%% @b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

4?& >%ar7e =R* ar1ic7 RM -4KKJ. A ta'o"omic #isti"ct"ess i"#e' a"# its statistica% $ro$erties Xor"a% ofA$$%ie# Eco%o)y 3 -C./ 3?34cited in Ma)rra"* A& E&* ?55C* Measri") bio%o)ica% #iversity* B%ac71e%%@b%is!i")/ O'for#* U=&?3H $

4& @etc!ey OQ* !&* $erioa#a cretacicLme2o2oic. ; $eisaj% 2o"a% -H34?mi%ioa"e I>!&* _" $a%eo)e" ^i "eo)e"Lcai"o2oic.; $eisaj% )eo)rac $reacta% -4?45&555 mi%ioa"e I>!&* _" "eo)e" .; $eisaj% )eo)rac acta% sa te!"o)e"* #i" $ost)%acia%& F%ora a aj"s %a forma ` #e"itiv[ ` _" cater"ar* iar $eisaj% )eo)rac acta% sa co"stitit _" !o%oce"L

"eo2oic&


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Ero$a -#$[ Strabo" * Tacits . a avt teritori% _m$[#rit -3 .* iar ste$e%e se sita %a "or# #eMarea Nea)r[ î _" 2o"a M[rii >as$ice& >\m$ii%e* D"[rii #e Xos î B[r[)a"% a fost aco$erite #e $[#ri rare - E"c%esc* 4K?C.&

1.2. Biodiversitatea actuală

D$[ frecve"]a om%i î a e%eme"te%e a"tro$ice _" ecosisteme se #isti")/ecosisteme "atra%e;

ecosisteme mo#icate -a"tro$i2ate.;ecosisteme ame"ajate -a"tro$ice.&

Biomri%e terestre s"t/ t"#ra * tai)aa* m"te%e * $[#ri%e* ste$e%e sava"e%e * #eêrtri%e *me#i% mari" î biomri%e %im"o%o)ice -a$e cr)[toare* %acri%e .& T"#ra este sitat[ _" emisfera "or#ic[ î s#ic[* $\"[ %a cerc% $o%ar; c%ima_")!e] * tem$eratra%"ar[ me#ie a ce%ei mai ca%#e %"i rar #e$[ê^te 45o>* vara so%% se #e2)!ea][ s$ercia% tim$ #e HJs[$t[m\"i* $\"[ %a a#\"cimea ma'im[ #e 3cm* rest% $ro%%i r[m\"e _")!e]at -$ermafrost.; F%ora/ m^c!i* %ic!e"i* $%a"te a"a%e efemere c 8ori* ce cresc î se re$ro#c _" scrta var[ $o%ar[ ;Fa"a / $[s[rii C5 s$ecii mi)ratoare î se#e"tare -$i")i"i* ra][ $o%ar[* bf"i][ $o%ar[ &&.; i"secte-#i$tere* co%%embo%e* a%bi"e.; Mamma%ia H5 s$ecii L erbivore mici -ie$ri $o%ari* %emi")i.* car"ivore-v%$ea $o%ar[* %$i a%bi* rs% $o%ar&&.&

Tai)aaLsitat[ %a s# #e t"#r[* _" "or#% Erasiei* Americii #e Nor#* co"stitit[ #i" $[#ri #eco"ifere c fr"2e $ersiste"te -2a#[* bra2i* $i"i* %ari'.* caracteristic[ 2o"ei reci* #ar î se"sibi%e -$%o$i.&A"ima%e/$[s[ri )ra"ivore* i"sectivore* v%tr* ôim* ôrecar* ôareci* $orc s$i"os* ie$ri #e vi2i"[*

ie$ri #e c\m$* e%a"* c[$rioare.* car"ivore -"ev[stica* "rca* #i!or* %i"'* %$* rs.& @[#ri%e s"t asocia]iii ve)eta%e #iverse* com$%e'e* straticate&@[#ri%e $ot /$[#ri c fr"2e c[2[toare -ca#ce. #i" c%ima tem$erat[ -Erasia* America #e Nor#. ;$[#ri c fr"2e $ersiste"te #e ti$ me#itera"ea" -ba2i"% me#itera"ea" * caraibia" &&. ;$[#ri ecatoria%e -I"#o"e2ia* Ma%ae2ia* Africa tro$ica%[* America #e S#.&Diversitatea fa"istic[ î 8oristic[ este mare -?555 s$ecii %em"oase #istribite $e C3etaje ;$ro#ctivitatea brt[ a arbori%or ecatoria%i este mare 3554555 ta" -cre^terea a"a%[ a %em"%i 43.& M"te%e este " biom format #i" ecosisteme #iverse #istribite $e etaje / ve)eta]ia forestier[ ? 555m ; sba%$i" 555 m LC 555 m; a%$i" $este C 555 m ; $re#omi"[ )rami"ee%e* "evertebrate Li"secte a$tere* re$ti%e vertebrate.& @[^"i%e L$rerii - SUA .* sava"e -Africa tro$ica%[.* $am$as -America #e S# .* ste$a -Ero$a.& Ste$e%e s"t sitate _" c%imate c $erioa#e %")i #e secet[ ; ve)eta]ia este format[ #i")rami"ee/ Stipa , Festuca , Andropogon; Fitomasa !i$o)eic[ -sbtera"[. este mai mare #ec\t tomasae$i)eic[ -s$ratera"[.&Diversitatea mare ; mistre]* bor* 2imbr* m8o"* ro2[toare mici -ôareci #e c\m$ * $o$\"#[ii*!\rcio)i.; $[s[ri -#ro$ia* cioc\r%ia* )ai]a&&.* car"ivore- "ev[stica* $isica s[%batic[* v%$ea* âca%%&&.; Sava"e%e a covor% ve)eta% format #i" )rami"ee * c cre^tere ra$i#[ _" $erioa#a se2o"%i$%oios* av\"# o bio$ro#ctivitate $rimar[ #e ?5 t !a; $e covor% ve)eta% ierbos se i"sta%ea2[ s$eciiarbstoi#e ; Fa"a este format[ #i" erbivore foarte mari -)irafe* e%efa"]i* bivo%i. mij%ocii -2ebre* im$a%a* )".* $[s[ri*mamifere%e car"ivore mari -%e* )!e$ar#.& @reerii%e s"t ecosisteme erbacee "or# america"e* c as$ect #e ste$[* _" care s$ecii%e ve)eta%e

#omi"a"te s"t )rami"ee%e; erbivore -bi2o"i.* car"ivore -%$ii*coio]i.& @am$as Lecosistem s#Lamerica" erbace c )rami"ee #omi"a"te* a"ima%e erbivore -%ama*a%$aca.* $[s[ri* re$ti%e& Deêrtri-2o"e ari#e . c ve)eta]ie 'erot[* rar[* c fa"[ 'ero%[ 9ro2[toare* $[s[ri a%er)[toare-str]&&. î "evertebrate -i"secte* scor$io"i.:& Me#i% mari" este #ivi2at _"/

$%ato co"ti"e"ta% ;2o"a abisa%[ -02eci* H 555 m.;

2o"a !a#a%[ G H 555m& Biomri%e %im"o%o)ice -a$e cr)[toare* %acri . $ot /

%itora%esb%itora%e

2o"a $rof"#[& Ecosisteme%e a"tro$i2ate s"t e'trem #e variate / a)roecosisteme forestiere

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acvatice ame"ajate #e om& A)roecosisteme%e* a#a$tate sa ame"ajate #e om* $ot /

arabi%e -arabi%e $ro$ri2ise* $aji^ti c%tivate* )r[#i"i #e %e)me* ore2[rii* sere* so%arii î r[sa#"i]e*c[$^"erii* a%te c%tri $ere"e. ;

$[^"i -$[^"i crate* $[^"i _m$[#rite* $[^"i c $omi frctiferi* $[^"i c tf[ri^ri îm[r[ci"i^ri.; f\"e]e-f\"e]e crate* f\"e]e c $omi frctiferi* f\"e]e _m$[#rite* f\"e]ec tf[ri^ri î m[r[ci"i^ri. ;vii -vii "obi%e* vii !ibri#e* $%a"ta]ii !amei* $%a"ta]ii vitico%e.;%ive2i -%ive2i c%asice %ive2i i"te"sive î s$eri"te"sive * %ive2ii $%a"ta]i arb^ti* $%a"ta]ii #2i* $e$i"iere

$omico%e.& Ecosisteme%e forestiere s"t #iverse/$[#ri* $er#e%e #e $rotec]ie* tf[ri^ri î m[r[ci"i^ri* r[c!it[rii*$e$i"iere si%vice&Ecosisteme%e acvatice mo#icate* ame"ajate #e om 9ba2i"e $iscico%e* %acri* !e%e^tee* acvac%tr[-stri#ii* creve]i* a%)e macrote* $e^ti _" sistem s$eri"te"siv.: &U" ecosistem a"tro$i2at se #eosebe^te #e ecosisteme%e "atra%e $ri" co"sm% e"er)etic* #e %a 4C=ca%m? 2i -ecosisteme%e "atra%e. %a 3 555=ca%om2i _" era $rimitiv[ $\"[ %a ?55 555=ca%om2i _" ][ri%e$ter"ic #e2vo%tate&A"tro$oce"o2a este o bioce"o2[ _" care $%a"te%e s"t c%tivate î _")rijite #e om* #ar î brie"ise)eta%e* iar majoritatea a"ima%e%or s"t #omesticite î e'$%oatate #e c[tre om $e"tr rea%i2area$ro$rii%or i"terese&Bioto$% rra% $rovi"e #i" $or]i"ea teritori%i )eo)rac favorabi%[ activit[]i%or om%i* bo)at _" resrse

s$ratera"e* a%e so%%i î a$ei -so% ferti% î a$e #e s$rafa][ . î sbtera"e* a%e sbso%%i e'$%oatabi%ec te!"o%o)ii%e #is$o"ibi%e $ermise& Om% a #e2vo%tat _" i"terac]i"e c me#i% "atra%* co"stiti"#î oikumenLme#i% $ro$ri î ato"om*o co"seci"][ a activit[]i%or #irecte sa i"#irecte* care a i"8e"]at #rastic or)a"isme%e vii î %a"]ri%e

troce&Formarea !abitat%i ma" a _"ce$t _" "eo%itic - 555LJ 555d>!&.* c\"# om% #e Nea"#ert!a% "oma#*c%e)[tor* v\"[tori* $escar* c%tiv\"# $%a"te î e'$%oat\"# a"ima%e%e #omesticite a #eve"it se#e"tar*

a)ric%tor&

E'$%oata]ii%e a)rico%e tim$rii #i" ba2i"e%e 8via%e -Ni%* Ti)r* Efrat. a #e2vo%tat civi%i2a]ii%e

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_"8oritoare& Dove2i $rivi"# mo#icarea me#i%i #atea2[ #i" a"% 35 555 d>!&* c\"# $[#ri%e c fr"2e c[2[toare afost i"ce"#iate $e"tr e'ti"#erea $[^"i%or "ecesare

!r["irii trme%or #e erbivore #omesticite -cor"te mici* mari.&

cosistemul rural este un ecosistem modi!cat dominat de un grup de oameni "ntemeietori#desc$lec$tori, b$%tina%i, indigeni, autohtoni, aborigeni& a'uta(i de al(ii #atasa(i, proveni(i, venetici,deporta(i, str$muta(i , coloni%ti , emigran(i &, care "%i asigur$ sub)isten(a din e*ploatarea resurselornaturale primare #pescari, p$stori , agricultori, +orestieri& %i din practicarea me%te%ugurilor tradi(ionale#olari, m$celari, t$b$cari, cioc$nari, co'ocari, bl$nari, pielari, curelari, lemnari, lingurari, dogari, pietrari,c$r$midari, !erari, potcovari&.

Ecosistem% rra% tra#i]io"a% este co"stitit #i"/ vatra sat%i c$ri"#e 2o"a oc$at[ #e $rime%e imobi%e-castr* tr"* ca"to"* %oci"]e%e

fo"#atori%or.; i"travi%a"% Ls$rafa]a afectat[ co"strc]ii%or #e #iverse #esti"a]ii $recm î 2o"e%e f"c]io"a%e"ea)rico%e;

- e'travi%a"%Lrest% teritori%i -a)rico%* #rmri* "e$ro#ctiv. #i" $erimetr% a#mi"istrativ a% sat%i &A)roecosisteme%e s"t ecosisteme a#iace"te ecosisteme%or rra%e* rba"e "atra% care $ot i"terfera$ri" com$o"e"te%e ori* #ar s"t #iferite $ri" caracteristici î #i"amic[& Om% a#a$tea2[* mo#ic[ majoritatea com$o"e"te%or )eo%o)ice* )eo)race* c%imatice î biotic&

Om% a #eve"it /$ri"ci$a%% com$o"e"t a% %a"]ri%or troce #i" biosfer[ ;

$r[#[tor% "a% a% majorit[]ii %a"]ri%or troce; s$ecia cea mai frecve"t[ #i" ecosfer[&Aê2area ma"[ este $rim% ecosistem #ifere"]iat #i" ecosisteme%e "atra%* i"# a"tro$i2at[ $ter"ic

_" 2o"e%e comercia%e î ce"tre%e #e afaceri* ori mo#erat _" 2o"e%e #esti"ate a)reme"t%i&Mo#ic[ri ese"]ia%e a%e bioto$%i "atra% i"i]ia% a fost f[cte _" tim$* co"^tie"t sa i"co"^tie"t*sistematic sa !aotic #e oame"i $e"tr rea%i2area obiective%or ime#iate sa viitoare $roiectate&

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>aracteristici%e ese"]ia%e a%e ecosistem%i rra% s"t bio$ro#ctivitatea î e'$ort% #e e"er)iebiosi"teti2at[ _" $ro#se a)roa%ime"tare -brte* "ite.* materii ve)eta%e -tomateria%e. î a"ima%iere-2oomateria%e. $re%crabi%e arti2a"a%* i"#stria% sa biote!"o%o)ic* iar se2o"ier i"tr[ri masive #e e"er)iestocat[ -c[rb"i î %em"e #e foc* _")ra^[mi"te* combstibi%* a$[ #e iri)a]ie î $ro#se tofarmaceticeî bioci#e.&>aracteristici%e $ri"ci$a%e a%e ecosistem%i rra% s"t/>irc%a]ia e"er)iei este _" circit acic%ic* #e2ec!i%ibrat* c im$ortri e"er)etic #isco"ti"e* se2o"iere;F%'% i"forma]io"a% are vite2[ s$erioar[ oric[reia _"re)istrat[ _" oricare ecosistem "atra%;Im$ort% $erio#ic* se2o"ier -iar"a. #e sbsta"][ $e"tr !ra"[ î a%te activit[]i socioeco"omice;

De"sitatea #emo)rac[ î a s$ecii%or si"a"tro$e ti%e sa vectoare* $ara2ite este mare;@ri"ci$a%% co"smator* om%* rea%i2ea2[ #e"sit[]ii $o$%a]io"a%e ri#icate;

A$ari]ia "or "oi %a"]ri troce* i"e'iste"te _" ecosisteme%e "atra%e;Bio#iversitatea este mic[;Re)%area ra$ortri%or i"ters$ecice î i"tras$ecice este rea%i2at e'c%sive #e om&d" bioto$% rra% a fost e'ectate %cr[rii #e !i#roame%iora]ii î #e _mb"[t[]iri f"ciare #iverse/

re)%ari2area crsri%or #e a$[;

asa"area m%a^ti"i%or; ame"ajarea "or ba2i"e $iscico%e;ame"ajarea #e sisteme #e iri)a]ii;

ame"ajarea a"tiero2io"a%[ a versa"]i%or;

sti")erea tore"]i%or #i" ba2i"% co%ector afere"t emisar%i "atra%;combaterea ero2i"ii so%%i - terasarea versa"]i%or; be"2i _"ierbate; c%eio"aje;&&. #re"aje;

sisteme a"ti)ri"#i"[;$er#e%e #e $rotec]ie;@e"tr asi)rarea "i co"fort mi"im a fost co"strite re]e%e e%ectrice îi #e te%ecom"ica]ii* sisteme#e a%ime"tare c a$[ $otabi%[* re]e%e #e ca"a%i2are î #e #istrib]ie a )a2%i meta" î a a%tor ti%it[]i &

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Ecosistem% rra% mo#er"i2at sa sistemati2at este co"stitit #i"/ I"travi%a"% sat%i c$ri"#e/2o"a a#mi"istrativ[;^coa%a ; #is$e"sar%i;2o"a comercia%[* c%tra%[;2o"a re2i#e"]ia%[ -%oci"]e* )os$o#[rii $erso"a%e rra%e .; biserica* cimitir% 2o"a me^te^)[reasc[* #e mic[ i"#strie;

2o"a #e a)reme"t* s$ortE'travi%a"% s[tesc c$ri"#e/ e'$%oata]ii a)rico%e;

e'$%oata]ii $etro%iere ;e'$%oata]ii mi"iere;

-tere"ri forestiere

-

tere"ri "e$ro#ctive;tere"ri $erma"e"t sbc %ci #e a$[&ram$a #e )"oi

Desco$erirea #e resrse a%e sbso%%i ôr accesibi%e -sare* c[rb"i* $etro%* )a2e "atra%e* mi"era%e*mi"ereri. #ec%a"êa2[ î acce%erea2[ rba"i2area ecosistem%i "atra% sa rra%* $e"tr asi)rareaca2[rii î !r["irii m"citori%or #e %a e'$%oata]ii%e mi"iere* sc!e%e $etro%iere* cariere #e marmr[* $iatr[&A a$[rt #emo)raa* ^tii"]a care st#ia2[ #i"amica $o$%a]iei ma"e -efectiv* #e"sitate* rata"ata%it[]ii* morbi#itate* rata morta%it[]ii* coecie"t% î rata cre^terii "merice* emi)rarea* mi)rarea.&Ecosistem% rba" este co"stitit #i" bioto$% rba" î a"tro$oce"o2a rba"[& Bioto$% rba" a a$[rt#i" tra"sform[ri ra#ica% co"^tie"te sa i"co"^tie"te _" bioto$% "atra%* _"tr" $roces istoric&Bioto$% rba" co"stitit #i" +actori sta(ionari -)eo)raci* )eo%o)ici î $e#o%o)ici.* +actori antropicidiver%i -c%[#iri* re]e%e #e tra"s$ort* ca"a%i2are* $arc i"#stria%* s$ita%* biserica* cimitir* sta#io"* obor*^co%i.&

Bioto$% rba" re$re2i"t[ re2%tat% ac]i"ii mo#e%atoare a om%i as$ra me#i%i )eo%o)ic* )eo)rac*#esf[^rat[ $e " a"mit $arcrs istoric* $e"tr ati")erea obiective%or socia%e* eco"omice î "a"ciare&Factor sta(ionari s"t factori )eo)raci* )eo%o)ici î $e#o%o)ici* #etermi"[ #e2vo%tarea "ei aê2[rima"e&


15/46

Ora^% a"tic sa me#ieva% se com$"ea #i"/2o"a tr"%i* a fort%i* castr%i sa a cet[]iis$rafa]a oc$at[ #e fortica]ii* atorit[]i î )ar"i2oa"[ i"travi%a"% Ls$rafa]a #esti"at[ %oci"]e%or* co"strc]ii%or f"c]io"a%e "ea)rico%e a%e ora^%i ;e'travi%a"% Lrest% s$rafe]e%or #i" $erimetr% a#mi"istrativ a% ora^%i&

Ecosistem% rba" me#ieva% ba%ca"ic sa format $e ri"e%e cet[]i%or a"tice* sa %a _"tret[ierea #e#rmri comercia%e tra#i]io"a%e -t\r)ri #e %\"[* sare* oi* cai &&. î $e %\")[ cet[]i "oi sa a%te fortica]ii

mi%itare& T\r)%* ora^ me#ieva%* br) c$ri"#ea 2o"a mi%itara#mi"istrativ[* ca2arma c oastea* !a"%* biserica ̂ i

va#% comercia%&

>etatea #e sca" era reê#i"]a #om"itor%i* re)e%i ori _m$[rat%i -ce2ar* ]ar* s%ta". î c$ri"#ea / $a%at% #om"esc;crtea #om"easc[;

tr"% î cetatea; 2o"a #e sc!imbri comercia%e -obor* t\r)* va# comercia%* !a"ri .;

aê2[mi"te mo"a!a%e* biserica; ate%iere me^te^)[re^ti;

bo%"i]a - s$ita%%.; cimitir%

1/


16/46

^coa%a #om"easc[&

Aê2area rba"[ mo#er" este " ecosistem #iferit fa][ #e ecosisteme%e "atra%e sa rra%e i"#strctrat $e 2o"e f"c]io"a%e $ter"ic a"tro$i2ate sa a"tro$ice * _" s$ecia% $%atforme%e -$arcri%e.i"#stria% * ce"tre%e #e afaceri* to1" ce"ter* 2o"e re2i#e"]ia%e m%tif"c]io"a%e* cam$sri "iversitareî #e _"v[][m\"t s$ecia%* 2o"e s$ortive* a)reme"t* aê2[mi"te mo"a!a%e* s$ita%e>aracteristici%e $ri"ci$a%e a%e ecosistem%i rba" s"t/>irc%a]ia e"er)iei este _" circit #esc!is* #e2ec!i%ibrat* c im$ortri e"er)etice $erma"e"te;im$ort% sistematic* ob%i)atori #e sbsta"][ $e"tr !ra"[ î a%te activit[]i socioeco"omice;F%'% i"forma]io"a% are vite2[ foarte mare "et s$erioar[ oric[reia _"re)istrat[ _" ecosisteme;De"sitatea #emo)rac[ î a s$ecii%or si"a"tro$e i"va2ive vectoare* $ara2ite este foarte mare;@ri"ci$a%% co"smator* om%* rea%i2ea2[ #e"sit[]ii $o$%a]io"a%e foarte ri#icate;A$ari]ia "or %a"]ri troce cosmo$o%ite* #iferite #e ce%e e'iste"te _" ecosisteme%e rra%e;Bio#iversitatea este cea mai mic[ #i" ecosisteme%e a2o"a%e;Re)%area ra$ortri%or i"ters$ecice ̂ i i"tras$ecice este re)%eme"tat[ #e a#mi"istra]ia aê2[rii; @o%a"]ii rba"i s"t "o'e com"e* majoritatea %or i"# #etermi"ate #e serii #e ca2e $recm/a. #e2vo%tarea eco"omic $e criterii "eeco%o)ice* abse"]a "ei ba2e #e #e2vo%tare #rabi%[;b. s$ra$o$%area oraê%or* e'ti"#erea s$rafe]e%or co"strc]ii%or _" #etrime"ta% s$a]ii%or ver2i;c.ti%i2area #e te!"o%o)ii e"er)ofa)e* %i"iare* acic%ice* "eba2ate $e $ri"ci$ii eco%o)ice&#. ma"factrarea $ro#se%or materia%e ba2ate $e resrse "ere)e"erabi%e î e$i2abi%e&e.e#ca]ia eco%o)ic[ #ecitar[ referitoare %a i#e"ticarea $rocese%or "e$riete"oase c me#i%&f. cre^terea "ive%%i #e "o'e #i" aer #atorit[ cre^terii trac%i ato #e $erso"ae î #e m[rfri;).#ecit% #e a$[ #%ce va cre^te _" viitor -%a Bo%o)"a* Ita%ia a$a freatic[ era %a a#\"cimea #e 4?m _"a"% 4KC3* iar acm se a8[ %a 3 m a#\"cime.& Datorit[ mo#ic[rii circ%a]iei a$ei _" $artea sbtera"[ a teritori%i* #ar î cre^terea $resi"ii e'ercitate#e co"strc]ii se $ot #ec%a"â a%"ec[ri #e tere" î #istr)erea #e s$rafe]e e'ti"se* i"c%sive a

co"strc]ii%or&

>om$o"e"ta ese"]ia%[ a ecosistem%i rba" este a"tro$oce"o2a rba"[* iar s$ecia #omi"a"t oco"stite om%* care $ri" ac]i"i%e sa%e i"8e"]ea2[ majoritatea co"stite"]i%or biotici î abiotici&Sistem% $o$%a]iei ma"e $re2i"t[ )ra#% _"a%t #e strctrare socia%eco"omic[ $ermi]\"#I oma"i$%are "or mari ca"tit[]i #e materie î e"er)ie* #ar î $ter"ica ac]i"e mo#e%atoare a me#i%i&Mobi%itatea mare î vite2a s$orit[ #e circ%a]ie a i"forma]iei s"t e%eme"te%e ese"]ia%e a"tro$ice $eba2a c[rora om% mo#e%ea2[ sa #ere)%ea2[ com$o"e"te%e me#i%i _" f"c]ie #e "evoi%e socioma"e&Om% i"ve"tea2[* fabric[ î ti%i2ea2[ maî"ii î "e%te #e $tere mare ca$acitate î ra"#ame"teri#icate* carei e'ti"# $osibi%it[]i%e #e tra"sformare a com$o"e"te%or "atrii mo#e%\"# microre%ief%&At\ta tim$ c\t mij%oace%e te!"ice fo%osite #e om era mo#este sc!imb[ri%e _" me#i "atra% erami"ore î %e"te $ermi]\"# a#a$tarea or)a"isme%or* #eoarece me#i% " era afectat ra$i# î )rav&Uriaê%e ac]i"i a"tro$ice mo#ic[ $rof"# com$o"e"te%e abiotice* iar or)a"isme%e co"stite"te sea#a$ta$tea2[ )re* a$[r\"# frecve"t acci#e"te eco%o)ice ireversibi%e î $e terme" %")&

Difere"]ieri%e #i"tre ecosisteme%or rba"e î "atra%i s"t/Bio#iversitatea _" ecosisteme%e rba"e com$arativ c aceea #i" ecosisteme%e "atra% este mic[&>o"ce"tr[ri%e mari #e $o$%a]ie ma"[ a ba2e eco"omice î #e "atr[ socia% î $si!o%o)ic[&Qa _"ce$t om% a vie]it _"tr" me#i c bio#iversitate ri#icat[* #ar s$ecii%e co"cre"te* $r[#[toarea)resive* $arasite sa i"ti%e $e"tr "ecesit[]i%e socia%e cre"te a fost _"#e$[rtate* e%imi"ate&Mo#icarea sever[ a bioto$%i "atra% $ri" %cr[ri #e !i#roame%iora]ii î #e art[* c%mi"\"# crea%i2area "or aê2[ri rba"e mo#er" #i" beto" * o]e% î stic%[* care re$re2i"t[ veritabi%e#eêrtricita#i"ea e%imi"ate majoritatea s$ecii%or ve)eta%e î a"ima%e i"#i)e"e care $o$%a $erma"e"tteritori% )eo)rac;Om%* s$ecia #omi"a"t[* _î #esfaôar[ activitatea #$[ %e)it[]i%e socioeco"omice* " #$[ %e)i%ebio%o)iei& Ecosistem% "atra% este " sistem i"#e$e"#e"t ca resrse î f"c]io"are* i"# #e$e"#e"t #ee"er)ia so%ar[ "ecesar[ $ro#c[tori%or $rimari* $%a"te%or ver2i* care stoc!ea2[ e"er)ia so%ar[ $ri"fotosi"te2[ _" e"er)ie bioc!imic[&

Ecosistem% rba" este " sistem i"com$%et* #e$e"#e"t "#e $ro#c[torii $rimari s"t #ecitari î "$ot asi)ra ba2a troc[ mi"ima% $e"tr co"smatorii #i" %a"]ri%e troce stabi%e* #etermi"\"#sim$%icarea sa _"trer$\"# circite%e bio)eoc!imice& >ircit% materiei este afectat* #eoarece

1


17/46

circite%e "atra% bio)eoc!imice #e sbsta"][ s"t ac%ice* ti"2\"# s$re %i"eari2are& Ecosisteme%e rba"es"t ce%e mai ti"ere ecosisteme&F"c]io"area ecosistem%i rba" este #e$e"#e"t #e 8'ri%e e"er)etic î sbsta"]e i"tro#ce #e om#i" a%te ecosisteme* "ecesit\"# im$ort% e"er)etic $e"tr me"]i"erea sistem%i eco"omic î socioma"* #ar î $e"tr s$ravie]irea #iverse%or ve)eta%e #ecorative î or"ame"ta%e î a"ima%e #ecom$a"ie #e $e teritori&0ra"a "ecesar[ %ocitori%or rba" î metro$o%ita" este $ro#s[ _" a)roecosisteme a#iace"te sa$rovi"e #i" #iverse sc!imbri comercia%e&>a"titatea #e e"er)ie i"tro#s[ #e om _" ecosistem% rba" sb #iferite forme-combstibi%i* e"er)ie

termic[* e%ectric î bioc!imic[ _"cor$orat[ _" _")r[^[mi"te* bio$estici#e* $ro#se tofarmacetice.* #arî e"er)ia #e i"trare #i" $arcri%e î $%atforme%e i"#stria% #e$[ê^te e"er)ia so%ar[ ca$tat[ #e$ro#c[torii $rimari )e"er\"# severa a"tro$i2are a bioto$%i rba" @rob%ema f"#ame"ta%[ a st#i%i $e"tr re8ectarea rea%[ a strctrii î #i"amicii* i"# st#i a%

com"it[]i%or a%c[tite #i" "meroî i"#ivi2i "ecesit[ cercet[ri $e s$rafe]e* re$re2e"tative $e"tr

a)roecosistem* im$"\"#/

a%e)erea %oca%it[]i%or c caracteristici $e#oc%imatice re$re2e"tative $e"tr a)roecosistem;

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#e me#i* etc&.;

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c%ase #e #omi"a"][/

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c%trii _"tr" a"mit tim$ -se2o"a%* a"a% sa m%tia""a%.&>a%c%% co"sta"]ei se face co"form form%ei/

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18/46

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12


19/46

se #e2vo%t[ "meroase s$ecii c $]i"i i"#ivi2i* iar _"tr" me#i c co"#i]ii e'treme tr[iesc $]i"e s$ecii c

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20/46

%o)eQ L %o)aritm% #ista"]ei _" metri sa 7i%ometri #i"tre ce%e #o[ %oca%it[]i& >re"t acest i"#ice m[soar[ $ri"

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fo%osit[ _" eco%o)ie -


21/46

%hat is 4iodi2ersit35

8iodiversity is simply the variety of life. This can mean anything from the microbes in a few grams of soil

to all the organisms that inhabit the earth. 6n practice, to assess how much diversity we have and what it

does, we need to be more specific about the aspect of biodiversity we are concerned with, and the area and

time frame over which we want to measure it. 9or example, we might consider the types and relative

abundances of species of trees in a forest, or the genetic diversity associated with the individuals of those

species, or even how the number and composition of forests across a biogeographic region have changed

over the past century. This hierarchy of organi!ational levels is implicit in the definition developed by the

45 in their :onvention on 8iological Diversity, which states that biological diversity is ;the variability

among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other a#uatic

ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part< this includes diversity within species,

between species and of ecosystems;.

1ou mentioned the spatial and temporal context of 4iodi2ersit3. %hat do 3ou mean 43 this5

ow much biodiversity we see, such as the number of bird species recorded in a wetland, increases both as a

larger area is surveyed, and as the same area is surveyed for a longer time. Thus, if we were to watch the

same la>e over several years, we would find that some new species would coloni!e, others would vanishfrom the area, and there would be occasional unexpected species appearing, perhaps diverted away from

their normal migration route by unusual weather conditions. These species?area and species?time

relationships are well?>nown ;laws; of ecology, yet are sometimes overloo>ed when investigators or

conservationists are ma>ing comparisons between sites or deciding which places should be designated as

nature reserves.

%h3 should we care a4out 4iodi2ersit35

@s :harles Alton explained in his boo> The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants, over half a century

ago now, there are three main arguments for conserving biodiversity. The first is that other species have theright to exist on the planet, and therefore it would be unethical to ta>e actions that might cause their

extinction. The second is the aesthetic value of biodiversity. umans derive pleasure and a sense of

wellbeing from wild nature. This #uality of biodiversity, while implicitly recogni!ed by most people, has

been attributed by AB Cilson to a deep?seated evolutionary need to live in a favorable environment. The

third reason proffered for biodiversity conservation ? and the one that receives most attention ? is the

utilitarian argument. The reasoning here is that biodiversity underpins many goods and services that we

depend on. These include wild harvests 'such as fish(, pollination, carbon capture 'for example, peat bogs

and rain forests store carbon that would otherwise be released to the atmosphere(, regulation of drainage

patterns and climate, soil formation, flood defenses 'including the mangrove swamps that help protect low

lying areas against tsunamis( and the genetic resources used in agriculture and medicine.

'ow lon ha2e researchers 4een interested in 4iodi2ersit35

8iodiversity is something that has probably always been recogni!ed and appreciated. Bur ancestors, after

all, will have been aware of those places where there was a rich abundance of food, and those that harbored

dangerous predators. owever, the scientific study of biodiversity really began when :arl inneaus put

together the first systematic catalogue of life on earth. is boo>, Species plantarum, published in 1/+,

classified and described around ,000 species and developed the system of taxonomy that we still use today.

This was also the beginning of the great age of scientific exploration. @lexander von umbolt traveled to

Eouth @merica between 133 and 120 and made many observations about biological diversity, most

famously that there is a latitudinal gradient of richness, with tropical habitats having many more species thantemperate habitats, which are, in turn, more diverse than boreal regions. Foseph 8an>s, another early

explorer, commented on the differences in variety of species of flora at different localities. :harles Darwin;s

voyage on The Beagle is well >nown for the role it played in shaping his thin>ing about evolution. ess well

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appreciated is that the Origin of Species contains many insightful reflections on patterns of biological

diversity, and Darwin was one of the first researchers 'along with @udubon( to comment on the fact that

ecological communities are invariably composed of a few common and many rare species. Darwin;s

contemporaries, including Callace and 8ates, also wrote extensively about patterns of biological diversity.

5onetheless, it was not until the *0th century that ecologists began to develop new statistical methods for

#uantifying biodiversity.

'ow is 4iodi2ersit3 measured5

Eir Gonald 9isher, the famous statistician, was one of the first researchers to recogni!e that the characteristic

pattern of commonness and rarity of species could be described mathematically. The resulting species

abundance distribution, the ;log series model;, is associated with an index of diversity >nown as 9isher;s H.

Bther models and measures were soon developed, and two enduring approaches are "reston;s log normal

distribution of species abundances and the Ehannon diversity index. There are now a great many competing

methods of measuring biodiversity. 6n essence, the approaches either describe the entire distribution of

species abundance '9igure 1(, or provide some metric that #uantifies the richness of the sample or

assemblage 'richness being the number of species present(, or develop a statistic that ta>es account of the

evenness of the species abundances. @lthough formulated in the context of species, these measures can also

be adapted to measure diversity at other organi!ational levels, including genes and traits.

Fiure #. 6here are man3 more rare species than common ones in ecoloical

assem4laes. These data, representing the numbers of individuals in the 21 species ma>ing up a */ year

time series of estuarine fish in the 4I;s 8ristol :hannel, were collected by "@ enderson. "a! The data

plotted on an arithmetic scale to emphasi!e the handful of exceptionally abundant species$ "4! the same data,

with the abundance now plotted on a logarithmic scale 'this type of graph is usually called a ran> abundance

plot($ and "c! a histogram showing the fre#uency of species in logarithmic abundance classes. The plot in

'c(, which was introduced by 9ran> "reston, illustrates the log normal pattern of diversity often seen in

ecological assemblages. These different methods of plotting species abundance data highlight contrastingaspects of the assemblage, but they all underline the universal pattern of a few abundant and many rare

species.

@ complementary approach to biodiversity assessment is to as> how different two or more localities, or

indeed time periods, are in terms of their species composition. Thus, Gobert Chitta>er distinguished

between H diversity ? that is, the biodiversity at a defined place and time 'and he deliberately used the termH diversity to link with Fisher's concept of a diversity index) - and J diversity, which is

a measure of how much variation there is in the number and identity of speciesacross space and/or time. A landscape will be most diverse if it supports ecoloicalcommunities with hih H diversity and also hih J diversity.

How many species are there?

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An obvious !uestion, but one that is very difficult to answer" As #ob $ay has pointedout, only around %.& million species have so far been named. owever, even this totalis beset with difficulties( some of these will be duplications known as synonomies)and there are also many aps in the record. *hat we do know is that vertebratesespecially mammals and birds) are reasonably well documented, but invertebratesincludin most insects) are not. +# aldane, when asked what creation revealedabout the nature of the creator, ave the celebrated response 'an inordinate fondness

for beetles'. t is no surprise, therefore, to learn that beetles remain a very poorlydocumented roup. $ay estimates that there are probably between and % millionspecies, but also notes that the number could lie anywhere between 0 and %million. And that's before we start thinkin about microbes.

How do we know that biodiversity is being lost, given the great uncertainty

about species numbers?

Althouh it can be difficult to put precise numbers on how many, and which, speciesare bein lost, there is no doubt that biodiversity is declinin. 1his can be deduced in

a number of ways. First, we know that habitat is bein lost. #ecause of the well-known relationship between the area of a habitat and the number of species itsupports, it is possible to work out how a reduction in area will translate into areduction in biodiversity. econd, it is not 2ust H diversity that is bein lost3 J diversityis also diminishin. 1his is because the same exotic species are bein introduced intomany different areas with the result that the ecoloical communities become moresimilar or 'homoeni4ed'. 1hird, researchers have developed a series of indicators totrack the decline in biodiversity. 5ne example is the '6ivin 7lanet ndex', which usestrends in vertebrate species diversity as an indicator of lobal diversity. 5therapproaches involve lon-term monitorin and use data compiled for the nternational

8nion for 9onservation of :ature's red list to track species status. Finally, meta-analyses can pull toether data from a rane of sources to produce an overview ofchane and biodiversity loss.

Why is biodiversity being lost?

+ared ;iamond dubbed the reasons for biodiversity loss as the 'evil !uartet' - habitatloss, over-exploitation of species, invasive species toether with the exotic diseasesthey introduce, and the breakdown of ecoloical networks. abitat deradation isperhaps the most obvious of these as the rowin human population, and the rowin

demands for consumer products, place ever reater strains on the environment.

What are the 2010 and 2020 biodiversity targets?

1he 9onvention for #ioloical ;iversity 9#;) set itself the taret of reducin the rateof biodiversity loss by


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What can I do to help conserve biodiversity?

*hile dramatic events - includin the threatened extinction of charismatic speciessuch as the tier or iant panda, or the loss of swathes of habitat, such as the fellinof tropical forest in outheast Asia to make way for palm oil plantations - makeheadline news, it is the accumulation of many small decisions that lead to the steadyerosion of biodiversity. =oer ;eakin, writin about the loss of a small spinney in his


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86BD6KAGE6T7

irst published !ed "un ##$ %&&'( substantive revision Tue )ec *$ %&&+

L8iodiversityM is often defined as the variety of all forms of life, from genes to species, through to the broad

scale of ecosystems 'for a list of variants on this simple definition see Naston 133(. O8iodiversityO was

coined as a contraction of Obiological diversityO in 132/, but the new term arguably has ta>en on a meaning

and import all its own. @ symposium in 132, and the follow?up boo> Bio)iversity 'Cilson 1322(, edited by biologist A. B. Cilson, heralded the popularity of this concept. Ten years later, Ta>acs '133, p.+3(

described its ascent this way< Oin 1322, biodiversity did not appear as a >eyword in Biological Abstracts, and

biological diversity appeared once. 6n 133+, biodiversity appeared seventy?two times, and biological

diversity nineteen timesO. 9ifteen years further on, it would be hard to count how many times ObiodiversityO

is used every day by scientists, policy?ma>ers, and others. The global importance of biodiversity now is

reflected in the widely accepted target to achieve a significant reduction in the rate of loss of biodiversity by

the year *010 [see *010 8iodiversity Target.

Chile the history of this term is relatively short 'compare it to other terms covered in this encyclopedia(, it

already has raised important, distinctive, philosophical issues. Eome of these are entangled in the very

definition of ObiodiversityO, an issue treated in the first sections below. @ challenge is the reconciliation of process?based and elements?based perspectives on biodiversity. Bverall, the maPor issue for biodiversity is

how its conservation may be integrated with other needs of society.

• 1. :oncepts of 8iodiversity

• *. 9rom Epecies Kalues to 8iodiversity Kalues

o *.1 Epecies Kalues and Triage

o *.* Epecies as A#ual 4nits and EQE

• +. @lternatives to 4nit?species

o +.1 The Ehift from Alements to "rocesses

o +.* Bption Kalue and ierarchy of Kariation

• . 6ntegrating "rocess and Alements "erspectives

• /. 8iodiversity and Nrowth of Inowledge

o

/.1 "hylogenetic ypotheseso /.* Epecies ypotheses

o /.+ 8iodiversity and D5@ barcoding

• . :onclusions

• 8ibliography

• @cademic Tools

• Bther 6nternet Gesources

• Gelated Antries

*/

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1. :B5:A"TE B9 86BD6KAGE6T7

The se#uel to that first biodiversity boo>, naturally titled Biodiversity II 'Gea>a?Iudla et al. 133(,

documents the rapid rise of the term ObiodiversityO in importance and influence. 8ut it also traces the study

of aspects of biodiversity bac> as far as @ristotle. To some extent, biodiversity merely offers a new, emotive,

term for some older ideas and programs. 6n fact, ObiodiversityO is now used sometimes to mean OlifeO or

OwildernessO or other conservation values. O8iodiversityO also has served on occasion as a catch?all forOconservationO itself.

The scientific literature illustrates how most any conservation activity might use the label ObiodiversityO. Bn

the one hand, wor>ers ta>ing advantage of the ac>nowledged importance of the term have expanded its

meaning to capture concerns at a fine scale, such as that focussing on a favourite single species. This focus

might be referred to more accurately as one of ObiospecificsO. @t the coarser scale, one important

interpretation, discussed below, advocates a primary lin>age of biodiversity to the maintenance of ecosystem

processes & what might be called the Obio?processesO approach.

The nub of the problem of defining biodiversity is that it is hard to exclude anything from a concept that is

ta>en so easily to mean OeverythingO. Ear>ar '*00/( has argued that interpreting biodiversity across all biological levels, from genes to ecosystems, amounts to considering all biological entities, so that

biodiversity absurdly Obecomes all of biologyO.

:allicott et al. '1333( examined ObiodiversityO as one of the current normative concepts in conservation.

They concluded that it remains ill?defined, and that distinctions can be made between OfunctionalO and

OcompositionalO perspectives in approaching biodiversity. O9unctionalO refers to a primarily concern with

ecosystem and evolutionary processes, while OcompositionalO sees organisms as aggregated into

populations, species, higher taxa, communities, and other categories. :allicott et al. call for a better

integration of these different perspectives, an issue discussed below in the section on 6ntegrating "rocess and

Alements "erspectives.

5orton '133( has argued that there will never be a single OobPective scientific definitionO of biodiversity, inthe sense of a prescription for how to measure it. 6n fact, 5orton claims that any increase in our

understanding of biodiversity will ma>e it less li>ely that there will be a single obPective measure. This

biodiversity pluralism is based on an argument that inevitably there are many different Otheory boundO

versions of biodiversity and many different ways to value it. This perspective is in accord with recognition

of functional?compositional perspectives on biodiversity. 9or example, 5orton '133$ *001( points to recent

emphasis on structure and process regarding ecological OhealthO or OintegrityO that is seen as going beyond a

conventional elements?oriented perspective for biodiversity. Bne cannot aggregate all these different

versions of biodiversity. 6nstead, we are to Odescribe in ways appropriate given certain purposesO and the

choice among these different biodiversity OmodelsO will depend on what values are important to the

decision?ma>er.

This perspective is characteri!ed as Opost?positivistO because it recogni!es biodiversity as inevitably value?

laden & there is no one, correct, measure of biodiversity to be discovered but many, each having different

values. Goebuc> and "hifer '1333( lament what they perceive as current OpositivismO in biodiversity

conservation, described by them as based variously on processes of verificationism and falsificationism in

see>ing facts. They argue that biodiversity conservation is rooted primarily in ethics and we must not

continue to bac> away from values and advocacy.

The idea that the choice of a measure of biodiversity depends on values finds support in Ear>ar '*00/(. e

argues that biodiversity operationally amounts to whatever is the valued target of conservation priority

setting for different localities.

8iodiversity may be a catch?all for various aspects of conservation, but the fresh perspectives arising from

recognition of ObiodiversityO suggest possible unifying concepts. A. B. Cilson '1322( sees ObiodiversityO as

corresponding to a dramatic transformation for biologists from a Obits and piecesO approach to a much more

*

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holistic approach. Cilson describes this change in perspective as a reali!ation that biological diversity is

disappearing and, unli>e other threatened things, is irreversible. Crapped up in the term therefore is the idea

of a Obiodiversity crisisO. Ahrenfeld '1322( similarly reinforces this idea of the value of diversity in the

aggregate. e argues that diversity previously was never regarded in itself to be in danger, but that

biodiversity now is recognised as endangered in its own right. Crapped up in the term therefore is the idea

of a Obiodiversity crisisO. Chile the case for such a crisis itself raises debates about measures and definitions

'see Ear>ar, *00/(, the definition of ObiodiversityO sometimes explicitly reflects these lin>s to an extinction

crisis. Ta>acs '133( reviews cases where the definition of biodiversity is wrapped up in the idea of

strategies needed to preserve variation. 6n accord with this perspective is a shift to a focus on valuing

ecosystem processes. This focus arguably will ensure maintenance and ongoing evolution of these systems,

and therefore all of biodiversity.

olistic perspectives on biodiversity have emerged also through another important focus. 9or Cilson '1322(,

biodiversity captures the idea of a Ofrontier of the futureO, presenting a da!!ling prospect of largely un>nown

variety, with unanticipated uses. 8iodiversity is seen by many as a symbol for our lac> of >nowledge about

the components of life;s variation, and their importance to human>ind 'see Ta>acs 133(. These arguments

suggest that core biodiversity values might be based more on what we do not >now than what we do >now.

8iodiversity can be viewed as primarily capturing the two?fold challenge of un>nown variety, having

un>nown value.

@nticipated future uses and values of the un>nown are captured in the idea of Ooption valuesO 'for

definitions, see Corld :onservation 4nion 1320(. @ species, or other element of biodiversity, has option

value when its continued existence retains the possibility of future uses and benefits. Bption value

corresponds not Pust to un>nown future values of >nown species, but also to the un>nown values of

un>nown species 'or other components of variation(. This concept is at the core of biodiversity because it

lin>s OvariationO and OvalueO. Astimating and #uantifying the largely un>nown variation that ma>es up

biodiversity is one and the same as #uantifying corresponding option values of biodiversity. @ccording to

this emphasis, a basic definition of biodiversity might be expanded as< the variety of all forms of life, from

the scale of genes through to species and ecosystems so forming a OcalculusO & a means for measurement

and comparison & of option values.

9ocussing on this important aspect of biodiversity does not throw away the other possible ObiodiversityO

values that might be listed 'process?based OresilienceO of ecosystems, current commodity values of species,

etc.(, but facilitates integration of biodiversity;s option values with those other values. These possibilities are

discussed further in the section on 6ntegrating "rocess and Alements "erspectives.

Niven that holistic approaches may integrate functional and compositional aspects, the following sections

address these different biodiversity perspectives. The next section addresses the early attempts to address

values of biodiversity as a whole that emerged from dissatisfaction with the Obits and piecesO focus on

individual species. @ later section, @lternatives to 4nit?species, presents attempts to address some

wea>nesses of this initial approach.

*. 9GBQ E"A:6AE K@4AE TB 86BD6KAGE6T7 [email protected] Species Values and Triage

6n developing ideas about the overall value of biodiversity it has been natural to draw on existing arguments

about values of individual species 'for review, see Corld :onservation 4nion 1320$ 5orton 1322(.

:ommodity value and other direct use values have intuitive appeal because they reflect >nown values. 8ut a

>ey problem is that species need to be preserved for reasons other than any >nown value as resources for

human use 'Eober 132(. :allicott '132( discusses philosophical arguments regarding non?utilitarian value

and concludes that there is no easy argument to be made except a moral one. Epecies have some Ointrinsic

valueO & reflecting the idea that a species has a value Oin and for itselfO ':allicott 132, p.10( & and there

is an ethical obligation to protect biodiversity.

@ philosophical issue is whether such species values depend on a human?centered perspective. The

environmental ethics entry notes that assessments of issues concerned with biodiversity allow for

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Ocommitment either to a purely anthropocentric or purely non?anthropocentric ethicO. Gegan '132( argues

that we need Oduties that are independent of out changeable needs and preferences.O :allicott '132( sees the

intrinsic value of species as not independent of human values, because such values can be lin>ed to ume;s

theory of moral values. 5orton '132( sees all species as collectively embraced by an environmental ethic

that is anthropocentric.

Gandall '1322, p. *12( has argued that preference is the basis for value and that it is possible to treat all

species values as preferences of humans. "references?based approaches to valuation can provide economic

'dollar( estimates of value. This valuation process may include methods for assessing and #uantifying optionvalues. @ claimed advantage of such approaches is that the only good way to protect species is to place an

economic value on them. Gandall argues that such #uantification is advantageous because the species

preservation option will fare well when the full range of values is included in conservation priority setting.

The context for many of these arguments has been a consideration of various criteria for placing priorities

among species for conservation efforts. These considerations have led to debates about the role of OtriageO

based on species prioriti!ation. Triage recalls the medical context in which priorities are set for investments

in saving patients. @pplied to conservation, individual species are differentially valued and assessed relative

to differential opportunity costs. The best conservation pac>age is to be found through a process of

calculating costs and benefits of protection of individual species.

2.2 Species as Equal Units and SMS

Qany biologists have rePected the idea of triage and argue that we must try to save all species 'Ta>acs 133(.

"hilosophical issues arise in the debate as to whether biodiversity should be approached through the process

of differentially valuing species, so that choices could be made in the face of a budget, or regarding species

as the fundamental unit and trying to protect them all. The latter option is arguably more holistic and in

accord with a focus on all of biodiversity 'the individual species focus is sometimes viewed as the first of

three phases of growth in biological resources assessment$ see the section on The Ehift from Alements to

"rocesses(.

6f one nominated a Opre#uelO to Biodiversity '1322( it might be The Preservation of Species '5orton 132(.

The title suggests a species focus, but the boo>;s subtitle refers to biological diversity. This boo> documentsan attempt to move from values of species to some overall value of biodiversity, rePecting typical triage

arguments based on benefits versus costs for individual species. ere, 5orton critici!es the Obenefit & costO

approaches as piecemeal because every species must exhibit actual or potential use to Pustify itself. e

argues that every species arguably has utilitarian value and that species perceived values are hard to

estimate. 9or this reason, trying to place dollar values is Odoomed to failureO '132, p. *0*(. 5orton

concludes that we can;t try to sum up values 'in accord with his general advocacy of no aggregation of

biodiversity values(. 6t is argued that we should abandon the Odivide and con#uerO approach and loo> at total

diversity, with species as a unit< Oeach species in an area can be viewed as a unit of total diversity.O

Ahrenfeld;s '1322( position is even more sharply defined< Ovalue is an intrinsic part of biodiversity$ it does

not depend on the properties of the species in #uestion.O

This perspective demands some alternative to species?based triage that will still accommodate the reality of

limited resources. The idea of a Osafe minimum standardO 'EQE( for biodiversity has been proposed as a

suitable alternative to triage. 5orton advocates an EQE based on unit?species, interpreted to mean that all

species are saved unless costs are intolerable$ he argues for Opreservation of species as a general policyO.

Cilson '133*, p. +10( also has advocated an EQE in which all species are to be protected unless costs are

too high. e argues that we Otreat each as an irreplaceable resource for humanityO. This is directly in

preference to a cost?benefit approach, characteri!ed as examining single species and their properties and

deciding how much to invest.

The EQE leaves the idea of Otoo high a costO open to different interpretations. These vary with philosophical

perspectives about the nature of values. 9or example, Odeep ecologyO, where biodiversity is independent ofhuman value, responds differently to OutilitarianismO, where biodiversity might be preserved to extent that

measurable benefits to humans exceed costs 'see The Preservation of Species(. Gandall;s '132, p. 10+(

utilitarian position considers intrinsic or option value of unit?species in conPunction with any recogni!ed

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utilitarian value< all species not already distinguished in having recognised human?use values Owould be

treated as having a positive but un>nown expected value$ implicitly all would be treated as e#ually

valuable.O

Despite difficulties in actual implementation, the ideal of an EQE based on species as units of biodiversity

has remained popular from the 132 The Preservation of Species through at least to Ta>acs; review '133(.

6n the latter boo>, obPections to attempts to differentiate and prioriti!e among species are extended to ta>e

into account approaches developed in the early 30;s that #uantify taxonomic distinctions among species.

These methods address the idea that a species that is taxonomically 'or phylogenetically( distinctive maydeserve a higher priority for biodiversity conservation 'see Corld :onservation 4nion 1320(. Ta>acs '133$

p. 1( cites early proposals of this >ind for a OcalculusO of biodiversity, and obPects to the resulting

OintricateO calculations to prioriti!e species based on taxonomic distinctiveness. e claims that Owe can

avoid tedious mathematical calculations of relative species value by switching to biodiversityO. Ta>acs Poins

others in arguing that we do not >now enough about species to assign different values 'for further review,

see 9aith 133(. @s an alternative to such a triage approach, an EQE?style approach again is advocated

based on the number of unit?species saved within a budget.

6n conclusion, the EQE is compatible with an all?of?biodiversity perspective that views species collectively,

avoiding the seemingly arbitrary Obits and piecesO approaches to individual species priorities that arguably

are poorly Pustified given our poor >nowledge. The EQE approach, however, arguably suffers from adouble?barrelled arbitrariness of its own, in the choice of a level of variation 'species( and the choice of a

threshold on costs. @lternative approaches are considered in the next section.

+. @TAG5@T6KAE TB 456T?E"A:6AE

Ce can recogni!e two alternatives to the use of species as e#ual?weight units for an EQE. Bne of these 'see

the section on The Ehift from Alements to "rocesses( consciously moves further away from units or items of

any >ind. ere, the valuation of species is seen as problematic, with arbitrary solutions. Kaluation is to

encompass all of biodiversity but through a functional perspective, shifting the focus to ecosystems

processes '5orton 133, *001(.

The other alternative [see the section on Bption Kalue and ierarchy of Kariation might be viewed as going

to the other extreme. 4nits or elements of biodiversity are seen 'at least implicitly( at every level of

biological variation, and the #uantification of variation is to provide relative valuations 'e.g. of different

places( for priority setting.

These two perspectives provide different responses to the issues concerning taxonomic distinctiveness

valuations on species & so providing one benchmar> for comparisons. 6n the ecosystem processes case, this

has provided a prototype example of problems with attempts to value species?units. 6n the hierarchical

variation case, it has provided a prototype example of the #uantification of un>nown variation and option

value at one nominated scale of biodiversity.

3.1 The Shift from Elements to Processes

5orton '*001( summari!es the development of the process perspective on biodiversity by describing three

phases of growth in Obiological resourcesO conservation over the past years. The first was the focus on

individual species. The second phase was a OproblematicO perception of biodiversity as all about protection

of OobPectsO & merely expanding the list of OitemsO from the first phase. ere, 5orton '*001( obPects to an

OatomisticO bias of western culture towards obPects. e argues that biodiversity has been wrongly focussed

on OinventoryO of species, genes, ecosystems and has neglected processes that create and maintain natural

values. This inventory perspective is described as OstaticO, not dynamic 'see also 9ran>el and Eoule 1321$

Ta>acs 133(.

5orton argues that the inade#uacy of this second phase, being Oill?suitedO to an emerging process

orientation, has lead to the third phase based on ecosystem processes. ere, values are not to be attached to

obPects$ instead, we should value 'or OabhorO( processes. This approach is characterised as more dynamic in

its perspective, as systems oriented, and therefore more OholisticO. The focus is on maintaining functions of

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healthy ecosystems, such as provision of clean air and water. This process orientation is compatible with

much recent wor> internationally on ecosystem services [Ta>acs 133$ Qillennium Acosystem @ssessment.

The term ObiodiversityO is used in this context largely as an assumed foundation for ecosystem processes.

5orton '*001( sees the process focus as replacing, not complementing, the Oincreasingly obsoleteO

inventoryRitems perspective of biodiversity, arguing that we Owill li>ely move away from the inventory?of?

obPects approach altogetherO. The processes perspective is to determine how we loo> at biodiversity< O

applied to biodiversity policy, we can focus on the processes that have created and sustained the species and

elements that currently exist, rather than on the species and elements themselvesO '*001$ p. 30(. 9urther, Oitis reasonable to interpret advocates of biodiversity protection as valuing natural processes for their capacity

to maintain support and repair damage to their partsO '*001$ p. 31(.

Gelated arguments are found in the advocacy of Obiological integrityO 'Iarr 1331(, in preference to

biodiversity, as a focus for conservation management. 8iological integrity is primarily concerned with the

persistence of biogeographic, evolutionary, and ecosystem processes, such as those relating to energy flows.

9or @ngermeier and Iarr '133(, Ointegrity is reflected in both the biotic elements and the processes that

generate and maintain those elements, whereas diversity describes only the elements.O They conclude that

Oresource policy would be most effective if based on the more comprehensive goal of protecting biological

integrity.O 8iological integrity is

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