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Th
e m
usi
c o
f T
o_
ru
Tak
emit
su
(19
30
-19
96
) is
o
ften
ch
arac
teri
zed
as
re
pre
sen
tin
g so
met
hin
g es
sen
tial
ly J
apan
ese.
Wit
h a
few
exc
epti
on
s, a
ttem
pts
to
defi
ne
wh
at m
akes
T
akem
itsu
’s m
usi
c ‘J
apan
ese’
hav
e b
een
lim
ited
to
th
e re
alm
of
aest
het
ics
and
ph
ilo
sop
hy,
le
avin
g co
ncr
ete
refe
ren
ces
to
trad
itio
nal
Ja
pan
ese
mu
sic,
to
w
hic
h
the
com
po
ser
has
po
inte
d m
ore
th
an o
nce
, u
nd
erex
po
sed
. T
his
art
icle
aim
s to
fill
up
th
is l
acu
na
by
trac
ing
the
rep
ercu
ssio
n o
f p
itch
, te
xtu
ral,
and
tem
po
ral
org
aniz
atio
n a
s p
erta
inin
g to
tr
adit
ion
al J
apan
ese
mu
sic
on
Tak
emit
su’s
co
mp
osi
tio
nal
tec
hn
iqu
e. T
he
focu
s w
ill b
e o
n
Tak
emit
su’s
rep
erto
ire
for
pia
no
, w
hic
h s
pan
s h
is f
ull
car
eer,
an
d w
hic
h h
as b
een
giv
en
on
ly l
ittl
e sc
ho
larl
y at
ten
tio
n i
n t
he
Wes
tern
wo
rld
, esp
ecia
lly
wit
h r
esp
ect
to i
ts r
elat
ion
to
tra
dit
ion
al J
apan
ese
mu
sic.
Tak
emit
su’s
Rel
atio
n t
o T
rad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e M
usi
cW
hen
dea
lin
g w
ith
‘tra
dit
ion
al J
apan
ese
mu
sic’
, it
is c
ruci
al t
o b
ear
in m
ind
th
at t
his
ter
m
do
es n
ot
cove
r o
ne
coh
eren
t tr
adit
ion
. In
stea
d, a
gre
at n
um
ber
of
rela
tive
ly i
nd
epen
den
t,
par
alle
l tr
adit
ion
s w
ith
no
or
on
ly l
imit
ed i
nte
ract
ion
exi
sts.
Th
rou
gho
ut
this
art
icle
th
e u
mb
rell
a te
rm ‘t
rad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c’ w
ill b
e u
sed
in
its
bro
ades
t se
nse
to
ref
er t
o a
ll
kin
ds
of
folk
, co
urt
, rel
igio
us,
an
d a
rt m
usi
c, in
clu
din
g d
ram
atic
gen
res
such
as
no_
,kab
uki
an
dbu
nra
ku.
Fro
m 1
86
8 o
nw
ard
s, J
apan
op
ened
up
to
war
ds
the
Wes
t, a
nd
tra
dit
ion
al
mu
sics
in
crea
sin
gly
bec
ame
pu
bli
cly
acce
ssib
le.
Pri
or
to
this
, ge
nre
s re
pre
sen
ted
in
dep
end
ent
soci
al s
trat
a (D
an 1
96
1: 2
09
), g
ener
atin
g in
dep
end
ent
kin
ds
of
mu
sic
theo
ry
(Ko
mo
da/
No
gaw
a 2
00
2: 5
65
).
Bo
rn i
n J
apan
in
19
30
, T
o_
ru T
akem
itsu
sp
ent
an e
xten
sive
par
t o
f h
is c
hil
dh
oo
d i
n
Man
chu
ria,
Ch
ina.
In
19
38
, h
e w
as s
ent
bac
k t
o J
apan
to
att
end
pri
mar
y sc
ho
ol,
and
d
uri
ng
the
Seco
nd
Wo
rld
War
he
live
d w
ith
his
au
nt
was
a t
each
er o
f ko
to, a
13
-str
ing
lon
g zi
ther
. Tak
emit
su (
19
89
: 20
0)
on
ce c
laim
ed th
at th
is p
erio
d m
ade
him
ass
oci
ate
trad
itio
nal
m
usi
c n
egat
ivel
y w
ith
war
an
d d
estr
uct
ion
, wh
ich
mig
ht
exp
lain
wh
y h
e in
itia
lly
avo
ided
d
irec
t re
fere
nce
s to
th
is m
usi
cal
her
itag
e. I
nd
eed
, in
th
e im
med
iate
aft
erm
ath
of
the
war
, T
akem
itsu
, li
ke m
any
oth
er m
emb
ers
of
his
gen
erat
ion
wh
o w
ere
dis
illu
sio
ned
by
the
po
vert
y an
d d
isas
ter
bro
ugh
t ab
ou
t b
y th
ose
in
po
wer
, tu
rned
to
war
ds
the
Wes
t, t
he
Un
ited
Sta
tes
of
Am
eric
a in
par
ticu
lar.
As
he
rela
ted
mo
re t
han
on
ce i
n a
uto
bio
grap
hic
al
acco
un
ts,
Tak
emit
su’s
key
exp
erie
nce
lea
din
g to
th
is w
estw
ard
ori
enta
tio
n o
ccu
rred
to
war
d t
he
end
of
the
war
, w
hen
an
Am
eric
an i
nva
sio
n t
hre
aten
ed a
nd
he
was
dra
fted
in
to t
he
Jap
anes
e ar
my.
On
e d
ay, i
n a
pro
bab
ly r
isk
y m
ove
, on
e o
f T
akem
itsu
’s s
up
erio
rs
pla
yed
so
me
Wes
tern
rec
ord
s fo
r h
im a
nd
his
fel
low
co
nsc
rip
ts,
incl
ud
ing
the
Fre
nch
ch
anso
n P
arle
z-m
oi d
’am
our.
Aft
er t
he
war
, th
e yo
un
g T
akem
itsu
, str
uck
by
the
qu
alit
ies
of
Wes
tern
mu
sic,
was
glu
ed t
o t
he
rad
io s
tati
on
of
the
U.S
. A
rmed
Fo
rces
in
To
kyo
an
d e
xplo
red
wo
rks
of
Am
eric
an c
om
po
sers
at
the
lib
rary
of
the
Civ
il I
nfo
rmat
ion
an
d
Ed
uca
tio
n b
ran
ch o
f th
e U
.S. O
ccu
pat
ion
Go
vern
men
t (T
akem
itsu
19
89
: 19
9-2
00
). H
ere,
th
e fo
un
dat
ion
was
lai
d f
or
Tak
emit
su’s
car
eer
as a
co
mp
ose
r, d
uri
ng
wh
ich
he
wo
uld
ad
op
t p
rin
cip
les
fro
m v
ario
us
Wes
tern
rep
erto
ires
– e
lect
ron
ic m
usi
c, m
usi
que
con
crèt
e,se
rial
ism
, po
pu
lar
mu
sic,
im
pre
ssio
nis
m, F
luxu
s, a
nd
ale
ato
ric
mu
sic.
In 1
96
0, a
lan
dm
ark
exp
erie
nce
(re
)aw
aken
ed T
akem
itsu
’s f
asci
nat
ion
wit
h t
rad
itio
nal
m
usi
c w
hic
h r
elea
sed
him
fro
m h
is s
elf-
app
oin
ted
po
siti
on
as
‘“en
slav
ed”
by
the
mu
sic
of
Web
ern
’ (O
hta
ke 1
99
3:
81
): h
e w
itn
esse
d a
per
form
ance
of
bun
raku
, tr
adit
ion
al p
up
pet
th
eate
r. A
n e
nco
un
ter
wit
h J
oh
n C
age,
to
o,
led
him
‘to
rec
ogn
ize
the
valu
e o
f [h
is]
ow
n
trad
itio
n’
(Tak
emit
su 1
98
9:
19
9).
Fro
m t
hen
on
, T
akem
itsu
in
crea
sin
gly
intr
od
uce
d
com
po
siti
on
al c
har
acte
rist
ics
fro
m t
rad
itio
nal
mu
sics
an
d s
tart
ed c
om
po
sin
g p
iece
s fo
r n
on
-Wes
tern
in
stru
men
ts s
uch
as
Ecl
ipse
(1
96
6)
for
biw
a (s
ho
rt-n
ecke
d l
ute
) an
d
shak
uh
ach
i (b
amb
oo
flu
te),
Nov
embe
r St
eps (
19
67
) w
her
e th
ese
inst
rum
ents
are
co
ntr
aste
d
wit
h a
sym
ph
on
y o
rch
estr
a, I
n a
n A
utu
mn
Gar
den
(1
97
9)
for
trad
itio
nal
co
urt
mu
sic
ense
mb
le, D
ista
nce
(1
97
2)
for
ob
oe
and
sh
o_
(m
ou
th o
rgan
), a
nd
Git
imal
ya (
19
74
) in
wh
ich
C
hin
ese
and
Jav
anes
e go
ngs
an
d a
n A
fric
an l
og
dru
m i
nte
ract
. M
ore
ove
r, T
akem
itsu
’s
nu
mer
ou
s w
riti
ngs
ab
ou
t m
usi
c re
veal
his
pre
occ
up
atio
n w
ith
‘Jap
anes
enes
s’ i
n m
usi
c as
w
ell
as E
ast
Asi
an a
esth
etic
s. T
hu
s, a
s a
com
po
ser
Tak
emit
su p
osi
tio
ned
him
self
bet
wee
n
two
tra
dit
ion
s: W
este
rn a
rt m
usi
c an
d t
rad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c. A
s h
e o
nce
ph
rase
d
it: ‘
I w
ou
ld l
ike
to d
evel
op
in
tw
o d
irec
tio
ns
at o
nce
, as
a J
apan
ese
in t
rad
itio
n a
nd
as
a W
este
rner
in
in
no
vati
on
’ (G
ill
19
74
).
Tak
emit
su’s
Pia
no
Rep
erto
ire
As
men
tio
ned
ab
ove
, T
akem
itsu
was
in
flu
ence
d b
y va
rio
us
arti
stic
cu
rren
ts d
uri
ng
his
ca
reer
. Man
y o
f th
ese
wer
e co
-exi
sten
t, a
nd
on
e sh
ou
ld t
her
efo
re b
e ca
uti
ou
s ab
ou
t fo
rcin
g a
clea
r-cu
t ca
tego
riza
tio
n o
f h
is w
ork
s. H
ow
ever
, fo
r th
e p
urp
ose
of
an o
verv
iew
I t
ake
the
lib
erty
of
assi
gnin
g th
e p
ian
o w
ork
s to
five
ro
ugh
ly c
hro
no
logi
cal
per
iod
s:1
Rom
ance
for
Pia
no
(19
48
) an
dL
ento
in
Du
e M
ovim
enti
(1
95
0 –
lat
er p
ub
lish
ed i
n a
rew
ork
ed v
ersi
on
as
Lit
any
[19
89
]) t
he
styl
e is
rat
her
to
nal
. Ho
wev
er, J
apan
ese
infl
uen
ces
are
man
ifes
tly
exp
ose
d
in c
ho
rd c
on
stru
ctio
ns,
sca
les
and
tex
ture
.P
ause
In
inte
rrom
pu
e(1
95
2-6
0)
and
Pia
no
Dis
tan
ce (
19
61
). B
oth
are
wri
tten
in c
om
pre
ssed
form
em
plo
yin
g p
oin
till
isti
c fe
atu
res
sugg
esti
ng
the
styl
e o
f A
nto
n W
eber
n, a
mo
ng
oth
ers.
Cor
ona
(19
62
) an
d C
ross
ing
(19
62
), T
akem
itsu
den
ote
d a
deg
ree
of
imp
rovi
sati
on
no
t w
itn
esse
d i
n t
he
fou
r o
ther
per
iod
s.
amo
ng
Jap
anes
e co
mp
ose
rs i
n t
he
19
60
s, T
akem
itsu
co
mp
ose
d w
ork
s w
ith
Jap
anes
e in
stru
men
ts.2
A s
tud
y tr
ip t
o B
ali
exp
lori
ng
the
gam
elan
trad
itio
n (
Tak
emit
su 1
97
4:
39
-40
) al
so e
nri
ched
For
Aw
ay (
19
73
), a
t le
ast
acco
rdin
g to
so
me
theo
rist
s.3
Les
Yeu
x C
los
(19
79
) al
so b
elo
ngs
to
th
is p
erio
d.
Rai
n T
ree
Sket
ch(1
98
2),
Les
Yeu
x C
los
II (
19
89
) an
d R
ain
Tre
e Sk
etch
II
(19
92
), T
akem
itsu
pre
ferr
ed
mel
od
ic e
xpre
ssiv
enes
s o
ver
an a
van
t-ga
rde
idio
m,
wh
ich
led
to
a s
tyle
wit
h m
od
al
refe
ren
ces,
few
er s
har
p c
on
tras
ts,
mo
re h
om
oge
no
us
form
s an
d l
on
ger,
ho
rizo
nta
lly
exte
nd
ed p
hra
ses.
Pre
vio
us
Res
earc
hM
ost
of t
he
stu
die
s th
at d
iscu
ss th
e re
cep
tio
n o
f tra
dit
ion
al Ja
pan
ese
mu
sic
in c
on
tem
po
rary
m
usi
c fo
cus
excl
usi
vely
on
his
tori
cal
issu
es (
e.g.
Dan
19
61
; K
oiz
um
i 1
96
1;
Hei
fetz
19
84
) o
r o
n a
bst
ract
aes
thet
ic c
on
cep
ts (
e.g.
Tam
ba
19
76
; Lee
19
91
; Nar
azak
i 2
00
2)
rath
er t
han
o
n c
on
cret
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s o
f co
nte
mp
ora
ry c
om
po
siti
on
al t
ech
niq
ue.
Oh
take
’s b
oo
k
(19
93
), f
or
inst
ance
, is
a m
on
ogr
aph
on
Tak
emit
su a
nd
ded
icat
es a
co
mp
lete
ch
apte
r to
th
e p
ian
o w
ork
s, b
ut
is,
nev
erth
eles
s, c
hie
fly
con
cern
ed w
ith
aes
thet
ics.
Th
e sa
me
ho
lds
tru
e fo
r C
hu
ng-
Hai
ng
Lee
’s d
oct
ora
l d
isse
rtat
ion
. H
is i
nve
stig
atio
n o
f ‘h
ow
Tak
emit
su
so
skil
lfu
lly
infu
ses
his
W
este
rn-o
rien
ted
p
ian
o
com
po
siti
on
s w
ith
tr
adit
ion
al
and
ae
sth
etic
Jap
anes
e el
emen
ts’ i
s li
mit
ed t
o p
hil
oso
ph
ical
infl
uen
ces
like
Zen
Bu
dd
his
m a
nd
Ja
pan
ese
arts
(L
ee 1
99
1:
2).
Lee
’s s
elf-
pro
clai
med
fo
cus
on
aes
thet
ic i
ssu
es l
ead
s h
im t
o
char
acte
rize
Tak
emit
su’s
pia
no
mu
sic
as m
erel
y ‘E
aste
rn a
esth
etic
s [s
ub
ject
ed]
to W
este
rn
com
po
siti
on
al t
ech
niq
ues
’ (5
7),
bei
ng
‘un
iqu
e in
th
at i
t so
oft
en e
xpre
sses
a J
apan
ese
spir
it w
ith
ou
t o
bvi
ou
sly
uti
lizi
ng
Jap
anes
e m
usi
cal
mat
eria
l’ (2
). T
his
co
nce
pti
on
mig
ht
be
rep
rese
nta
tive
of
the
thre
e p
arti
cula
r p
iece
s L
ee a
dd
ress
ed i
n h
is d
isse
rtat
ion
(P
ian
o D
ista
nce
,F
or A
way
an
dP
ause
In
inte
rrom
pu
e),
bu
t n
ot
nec
essa
rily
of
Tak
emit
su’s
pia
no
m
usi
c in
gen
eral
. T
akem
itsu
, to
o, h
ard
ly d
iscu
ssed
his
co
mp
osi
tio
nal
met
ho
d t
hro
ugh
ou
t h
is n
um
ero
us
wri
tin
gs (
Bu
rt 2
00
1:
2-3
). T
his
sil
ence
is
typ
ical
of
man
y o
f T
akem
itsu
’s c
on
tem
po
rari
es
wh
o c
riti
cize
d t
hei
r p
red
eces
sors
fo
r h
avin
g em
plo
yed
tra
dit
ion
al m
usi
c fo
r n
atio
nal
isti
c p
urp
ose
s. F
or
this
gen
erat
ion
, ‘Ja
pan
esen
ess’
did
no
t re
sid
e so
mu
ch in
mel
od
ies,
rh
yth
mic
p
atte
rns,
or
inst
rum
enta
l so
un
ds
dra
wn
fro
m t
rad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c, b
ut
rath
er i
n a
ce
rtai
n ‘m
ind
-set
’. T
her
efo
re,
if T
akem
itsu
ref
erre
d t
o J
apan
ese
elem
ents
in
his
wo
rk,
he
usu
ally
lim
ited
his
co
mm
enta
ry t
o i
ts a
esth
etic
an
d f
orm
al d
imen
sio
ns
(e.g
., ‘s
tro
llin
g th
rou
gh a
Jap
anes
e ga
rden
’) r
ath
er t
han
on
its
pit
ch o
r rh
yth
mic
mat
eria
l.4 M
any
sch
ola
rs
and
co
mm
enta
tors
hav
e fo
llo
wed
Tak
emit
su’s
exa
mp
le, a
nd
, in
Sh
uh
ei H
oso
kaw
a’s
wo
rds
(20
03
: 50
6),
esp
ecia
lly
‘Jap
anes
e au
tho
rs, w
hil
e q
uo
tin
g fr
om
his
in
tro
spec
tive
ess
ays
and
in
tuit
ive
inte
rvie
ws,
ten
d t
o i
nte
rpre
t T
akem
itsu
acc
ord
ing
to h
is w
ord
s ra
ther
th
an h
is
sco
re.’
Alt
ho
ugh
su
cces
sfu
l sc
ore
-ori
ente
d a
nal
yses
of
Tak
emit
su’s
mu
sic
hav
e b
een
car
ried
o
ut,
th
e m
ajo
rity
of
thes
e d
o n
ot
pay
sp
ecifi
c at
ten
tio
n t
o t
he
pia
no
wo
rks.
Fo
r in
stan
ce,
Her
d (
19
89
) p
rim
aril
y d
ealt
wit
h t
he
neo
-nat
ion
alis
t sc
ho
ol
of
the
earl
y p
ost
-war
yea
rs
bef
ore
Tak
emit
su a
do
pte
d a
key
po
siti
on
in
Jap
anes
e m
usi
cal
life
, an
d W
atan
abe’
s st
ud
y (1
99
2)
of
trad
itio
nal
ele
men
ts i
n W
este
rn-s
tyle
pia
no
wo
rks
by
Jap
anes
e co
mp
ose
rs
on
ly r
efer
red
to
Tak
emit
su b
riefl
y. B
urt
’s m
on
ogr
aph
(2
00
1)
on
Tak
emit
su i
s u
niq
ue
by
pro
vid
ing
the
firs
t an
alyt
ical
ove
rvie
w o
f T
akem
itsu
’s c
om
ple
te o
euvr
e in
En
glis
h,
bu
t th
ou
gh r
efer
ence
s to
tra
dit
ion
al m
usi
c o
ccu
r sp
ora
dic
ally
, it
s fo
cus
seem
s b
iase
d
tow
ard
s W
este
rn i
nfl
uen
ces.
Sim
ilar
ly, o
ther
sco
re-o
rien
ted
stu
die
s h
ave
con
cen
trat
ed o
n
infl
uen
ces
fro
m D
ebu
ssy
and
Mes
siae
n (
Ko
ozi
n 1
99
3; 2
00
2),
Am
eric
an j
azz
theo
ry (
Bu
rt
20
02
a),
and
do
dec
aph
on
y (B
urt
20
02
b).
On
th
e o
ther
han
d,
Nu
ss (
20
02
) an
d E
vere
tt
(20
05
) st
ud
ied
co
urt
mu
sic
infl
uen
ces
on
Tak
emit
su, b
ut
focu
sed
on
en
sem
ble
pie
ces,
as
it
is t
he
case
wit
h S
mal
do
ne’
s an
alys
is (
19
89
) o
f la
rge-
scal
e p
itch
org
aniz
atio
n i
n N
ovem
ber
Step
s (1
96
7)
and
Au
tum
n (
19
73
).B
y fo
cusi
ng
on
Tak
emit
su’s
pia
no
rep
erto
ire,
in
clu
din
g yo
uth
ful
pie
ces
pri
or
to t
he
19
60
s as
wel
l as
lat
er p
iece
s fr
om
th
e 1
98
0s
and
19
90
s, I
aim
at
refi
nin
g th
e co
ncl
usi
on
s p
rovi
ded
by
Lee
(1
99
1)
and
oth
ers,
an
d m
akin
g an
att
emp
t to
war
ds
furt
her
gen
eral
izat
ion
. In
my
anal
ysis
I w
ill
incl
ud
e ex
cerp
ts f
rom
Les
Yeu
x C
los
II,
Rai
n T
ree
Sket
ch I
an
d I
I,R
oman
ce f
or P
ian
o an
d L
itan
y, w
hic
h w
ere
no
t ad
dre
ssed
by
Lee
an
d,
wh
en a
pp
rop
riat
e an
d n
eces
sary
, pro
vid
e su
pp
lem
ent
for
earl
ier
anal
yses
. Mo
reo
ver,
I w
ill f
ocu
s o
n t
he
dir
ect
imp
act
of
trad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
cs o
n T
akem
itsu
’s c
om
po
siti
on
al t
ech
niq
ue,
an
d o
nly
re
fer
to t
he
aest
het
ic d
imen
sio
n a
nd
th
e co
mp
ose
r’s
ow
n w
riti
ngs
wh
en t
his
is
dir
ectl
y re
leva
nt
to t
ech
nic
al d
etai
ls.
Infl
uen
ces
fro
m T
rad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e M
usi
c o
n T
akem
itsu
’s P
ian
o W
ork
s T
his
sec
tio
n a
dd
ress
es i
nd
ivid
ual
to
pic
s o
f in
flu
ence
; in
itia
lly
wit
h r
esp
ect
to t
ech
nic
al
asp
ects
(rh
yth
m a
nd
met
er, m
od
es a
nd
mel
od
y, a
nd
text
ure
), a
nd
eve
ntu
ally
wit
h c
on
cep
ts
tou
chin
g o
n t
he
aest
het
ic d
imen
sio
n (
sim
pli
city
, sil
ence
, rev
erb
erat
ion
, an
d n
ois
e).
Rh
yth
m a
nd
met
erM
uch
tra
dit
ion
al J
apan
ese
mu
sic
is c
har
acte
rize
d b
y fr
ee r
hyt
hm
(K
ish
ibe
et a
l. 20
09:
§1),
re
flec
tin
g a
stro
nge
r re
lati
on
to
th
e u
nst
able
hu
man
bre
ath
th
an t
o t
he
stab
le h
eart
bea
t o
r w
alki
ng
pac
e ch
arac
teri
stic
of
Wes
tern
mu
sic.
5 I
n h
is p
ian
o w
ork
s T
akem
itsu
ap
plie
d d
iffe
ren
t st
rate
gies
of e
scap
ing
the
div
isiv
e m
eter
, wh
ich
str
uct
ure
s m
ost
of W
este
rn m
usi
c as
an
inh
eren
t p
art
of
the
no
tati
on
al s
yste
m it
self
. Fo
r in
stan
ce, t
ho
ugh
gen
eral
ly c
on
form
ing
to t
he
Wes
tern
co
nce
pt
of
regu
larl
y m
eter
ed r
hyt
hm
, L
itan
y co
nta
ins
such
ele
men
ts.
In t
his
pie
ce f
req
uen
t u
se o
f fe
rmat
as a
nd
gra
ce n
ote
s d
istu
rbs
the
stab
ility
of
the
bea
t, an
d in
the
seco
nd
mo
vem
ent,
T
akem
itsu
in
sert
ed t
emp
o fl
uct
uat
ion
s w
ith
in
dic
atio
ns
such
as
poco
str
inge
nd
o,ri
tard
and
o,a
tem
po,i
n T
empo
,rap
id,p
oco
acce
lera
nd
o,le
nto
,più
mos
so. M
ore
ove
r, t
his
mo
vem
ent
lack
s cl
ear
met
er s
ince
the
bar
len
gth
var
ies
free
ly fr
om
two
to s
even
bea
ts. S
imila
rly,
in L
es Y
eux
Clo
s,d
isti
nct
tem
po
ind
icat
ion
s ar
e gi
ven
to
nea
rly
each
bar
res
ult
ing
in a
met
rica
l fre
edo
m w
hic
h
was
hit
her
to u
nh
eard
in T
akem
itsu
’s p
ian
o w
ork
s.6
Un
equ
al b
ar l
engt
h i
s re
late
d t
o t
he
ph
eno
men
on
‘ad
dit
ive
met
er’,
wh
ich
is
evid
ent
fro
m t
he
use
of
add
itiv
e m
oti
fs i
n T
akem
itsu
’s p
ian
o m
usi
c. T
he
mo
tif
in E
xam
ple
1
init
iall
y o
ccu
rs i
n t
he
left
han
d a
nd
is
sub
seq
uen
tly
rep
eate
d i
n t
he
righ
t h
and
ass
iste
d
by
ano
ther
ad
dit
ive
mo
tif
in t
he
left
han
d a
pp
lyin
g si
mil
ar p
itch
es i
n a
new
ord
er. A
lso
th
e th
ree
kin
ds
of
ferm
atas
(‘v
ery
lon
g’, ‘
med
ium
’an
d ‘s
ho
rt’)
use
d i
n R
ain
Tre
e Sk
etch
add
su
btl
etie
s to
th
e in
terp
reta
tio
n o
f th
e u
nd
erly
ing
met
er.
In t
his
pie
ce f
req
uen
t te
mp
o c
han
ges
and
nu
mer
ou
s te
mp
o-r
elat
ed e
xpre
ssio
ns
(rap
idly
,poc
o ra
llen
tan
do,
poc
o st
rin
gen
do,
sen
za m
isu
ra a
nd
dyi
ng
away
) si
mil
arly
blu
r th
e p
ictu
re.
Fro
m L
es Y
eux
Clo
s II
on
war
ds,
Tak
emit
su a
pp
lied
tw
o g
rap
hic
sig
ns
for
acce
lera
nd
o an
d
dec
eler
and
o. W
her
eas
sign
s fo
r d
ynam
ics
had
alr
ead
y ex
iste
d f
or
ages
, co
mp
ose
rs h
ad o
nly
re
cen
tly
star
ted
dev
elo
pin
g gr
aph
ic s
ign
s fo
r gr
adu
al t
emp
o fl
uct
uat
ion
.7 T
his
ext
ensi
on
o
f n
ota
tio
nal
pra
ctic
e su
gges
ts a
wis
h t
o n
ota
te m
etri
cal
and
rh
yth
mic
su
btl
etie
s.8
Mo
des
an
d m
elo
dy
As
is t
he
case
fo
r ga
gaku
, th
e ‘e
lega
nt’
en
sem
ble
mu
sic
of
the
Imp
eria
l C
ou
rt,
and
th
e m
usi
cal
inst
rum
ents
use
d i
n t
his
gen
re,9
th
e Ja
pan
ese
tun
ing
syst
em a
nd
mo
des
wer
e ad
op
ted
fr
om
m
ain
lan
d
Ch
ina
and
su
bse
qu
entl
y al
tere
d
to
acco
mm
od
ate
Jap
anes
e p
ract
ice
and
ae
sth
etic
s (K
om
od
a/N
oga
wa
20
02
: 5
66
).
Bel
ow
I
wil
l su
gges
t p
oss
ible
co
nn
ecti
on
s b
etw
een
Tak
emit
su a
nd
th
e m
od
al p
ract
ice
of
trad
itio
nal
mu
sics
.T
akem
itsu
’s p
ian
o p
iece
s se
em t
o s
ho
w a
gen
eral
pre
fere
nce
fo
r th
e m
elo
dic
in
terv
als
of
fou
rth
s an
d s
eco
nd
s (H
anse
n 2
00
7: 1
8).
Sim
ilar
ly, a
no
ther
Jap
anes
e co
mp
ose
r, H
ikar
u
Hay
ash
i, o
nce
ad
mit
ted
to
fav
ori
ng
mel
od
ies
emp
loyi
ng
tho
se i
nte
rval
s b
ecau
se t
hey
re
min
d h
im o
f tr
adit
ion
al m
usi
c (H
erd
19
89
: 1
32
). I
n C
hin
a an
d s
ub
seq
uen
tly
Jap
an,
tun
ing
was
ori
gin
ally
per
form
ed i
n a
scen
din
g fi
fth
s an
d d
esce
nd
ing
fou
rth
s (e
.g. C
4-G
4-
D4
-A4
-E4
).10 F
rom
th
e fi
rst
five
no
tes
the
pen
tato
nic
ryo
_
mo
de
(e.g
. C
-D-E
-G-A
) w
as
crea
ted
, an
d t
he
rits
u m
od
e (e
.g. G
-A-C
-D-E
) w
as c
on
stru
cted
beg
inn
ing
fro
m t
he
fou
rth
d
egre
e o
f th
e ry
o_
(Ko
mo
da/
No
gaw
a 2
00
2:
56
6-5
67
). I
n f
act,
th
e in
terv
al-c
lass
vec
tor
<0
32
14
0>
sh
ared
by
ryo_
an
d r
itsu
on
ly c
on
firm
s th
e p
rom
inen
ce o
f m
ajo
r se
con
ds
and
fo
urt
hs
and
th
us
sugg
ests
a c
on
nec
tio
n b
etw
een
tra
dit
ion
al m
elo
die
s an
d t
ho
se c
om
po
sed
b
y H
ayas
hi
and
Tak
emit
su.
In
add
itio
n
to
ryo_
an
d
rits
u
char
acte
rist
ics,
T
akem
itsu
m
akes
ex
ten
sive
u
se
of
trit
on
es a
nd
sem
ito
nes
(K
oo
zin
19
91
: 12
8).
Alt
ho
ugh
th
ese
inte
rval
s ar
e ab
sen
t fr
om
th
e in
terv
al-c
lass
vec
tor
abo
ve,
this
mel
od
ic p
ract
ice
do
es n
ot
pre
clu
de
the
po
ssib
ilit
y th
at
Tak
emit
su’s
mel
od
ies
are
insp
ired
by
trad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c. O
n t
he
con
trar
y, a
fter
th
e an
hem
ito
nic
mo
des
wer
e im
po
rted
fro
m C
hin
a, J
apan
ese
mu
sic
dev
elo
ped
a p
refe
ren
ce
for
the
fou
rth
of
rits
u o
ver
the
thir
d o
f ry
o_
(W
atan
abe
19
92
), a
nd
par
ticu
larl
y in
ru
ral
area
s m
usi
cian
s st
arte
d l
ow
erin
g th
e se
con
d a
nd
fift
h d
egre
e –
esp
ecia
lly
in d
esce
nd
ing
dir
ecti
on
. T
he
resu
lt w
as t
he
hem
ito
nic
in
or
in-s
emp
o m
od
e (e
.g.
asce
nd
ing
G-A
-C-
D-F
-G <
12
21
31
> a
nd
des
cen
din
g G
-E-D
-C-A
-G <
21
12
31
>)
wh
ich
was
un
kn
ow
n i
n
Ch
ina.
Wh
erea
s in
gen
eral
no
up
war
d l
ead
ing
ton
es e
xist
in
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c (B
urn
ett
19
89
: 9
9),11 t
he
chro
mat
ical
ly d
esce
nd
ing
lead
ing
ton
e is
ch
arac
teri
stic
of
the
inm
od
e an
d a
lso
ver
y p
rom
inen
t th
rou
gho
ut
Tak
emit
su’s
op
us.
As
no
ted
by
Bu
rt (
20
01
: 2
6-2
8),
in
-sem
po
is u
sed
co
nsi
sten
tly
in R
oman
ce f
or P
ian
o.In
Tak
emit
su’s
mu
sic,
oct
ave
equ
ival
ence
is
no
t al
way
s m
ain
tain
ed.
Th
is p
ract
ice
mig
ht,
to
a c
erta
in e
xten
t, h
ave
its
ori
gin
in
tra
dit
ion
al m
usi
c. A
s d
emo
nst
rate
d b
y Yo
shih
iko
To
ku
mar
u,
the
no
tio
n t
hat
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c sh
ou
ld b
e co
nst
ruct
ed f
rom
th
e u
nit
of
an o
ctav
e w
as p
rob
ably
a m
ere
Wes
tern
im
po
siti
on
(K
om
od
a/N
oga
wa
20
02
: 57
0).
T
he
com
po
ser
To
shir
o_
May
uzu
mi
(19
29
-19
97
) o
nce
mad
e re
cord
ings
of
Jap
anes
e b
ells
. H
avin
g a
mo
re c
ylin
dri
cal
shap
e, t
hes
e ar
e sa
id t
o b
e d
isti
nct
ivel
y d
iffe
ren
t fr
om
Ch
ines
e an
d E
uro
pea
n o
nes
. B
y m
ean
s o
f el
ectr
o-a
cou
stic
an
alys
is,
May
uzu
mi
(19
64
) fo
un
d
the
typ
ical
ove
rto
ne
seri
es t
o c
on
tain
th
e n
ote
s C
2,
G3
, C
4,
D4
, F
4,
A4
, D
5,
E5
, F
5,
A5
, B
5.
Cle
arly
, n
o o
ctav
e eq
uiv
alen
ce i
s p
rese
nt
her
e. B
y co
mp
aris
on
to
th
e h
arm
on
ic
ove
rto
ne
seri
es, i
t is
rem
ark
able
th
at n
o t
on
es r
ecu
r in
hig
her
reg
iste
rs. T
hu
s, i
f o
ne
wer
e to
bas
e a
har
mo
nic
sys
tem
on
th
is, o
ctav
e eq
uiv
alen
ce w
ou
ld m
ost
pro
bab
ly b
e av
oid
ed.
Inte
rest
ingl
y, tw
o p
enta
ton
ic s
ets
sim
ilar
to th
e ry
o_
an
d r
itsu
pen
tach
ord
s em
erge
fro
m th
is
seri
es (
C, D
, F, G
, A a
nd
D, E
, F, A
, B).12 I
n t
his
way
, th
e cy
lind
rica
l sh
ape
of
the
Jap
anes
e b
ell s
eem
s to
refl
ect
the
pre
fere
nce
fo
r p
enta
ton
icis
m c
har
acte
rist
ic o
f Ja
pan
ese
mel
od
ies.
O
ne
way
b
y w
hic
h
Tak
emit
su
avo
ided
o
ctav
e eq
uiv
alen
ce
app
ears
, fo
r in
stan
ce,
in t
he
firs
t p
hra
se o
f E
xam
ple
2,
the
no
tes
C4
an
d C
5,
G4
an
d G
5,
as w
ell
as E
2 a
nd
E
3 o
ccu
r si
mu
ltan
eou
sly,
an
d,
bes
ides
fro
m D
4,
wh
ich
is
enh
arm
on
ical
ly e
qu
ival
ent
to C
4,
thes
e p
itch
es d
o n
ot
reo
ccu
r in
oth
er o
ctav
es.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, in
Rai
n T
ree
Sket
ch,
Tak
emit
su in
tro
du
ced
a ‘(
qu
asi)
mir
ror
scal
e’ a
s a
stra
tegy
to
cir
cum
ven
t o
ctav
e eq
uiv
alen
ce
(Exa
mp
le 3
).13
Her
e a
den
se t
extu
re a
rise
s fr
om
dis
pla
ced
su
per
po
siti
on
of
rep
eate
d 1
0- a
nd
8-
no
te m
oti
fs a
pp
lyin
g p
itch
es f
rom
a s
cale
co
nst
ruct
ed f
rom
alm
ost
co
nsi
sten
t in
terv
alli
c re
flec
tio
n a
rou
nd
th
e m
idd
le a
xis
D5-
E5.
Des
pit
e so
me
rep
eate
d p
itch
es,
such
a ‘
mir
ror
scal
e’ is
sig
nifi
can
tly
dif
fere
nt
in e
ach
oct
ave.
1½
1½
1½
1½
1½
½½
½½
2½
11½
1½
1½
()
()
Mel
od
ic m
oti
fsA
no
ther
pit
ch c
har
acte
rist
ic o
f T
akem
itsu
’s p
ian
o w
ork
s, I
arg
ue,
is
his
use
of
mel
od
ic
mo
tifs
, wh
ich
is
po
ssib
ly r
elat
ed t
o t
he
tric
ho
rdal
str
uct
ure
of
trad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c.
A s
imil
ar a
rgu
men
t h
as b
een
mad
e b
y T
imo
thy
Ko
ozi
n,
wh
o c
on
du
cted
set
-th
eore
tica
l an
alys
es o
f p
ian
o w
ork
s (K
oo
zin
19
89
; 19
91
) an
d t
hre
e la
te p
iece
s (K
oo
zin
20
02
). K
oo
zin
(1
99
1:
13
4)
spec
ifica
lly
stre
sses
th
e p
rom
inen
ce o
f p
itch
-cla
ss s
ets
[01
4]
and
[0
26
].
Mo
reo
ver,
Sm
ald
on
e (1
98
9)
fou
nd
[0
14
] an
d [
01
5]
bo
th o
n t
he
surf
ace
leve
l an
d o
n
dee
per
str
uct
ura
l le
vels
in
th
e tw
o o
rch
estr
al p
iece
s N
ovem
ber
Step
s an
dA
utu
mn
, an
d h
e co
nvi
nci
ngl
y re
late
d t
his
pit
ch o
rgan
izat
ion
to
th
e n
ucl
ear
ton
es t
hat
Bu
rnet
t (1
98
9)
had
d
isco
vere
d in
a t
rad
itio
nal
sh
amis
en p
iece
(lo
ng-
nec
ked
lute
). I
mp
ort
antl
y, in
all
exa
mp
les
give
n b
elo
w, t
he
tri-
or
tetr
ach
ord
al s
tru
ctu
re o
nly
go
vern
s si
ngl
e m
elo
dic
mo
tifs
wh
erea
s o
ther
tex
tura
l el
emen
ts i
n t
he
mu
sica
l co
nte
xt a
pp
ly d
isti
nct
ivel
y d
iffe
ren
t se
ts.
In
19
58
, K
oiz
um
i F
um
io
pro
po
sed
a
theo
ry
of
mo
des
b
ased
o
n
the
un
it
of
a p
erfe
ct f
ou
rth
in
stea
d o
f an
oct
ave
(Ko
mo
da/
No
gaw
a 2
00
2:
56
8-5
70
) to
des
crib
e p
itch
o
rgan
izat
ion
in
tra
dit
ion
al J
apan
ese
mu
sic.
Th
is t
heo
ry h
as b
een
do
min
ant
ever
sin
ce.
Ko
izu
mi’s
mo
des
are
co
nst
ruct
ed f
rom
co
nju
nct
an
d/o
r d
isju
nct
co
mb
inat
ion
s o
f th
e fo
ur
tric
ho
rds
min
’yo_
(e.
g. C
-E-F
), r
itsu
(e.
g. C
-D-F
), m
iyak
obu
shi
(e.g
. C
-D-F
), a
nd
ok
inaw
a (e
.g.
C-E
-F),
eac
h w
ith
an
am
bit
us
of
a fo
urt
h a
nd
a d
isti
nct
ive
inte
rmed
iary
n
ote
. G
ener
ally
sp
eak
ing,
min
’yo_
was
use
d f
or
folk
son
gs a
nd
tra
dit
ion
al c
hil
dre
n s
on
gs,
rits
u f
or
cou
rt m
usi
c, m
iyak
obu
shi
for
art
mu
sic
of
the
Ed
o P
erio
d,
and
oki
naw
a m
ost
ly
on
th
e R
yuk
yu I
slan
ds.
Ho
wev
er,
in a
ctu
al p
ract
ice
the
fou
r ty
pes
are
co
mb
ined
– a
lso
si
mu
ltan
eou
sly
in d
iffe
ren
t in
stru
men
ts (
Ko
izu
mi
19
61
: 18
5-1
86
).14
In R
ain
Tre
e Sk
etch
th
e m
oti
f F
5-F
5-F
5-E
5-C
5 (
incl
ud
ing
tran
spo
sed
en
trie
s st
arti
ng
fro
m A
4 a
nd
B5
) is
mel
od
ical
ly p
rom
inen
t. T
his
[0
12
5]
tetr
ach
ord
co
rres
po
nd
s w
ith
a
sup
erim
po
sed
co
mb
inat
ion
of
the
min
’yo_
an
d o
kin
awa
tric
ho
rds,
wh
ich
is c
on
sist
ent
wit
h
the
earl
ier
men
tio
ned
ten
den
cy t
o c
om
bin
e tr
ich
ord
s in
act
ual
pra
ctic
e. A
no
ther
var
iati
on
o
f Sm
ald
on
e’s
[01
5]
tric
ho
rd is
th
e m
oti
f F
4-F
4-G
4-C
5-G
4-F
4-D
4 (
alte
rnat
ivel
y st
arti
ng
fro
m B
3,
E3
an
d i
nco
mp
lete
ly f
rom
D4
), w
hic
h i
s a
[01
57
] te
trac
ho
rd c
orr
esp
on
din
g to
a c
on
jun
ct c
om
bin
atio
n o
f th
e m
iyak
obu
shi
wit
h a
n i
nco
mp
lete
ver
sio
n o
f th
e ri
tsu
tric
ho
rd (
C, D
, F +
F, G
).15
In L
es Y
eux
Clo
s,F
5-G
5-B
5 (
alte
rnat
ivel
y st
arti
ng
fro
m F
4,
C5
, C
4,
G4
, C
4 a
nd
in
vers
ely
fro
m C
4, B
3, a
nd
D4
) is
th
e m
ain
mo
tif
wh
erea
s, in
its
seq
uel
Les
Yeu
x C
los
II, B
3-
C4
-G (
alte
rnat
ivel
y st
arti
ng
fro
m C
4, A
3, a
nd
B3
) p
lays
a s
imil
ar r
ole
. In
tere
stin
gly,
bo
th
mo
tive
s re
pre
sen
t th
e [0
26
] tr
ich
ord
, th
e m
oti
f fr
om
Les
Yeu
x C
los
II b
ein
g a
per
mu
tati
on
o
f it
s p
red
eces
sor
(Ko
ozi
n 1
99
1).
Lik
e th
e [0
15
] tr
ich
ord
(co
nta
inin
g th
e se
mit
on
e in
terv
al),
wh
ich
figu
res
pro
min
entl
y in
Nov
embe
r St
eps
and
Au
tum
n (
Smal
do
ne
19
89
), th
e u
se o
f [0
26
] (c
on
tain
ing
the
trit
on
e in
terv
al)
imp
lies
a c
har
acte
rist
ic w
hic
h d
isti
ngu
ish
es
Jap
anes
e fr
om
Ch
ines
e m
usi
c (c
f. i
n m
od
e). A
t th
e sa
me
tim
e, t
ho
ugh
, it
rem
ind
s o
f th
e o
ctat
on
ic s
cale
fro
m T
akem
itsu
’s e
arly
pia
no
wo
rks.
As
I w
ill
dem
on
stra
te b
elo
w t
hro
ugh
an
an
alys
is o
f R
oman
ce f
or P
ian
o an
d F
or A
way
, th
is c
on
flu
ence
of
the
mo
dal
sys
tem
of
trad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c o
n t
he
on
e h
and
an
d o
f in
no
vati
ve s
cale
s fa
vore
d b
y ea
rly-
twen
tiet
h-c
entu
ry W
este
rn c
om
po
sers
like
Deb
uss
y, R
avel
, an
d S
trav
insk
y o
n t
he
oth
er, i
s ch
arac
teri
stic
of
Tak
emit
su’s
co
mp
osi
tio
nal
tec
hn
iqu
e.
Nu
clea
r p
itch
esA
key
trai
t of
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c is
the
pro
min
ence
giv
en to
nu
clea
r p
itch
es th
rou
gh r
epet
itio
n
and
co
nst
ant
pre
sen
ce.
In t
he
biw
a p
arts
in
gag
aku
, fo
r in
stan
ce,
on
ly t
he
up
per
mo
st,
mel
od
ic v
oic
e is
alt
ered
wh
ile
the
pit
ches
of
the
un
der
lyin
g o
pen
str
ings
rem
ain
th
e sa
me
thro
ugh
ou
t a
pie
ce (
Exa
mp
le 4
). I
n L
es Y
eux
Clo
s II
th
is g
agak
u t
extu
re i
s tu
rned
up
sid
e d
ow
n w
ith
th
e st
able
par
t m
ain
tain
ed in
th
e to
p v
oic
es w
hil
e n
ote
s in
th
e m
idd
le a
nd
bas
s re
gist
ers
chan
ge c
on
tin
uo
usl
y (E
xam
ple
2).
8
()
8
3
3
8
()
()
8
3
Hichikiri
Fue
Sho
Koto
Biwa
Shoko
Kakko
Taiko
An
oth
er e
xam
ple
of
nu
clea
r p
itch
str
uct
ure
is
Rom
ance
for
Pia
no.
An
alys
is o
f th
e b
ass
reve
als
D a
nd
A a
s th
e m
ost
pre
do
min
ant
pit
ches
(Exa
mp
le 5
). T
he
pre
sen
ce o
f tw
o n
ucl
ear
pit
ches
ref
ers
to a
typ
ical
kot
o tu
nin
g u
sed
in
tra
dit
ion
al e
nse
mb
le m
usi
c. I
n t
he
cham
ber
co
mp
osi
tio
n Z
ange
tsu
, fo
r in
stan
ce, t
he
G (
PN
P =
‘pri
mar
y n
ucl
ear
pit
ch’)
an
d D
(SN
P =
‘s
eco
nd
ary
nu
clea
r p
itch
’) b
oth
hav
e n
eigh
bo
r n
ote
s a
wh
ole
to
ne
bel
ow
an
d a
sem
ito
ne
abo
ve r
esu
ltin
g in
a s
ix-n
ote
sca
le w
her
e B
is a
bse
nt:
F, G
(P
NP
), A
, C, D
(SN
P),
E (
Bu
rnet
t 19
89: 8
6). L
ikew
ise,
in R
oman
ce fo
r P
ian
o, D
can
be
hea
rd a
s P
NP
an
d A
as
SNP.
Bes
ides
PN
P a
nd
SN
P, t
he
nei
ghb
or
pit
ches
C,
E a
nd
G o
ccu
r. N
ote
, in
th
is c
on
text
, th
at t
he
up
per
nei
ghb
or
of
SNP
(B
) is
no
t u
sed
as
a b
ass
no
te. T
he
do
ub
le n
eigh
bo
r n
ote
ci
rcli
ng
aro
un
d D
on
ly s
up
po
rts
the
no
tio
n o
f th
is p
itch
as
the
pri
mar
y o
ne
– a
t le
ast
init
iall
y. F
is
abse
nt
as a
bas
s n
ote
an
d o
nly
ap
pea
rs o
nce
in
th
e o
ther
vo
ices
in
pas
sin
g to
G
(m
. 14
), w
hic
h is
als
o c
on
sist
ent
wit
h k
oto
tun
ing.
Th
e ‘m
od
ula
tio
n’ t
o S
NP
(m
. 21
), t
oo
, is
su
pp
ort
ed b
y tr
ansp
osi
tio
n o
f th
e in
itia
l d
esce
nd
ing
fou
rth
mo
tif.
At
the
clim
ax (
m. 4
6),
fo
r th
e fi
rst
and
on
ly t
ime,
G i
s u
sed
as
a b
ass
no
te. T
he
ten
se
trit
on
e in
terv
al t
o P
NP
ad
ds
an e
lem
ent
of
amb
igu
ity
to t
he
mo
de.
Th
is a
mb
igu
ity
is m
ain
tain
ed i
n t
he
sub
seq
uen
t se
ctio
n (
mm
. 5
6-6
7)
wh
ere
a co
nfl
ict
bet
wee
n P
NP
an
d S
NP
ari
ses,
an
d e
ven
in
th
e fi
nal
bar
SN
P a
ttem
pts
to
qu
esti
on
D’s
ro
le a
s P
NP.
C
on
form
ing
wel
l w
ith
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c, w
her
e so
me
pie
ces
end
in
an
oth
er m
od
e th
an
the
init
ial
on
e (B
urn
ett
19
89
: 8
4),
th
is f
orm
al d
istr
ibu
tio
n –
alm
ost
res
emb
lin
g a
‘rev
erse
so
nat
a m
ove
men
t’ –
is
in s
tro
ng
op
po
siti
on
to
Wes
tern
mu
sica
l fo
rm.
In s
um
, th
e m
od
al d
isp
osi
tio
n o
f R
oma
nce
for
Pia
no
is h
igh
ly c
om
par
able
to
kot
o tu
nin
g an
d
Bu
rnet
t’s
ren
der
ing
of
the
in-s
emp
o m
od
e w
her
e D
is
PN
P, A
is
SN
P, a
nd
sec
on
dar
y n
ote
s ap
pea
r o
ne
wh
ole
no
te b
elo
w a
nd
a s
emit
on
e ab
ove
eac
h o
f th
em.
In F
or A
way
, w
hic
h i
s p
rob
ably
th
e co
mp
osi
tio
n t
hat
mo
st e
xten
sive
ly a
pp
lies
th
e co
nce
pt o
f n
ucl
ear
pit
ches
, th
e su
stai
ned
no
te in
the
init
ial p
assa
ge (
C5
) is
als
o s
urr
ou
nd
ed
by
the
adja
cen
t n
eigh
bo
r n
ote
s B
4 a
nd
D5
(cf
. Lee
19
91
: 21
-25
; 36
-41
). H
ow
ever
, du
e to
re
pet
itio
n, B
4 q
uic
kly
bec
om
es t
he
nu
clea
r p
itch
to
geth
er w
ith
E4
, th
us
emp
has
izin
g th
e tr
ito
ne
inte
rval
. Th
e si
tuat
ion
wh
ere
seve
ral n
ote
s ac
t as
var
iati
on
s o
f a
sin
gle
pit
ch a
rea
is
com
par
able
wit
h t
he
pit
ch-b
end
ing
tech
niq
ue
emba
i use
d o
n h
ich
irik
i (d
ou
ble
ree
d p
ipe)
and
ryu_
teki
(tr
ansv
erse
bam
bo
o fl
ute
)ca
llin
g fo
r w
iden
ing
of
the
pit
ch s
pec
tru
m o
f n
ote
s in
gaga
ku m
elo
die
s (N
uss
20
02
: 96
).
As
a w
ho
le, F
or A
way
co
uld
be
un
der
sto
od
as
a tr
ipar
tite
AB
A’ f
orm
(E
xam
ple
6).
Th
e in
itia
l p
art
A s
pan
s fr
om
1/1
/1 t
o 4
/1/1
an
d c
ou
ld b
e fu
rth
er s
ub
div
ided
in
to a
(fr
om
th
e b
egin
nin
g) w
ith
th
e n
ucl
ear
pit
ches
E/B
an
d b
(fr
om
2/2
/2 a
nd
on
war
ds)
fo
cusi
ng
on
F
/C.
Th
e m
idd
le p
art
B s
pan
s fr
om
4/1
/2 t
o 8
/1/1
wit
h t
he
furt
her
su
bd
ivis
ion
s c
wit
h
the
nu
clea
r p
itch
es G
/A a
nd
d (
fro
m 6
/1/2
an
d o
nw
ard
s) f
ocu
sin
g o
n E
/F/C
. In
d t
he
pit
ches
B,
A a
nd
A i
nte
rfer
e al
tern
atel
y w
ith
th
e th
ree
nu
clea
r p
itch
es,
wh
ich
mig
ht
be
inte
rpre
ted
as
an u
nst
able
ele
men
t in
th
is ‘d
evel
op
men
t se
ctio
n’.
Th
e re
cap
itu
lati
on
A
’ fr
om
8/1
/2 s
ub
seq
uen
tly
com
bin
es t
he
two
pai
rs o
f n
ucl
ear
pit
ches
use
d i
n a
and
b.O
nce
aga
in, i
n t
his
nu
clea
r-p
itch
str
uct
ure
, on
e en
cou
nte
rs T
akem
itsu
’s p
refe
ren
ce f
or
the
trit
on
e at
th
e ex
pen
se o
f fo
urt
hs
and
fift
hs.
As
no
ted
by
Ko
ozi
n (
19
89
), t
he
nu
clea
r p
itch
es
(exc
ept
for
A)
all
bel
on
g to
th
e o
ctat
on
ic s
cale
. T
akem
itsu
may
hav
e m
ade
a sy
nth
esis
o
f tr
adit
ion
al J
apan
ese
nu
clea
r p
itch
es a
nd
oct
ato
nic
ele
men
ts a
do
pte
d f
rom
Wes
tern
co
mp
ose
rs.
Tex
ture
On
e o
f th
e m
ost
dis
tin
ctiv
e fe
atu
res
of
Tak
emit
su’s
pia
no
mu
sic
is i
ts t
extu
re.
Act
ual
ly,
qu
ite
a fe
w r
efer
ence
s to
tra
dit
ion
al J
apan
ese
inst
rum
ents
em
erge
fro
m h
is p
ian
o p
iece
s.
Th
e fo
llo
win
g ex
cerp
t co
uld
fo
r in
stan
ce b
e in
terp
rete
d a
s re
ferr
ing
to t
he
dee
pes
t ve
rsio
n
of
the
taik
o d
rum
– t
he
dad
aiko
(lo
w D
1)
– a
plu
cked
str
ing
inst
rum
ent
like
kot
o o
r bi
wa
(mid
dle
par
t) a
nd
th
e sh
rill
sh
o_
(to
p c
ho
rds)
fro
m t
he
gaga
ku e
nse
mb
le (
Exa
mp
le 7
).
Bel
ow
I w
ill
del
ve f
urt
her
in
to e
ach
of
thes
e.
Dee
p,
sin
gle
no
tes
pla
yed
wit
h s
oft
dyn
amic
s o
ccu
r fr
equ
entl
y in
Tak
emit
su’s
pia
no
m
usi
c. O
ften
th
ey fi
ll o
ut
bre
aks
in o
ne
han
d (
Exa
mp
le 2
), a
nd
so
met
imes
th
ey s
up
po
rt
a cr
esce
nd
o (
Exa
mp
le 7
, 10
). F
inal
ly, s
uch
no
tes
are
freq
uen
tly
app
lied
in
ph
rase
en
din
gs
(Exa
mp
le 2
), c
orr
esp
on
din
g to
th
e u
sual
ro
le o
f th
e d
adai
ko i
n g
agak
u a
nd
no_
thea
tre
(Ko
mo
da/
Nag
awa
20
02
: 57
2).
K
oto
and
biw
a p
lay
the
mo
st p
rom
inen
t p
itch
es o
f ga
gaku
mel
od
ies
in t
he
top
no
tes
wh
ile
un
der
lyin
g ar
peg
gio
s ar
e ad
ded
by
plu
cked
lo
wer
str
ings
(E
xam
ple
4).
Sim
ilar
te
xtu
res
are
an u
nm
ista
kab
le p
art
of
Tak
emit
su’s
pia
no
mu
sic
occ
urr
ing
in a
ll s
tyli
stic
p
erio
ds
(Exa
mp
les
1, 8
). I
n E
xam
ple
8, n
ote
th
e st
rik
ing
sim
ilar
ity
wit
h t
he
koto
par
t fr
om
E
xam
ple
4. S
uch
ch
ord
s ar
e al
way
s p
laye
d i
n a
scen
din
g ar
peg
gio
, usu
ally
co
mb
ined
wit
h
1,1,1
2,2,2
4,1,2
6,1,2 +
8,1,2
8,2,1
+
8,3,1
8,4,1
9,2,2
9,3,2
ab
cd
AB
BB©
aa
bb
ba
a
dec
reas
ing
dyn
amic
s. T
his
po
ssib
ly r
eflec
ts t
he
fact
th
at h
igh
er s
trin
gs p
rod
uce
a d
iffe
ren
t so
un
d t
han
dee
p s
trin
gs.
Inco
rpo
rati
ng
dec
resc
end
o i
s al
so k
no
wn
fro
m n
o_
wh
ere
the
taik
o ac
com
pan
imen
t te
nd
s to
dec
reas
e in
dyn
amic
s to
war
ds
cad
ence
s (M
alm
19
60
). T
his
is
in
op
po
siti
on
to
mu
ch W
este
rn m
usi
c p
refe
rrin
g p
re-c
aden
tial
cre
scen
do
.
Clu
ster
s ar
e ch
arac
teri
stic
o
f m
uch
tw
enti
eth
-cen
tury
W
este
rn
mu
sic,
in
clu
din
g T
akem
itsu
’s.
Th
rou
gh a
pit
ch-c
lass
set
-an
alys
is,
Nu
ss (
20
02
) h
as r
epo
rted
sim
ilar
itie
s b
etw
een
Tak
emit
su’s
pit
ch s
tru
ctu
re a
nd
th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
clu
ster
ch
ord
s p
rod
uce
d b
y th
e sh
o_
. Th
is in
stru
men
t is
tun
ed a
fter
the
circ
le o
f fi
fth
s an
d is
an
imp
ort
ant p
art o
f th
e ga
gaku
ense
mb
le –
at
leas
t w
ith
in t
he
to_
gaku
rep
erto
ire
(so
-cal
led
‘Mu
sic
of
the
Lef
t’)
ori
gin
ally
im
po
rted
fro
m C
hin
a an
d S
ou
th E
ast
Asi
a (K
ish
ibe
et a
l. 2
00
9).
Th
e fr
ee r
eed
s in
sid
e th
e se
ven
teen
bam
bo
o p
ipes
vib
rate
bo
th d
uri
ng
inh
alat
ion
an
d e
xhal
atio
n,
pro
du
cin
g a
con
tin
uo
usl
y p
uls
atin
g so
un
d.
Th
ere
are
ten
clu
ster
s (a
itak
e),
and
, u
nli
ke W
este
rn
har
mo
nic
pra
ctic
e, a
itak
e ar
e n
ot
char
acte
rize
d b
y m
utu
al c
on
tras
t. I
nst
ead
, tr
ansi
tio
ns
bet
wee
n t
hem
tak
e p
lace
gra
du
ally
fo
llo
win
g a
det
aile
d s
et o
f ru
les
(te-
uts
uri
) (s
ee G
arfi
as
19
75
: 17
7-1
88
). T
he
sho_
su
pp
ort
s ce
ntr
al p
itch
es o
f th
e h
ich
irik
i mel
od
y w
ith
ap
pro
pri
ate
aita
ke,
typ
ical
ly i
n h
eter
op
ho
ny.
In
Wes
tern
cla
ssic
al m
usi
c, h
arm
on
ies
usu
ally
un
der
lie
the
mel
od
y w
her
eas
her
eth
ey a
re p
lace
d o
n t
op
of
it. C
om
bin
ed w
ith
th
e u
nd
erly
ing
biw
aan
dko
to c
ho
rds,
th
is a
lleg
edly
mak
es g
agak
u t
he
on
ly m
usi
c in
th
e w
orl
d w
her
e m
elo
dy
is
sup
po
rted
by
har
mo
ny
fro
m a
bo
ve a
nd
bel
ow
(K
ish
ibe
19
66
: 22
).In
th
e p
ian
o r
eper
toir
e, s
om
e ai
take
occ
ur
spo
rad
ical
ly i
n t
hei
r o
rigi
nal
fo
rm.
In
Exa
mp
le 9
, fo
r in
stan
ce,
the
left
han
d p
lays
a t
etra
cho
rd (
Fo
rte-
nam
e 4
-23
, p
rim
e fo
rm
(02
57
)) id
enti
cal t
o a
tra
nsp
ose
d v
ersi
on
of
the
aita
ke n
amed
kot
su.16 A
lth
ou
gh h
e sh
ow
ed
a ge
ner
al p
refe
ren
ce f
or
the
fou
rth
s, fi
fth
s an
d m
ajo
r se
con
ds
fro
m t
he
aita
ke (
six
of
them
co
nta
in n
eith
er m
ino
r se
con
ds
no
r tr
ito
nes
),17
Tak
emit
su u
sed
all
inte
rval
s in
his
clu
ster
s.
Th
is r
esu
lts
in c
hro
mat
ic v
aria
nts
of
the
dia
ton
ic a
itak
e, a
nd
, as
no
ted
by
Bu
rt (
20
02
a: 9
7),
T
akem
itsu
’s c
lust
ers
are
no
t p
arti
cula
rly
circ
um
scri
bed
as
to i
nte
rval
lic
con
ten
t af
ter
all.
Bes
ides
Cor
ona
for
Pia
nis
ts f
rom
th
e al
eato
ric
per
iod
in
wh
ich
var
iou
s gr
aph
ical
sy
mb
ols
wer
e u
sed
to
des
ign
ate
clu
ster
s, T
akem
itsu
on
ly a
do
pte
d t
he
ind
efin
ite
clu
ster
n
ota
tio
n u
sed
by
man
y W
este
rn c
on
tem
po
rari
es o
nce
, nam
ely
in P
ian
o D
ista
nce
(1
96
1).
Hen
ce, c
lust
ers
are
om
nip
rese
nt
in e
very
sty
list
ic p
erio
d o
f T
akem
itsu
’s p
ian
o m
usi
c, a
nd
it
cer
tain
ly m
ade
a d
iffe
ren
ce t
o h
im w
hic
h n
ote
s w
ere
incl
ud
ed. A
lth
ou
gh T
akem
itsu
’s
no
n-f
un
ctio
nal
clu
ster
s m
igh
t, a
t le
ast
on
a c
on
cep
tual
lev
el,
ori
gin
ate
in t
he
Jap
anes
e a
ita
ke,
thei
r p
itch
str
uct
ure
see
ms
to r
epre
sen
t h
is o
wn
in
ven
tio
n,
or
to b
e in
spir
ed b
y W
este
rn c
om
po
sers
.A
no
ther
ch
arac
teri
stic
of
Tak
emit
su’s
pia
no
mu
sic
is h
is f
req
uen
t u
se o
f u
nis
on
p
assa
ges.
Th
ese
are
usu
ally
co
mb
ined
wit
h a
dim
inu
end
o a
nd
en
d o
n a
fer
mat
a. O
ften
th
ey a
re t
ran
siti
on
al p
assa
ges
of
1-4
bar
s in
dic
atin
g b
egin
nin
gs o
f n
ew f
orm
al s
ecti
on
s w
ith
in la
rger
co
mp
osi
tio
ns
(e.g
. Rom
an
ce fo
r P
ian
o, L
es Y
eux
Clo
s I
and
II,
Pia
no
Dis
tan
ce,
Ra
in T
ree
Ske
tch
II,
an
d t
he
firs
t m
ove
men
t o
f L
ita
ny)
. In
cas
es w
her
e in
div
idu
al v
oic
es
in u
nis
on
– o
r co
mp
lex
– t
extu
res
do
no
t fo
llo
w e
ach
oth
er p
reci
sely
, het
ero
ph
on
y te
nd
s to
ari
se. E
xam
ple
9, f
or
inst
ance
, evo
kes
a h
eter
op
ho
nic
im
age
rath
er t
han
a p
oly
ph
on
ic
on
e, d
ue
to s
tret
to im
itat
ion
. By
con
tras
t, t
rad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c is
no
t h
arm
on
ical
ly
fou
nd
ed a
s W
este
rn m
usi
c (D
an 1
96
1: 2
07
). A
lter
nat
ivel
y, m
elo
die
s in
het
ero
ph
on
y ar
e p
rom
inen
t in
e.g
. ga
gaku
(fu
e an
d h
ich
irik
i in
Exa
mp
le 4
), k
oto-
acco
mp
anie
d s
on
gs,
and
ch
amb
er m
usi
c o
f th
e E
do
Per
iod
(B
urn
ett
19
75
). E
xam
ple
9, f
or
inst
ance
, bea
rs a
st
ron
g re
sem
bla
nce
to
th
e im
itat
ion
tec
hn
iqu
e fo
un
d in
man
y in
tro
du
cto
ry m
ove
men
ts
in g
aga
ku w
her
e th
e d
ista
nce
bet
wee
n i
nd
ivid
ual
par
ts i
s si
mil
arly
sh
ort
.In
T
akem
itsu
’s
mu
sic,
d
ynam
ic
ind
icat
ion
s b
eco
me
an
ind
epen
den
t m
od
e o
f ex
pre
ssio
n r
esu
ltin
g in
mu
ltid
imen
sio
nal
tex
ture
s in
wh
ich
in
div
idu
al v
oic
es e
mer
ge
alte
rnat
ely.
In
th
e cu
lmin
atio
n o
f R
ain
Tre
e S
ketc
h I
I (E
xam
ple
10
), a
s m
any
as f
ou
r te
xtu
ral
elem
ents
dem
on
stra
te s
epar
ate
dyn
amic
dis
po
siti
on
(se
e al
so E
xam
ple
s 7
, 9
).
Tak
emit
su’s
mu
ltid
imen
sio
nal
tex
ture
s ar
e co
mp
arab
le t
o t
he
no
n-v
erti
cal o
rgan
izat
ion
o
f tr
adit
ion
al J
apan
ese
mu
sic,
wh
ich
man
ifes
ts i
tsel
f in
het
ero
ph
on
y, b
ut
also
lea
ds
to
ind
ivid
ual
ity
rega
rdin
g d
ynam
ic d
isp
osi
tio
n o
f si
mu
ltan
eou
s p
hra
ses.
Th
ou
gh n
ot
excl
usi
vely
Jap
anes
e, t
he
ten
den
cy f
or
‘gre
at v
arie
ty b
ut
litt
le c
oal
esce
nce
’ is
a k
ey t
rait
d
isti
ngu
ish
ing
gaga
ku n
ot
on
ly f
rom
mo
st W
este
rn o
rch
estr
al m
usi
c, b
ut
also
fro
m
man
y o
ther
Eas
t an
d S
ou
th E
ast
Asi
an e
nse
mb
les
such
as
the
Ind
on
esia
n g
amel
an a
nd
C
hin
ese
thea
tre
orc
hes
tras
(M
alm
19
90
: 1
24
). B
y co
ntr
ast,
in
to
nal
mu
sic
of
the
Wes
t,
dyn
amic
flu
ctu
atio
ns
are
mo
stly
use
d f
or
elu
cid
atin
g –
or
alte
rnat
ivel
y d
isco
ura
gin
g –
th
e in
her
ent
ten
den
cies
of
the
har
mo
nie
s. T
her
efo
re,
in m
uch
Wes
tern
pia
no
mu
sic,
b
oth
han
ds
foll
ow
a s
har
ed d
ynam
ic d
evel
op
men
t.
Th
e w
ealt
h o
f d
ynam
ic d
etai
l in
Tak
emit
su’s
pia
no
wo
rks
is e
no
rmo
us.
Fo
r in
stan
ce,
no
less
th
an s
ixte
en d
ynam
ic n
uan
ces
are
give
n in
Les
Yeu
x C
los,
ran
gin
g fr
om
mol
to p
pp
toff
. Tak
emit
su’s
ap
pli
cati
on
of
par
enth
eses
an
d ‘p
oco
’ to
pro
vid
e fu
rth
er d
isti
nct
ion
mig
ht
refl
ect
the
ten
den
cy t
ow
ard
s d
ynam
ic s
ub
tlet
ies
fou
nd
in
tra
dit
ion
al J
apan
ese
mu
sic.
As
rega
rds
acce
nts
, Tak
emit
su d
isti
ngu
ish
es b
etw
een
poc
o sf
, sf
, sf
f, s
fz,
sffz
, m
fz, a
nd
in
Rai
n
Tre
e Sk
etch
, >
and
Vd
esig
nat
e st
ron
g, m
od
erat
e, a
nd
wea
k a
ccen
ts, r
esp
ecti
vely
. Fin
ally
, as
th
e p
erfo
rman
ce n
ote
s fo
r L
es Y
eux
Clo
s re
ad:
‘[th
e m
]ost
im
po
rtan
t th
ing
… i
s to
p
rod
uce
su
btl
e ch
ange
s o
f th
e co
lor
and
th
e ti
me
as fl
oat
ing.
’ Th
at i
s, t
he
ove
rall
dyn
amic
sp
an m
igh
t n
ot
be
par
ticu
larl
y w
ide
in J
apan
ese
mu
sic;
ho
wev
er, t
he
ear
is a
ccu
sto
med
to
ex
trem
ely
sub
tle
dif
fere
nti
atio
n (
Dea
n 1
98
5: 1
61
).
Aes
thet
ics
In J
apan
ese
lan
guag
e an
d e
pis
tem
olo
gy, a
n u
nw
ritt
en r
ule
go
es t
hat
‘les
s is
mo
re’.
Th
e ke
y ro
le o
f si
mp
lici
ty in
Jap
anes
e ae
sth
etic
s si
mil
arly
ap
pea
rs in
var
iou
s ar
t fo
rms:
th
e b
revi
ty
of
hai
kup
oem
s, t
he
com
ple
ten
ess
of
a si
ngl
e st
roke
in
cal
ligr
aph
y, t
he
spar
se n
um
ber
o
f in
gred
ien
ts i
n g
astr
on
om
y, a
nd
th
e m
inim
alis
tic
furn
ish
ing.
Sp
eak
ing
of
his
ow
n
com
po
siti
on
s, T
akem
itsu
on
ce s
tate
d: ‘
I w
ant
to m
ake
on
e so
un
d t
hat
is
as p
ow
erfu
l as
si
len
ce’ (
Tak
emit
su 1
99
5: 5
2).
Tak
emit
su’s
urg
e to
ob
tain
max
imu
m a
mo
un
t o
f ex
pre
ssio
n
wit
h m
inim
um
am
ou
nt
of
mat
eria
l is
con
sid
ered
a ‘b
asic
co
nce
pt
in m
ost
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c’
by
Mal
m (
19
90
: 1
23
), a
rgu
ably
rel
ated
to
th
e Ic
hi-
on j
o_
-Bu
tsu
pri
nci
ple
(‘B
ud
dh
a in
on
e so
un
d’)
, wh
ich
has
bee
n a
ttri
bu
ted
to
th
e it
iner
ant
kom
uso
_
mo
nk
s o
f th
e F
uke
sec
t p
layi
ng
solo
shak
uh
ach
i as
an
in
stru
men
t o
f m
edit
atio
n (
Mik
i 2
00
8: 4
).
Bes
ides
the
un
iso
n te
xtu
res,
sim
plic
ity
is s
imila
rly
refl
ecte
d in
the
po
inti
llism
of T
akem
itsu
’s
seco
nd
sty
listi
c p
erio
d. I
n P
ian
o D
ista
nce
an
dP
ause
Inin
terr
ompu
e, s
ou
nd
s ar
e u
sual
ly s
up
plie
d
wit
h i
nd
ivid
ual
dyn
amic
s an
d p
erfo
rman
ce i
nd
icat
ion
s. L
ee (
1991
: 21
) as
crib
es T
akem
itsu
’s
po
inti
llist
ic s
tyle
to
tra
dit
ion
al s
hak
uh
ach
i p
layi
ng.
Ho
wev
er,
the
infl
uen
ce f
rom
Web
ern
is
likel
y to
be
stro
nge
r th
an t
hat
fro
m t
rad
itio
nal
mu
sic
in t
he
wo
rks
fro
m t
he
pre
-196
6 p
erio
d.
Exp
ress
ing
on
esel
f in
a f
ew w
ord
s, t
her
e is
alw
ays
a ri
sk t
hat
am
big
uit
y w
ill
aris
e. S
uch
vagu
enes
s is
ch
arac
teri
stic
of
Jap
anes
e p
hil
oso
ph
y an
d is
sim
ilar
ly t
race
able
in t
he
his
tory
o
f m
usi
cal n
ota
tio
n in
Jap
an. A
s w
as t
he
case
in E
uro
pe
pri
or
to t
he
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
pri
nt,
n
ota
tio
n w
as n
ot
inte
nd
ed t
o fi
x th
e m
elo
dic
pat
tern
s p
reci
sely
, b
ut
serv
ed p
rim
aril
y as
an
au
xili
ary
mn
emo
nic
dev
ice
for
carr
iers
of
the
trad
itio
n (
Ko
mo
da/
No
gaw
a 2
00
2:
57
3).
Co
nse
qu
entl
y, u
nti
l th
e la
un
ch o
f th
e M
eiji
go
vern
men
t’s
mo
der
niz
atio
n p
rogr
am,
a co
mm
on
pra
ctic
e w
as n
ever
pro
mo
ted
, an
d a
n a
bu
nd
ance
of
rep
erto
ire-
, gu
ild
-, a
nd
in
stru
men
t-sp
ecifi
c n
ota
tio
nal
sty
les
dev
elo
ped
(5
73
-58
3).
Th
ou
gh a
do
pti
ng
Wes
tern
no
tati
on
, T
akem
itsu
als
o i
nve
nte
d n
ove
l fe
atu
res
and
ex
plo
red
gra
ph
ic n
ota
tio
n in
Cor
ona
and
Cro
ssin
g (b
oth
fro
m 1
96
2).
Th
is w
as in
spir
ed b
y W
este
rn a
van
t-ga
rde
com
po
sers
su
ch a
s Jo
hn
Cag
e, m
any
of
wh
om
, fo
r th
eir
par
t, w
ere
dee
ply
insp
ired
by
Eas
tern
aes
thet
ics.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, th
e la
ck o
f m
eter
an
d t
he
pro
min
ence
o
f p
oly
rhyt
hm
co
ntr
ibu
te t
o t
he
amb
igu
ity
face
d w
hen
per
form
ing
Tak
emit
su’s
mu
sic.
T
hat
is,
in
flu
ence
ru
ns
in b
oth
dir
ecti
on
s, a
nd
on
e ca
n o
nly
po
int
to p
arti
cula
rly
stri
kin
g si
mil
arit
ies
and
su
gges
t ce
rtai
n p
oss
ible
co
nn
ecti
on
s, b
ut
no
t cl
aim
th
eir
exis
ten
ce i
n a
ny
inco
ntr
ove
rtib
le w
ay.
In a
dd
itio
n t
o s
imp
lici
ty, r
elat
ed c
on
cep
ts li
ke ‘e
mp
tin
ess’
or,
mo
re g
ener
ally
, ‘ab
sen
ce’,
pla
y a
pro
min
ent
role
in
Jap
anes
e cu
ltu
re a
s w
ell.
Th
e la
rge,
em
pty
exp
anse
s in
vis
ual
art
an
d t
he
Bu
dd
his
t st
rivi
ng
tow
ard
s ‘s
elf-
tran
scen
den
ce’ (
nir
van
a)b
ear
wit
nes
s to
th
is.
In
trad
itio
nal
mu
sic
this
man
ifes
ts i
tsel
f as
sil
ence
, wh
ich
exi
sts
ind
epen
den
tly
fro
m s
ou
nd
in
th
e co
nce
pt
of
ma,
th
e n
ou
n f
orm
of
the
pre
po
siti
on
‘bet
wee
n’. A
cco
rdin
g to
Tak
emit
su,
‘[s]
ilen
ce is
th
e m
oth
er o
f th
e so
un
ds’
(B
eck
man
19
86
: 4).
Th
e si
gnifi
can
ce h
e as
crib
ed t
o
sile
nce
is
mo
st s
tro
ngl
y ev
iden
t in
lat
er p
iece
s su
ch a
s R
ain
Tre
e Sk
etch
an
d i
ts s
equ
el i
n
wh
ich
em
pty
bar
s ar
e in
stru
men
tal i
n c
reat
ing
a sk
etch
y ap
pea
ran
ce w
ith
ple
nty
of
roo
m
for
pen
sive
nes
s (E
xam
ple
8).
In
tere
stin
gly,
in
su
ch p
iece
s, a
bso
lute
sil
ence
is
rep
lace
d b
y ‘r
ever
ber
atio
n’ r
epre
sen
tin
g a
spec
ial
kin
d o
f ‘a
bse
nce
’.T
akem
itsu
’s r
ever
ber
atio
n a
ssu
mes
var
iou
s fo
rms.
I w
ill
ther
efo
re d
isti
ngu
ish
bet
wee
n
‘pas
sive
’ an
d ‘a
ctiv
e’ r
ever
ber
atio
n, t
he
latt
er o
ccu
rrin
g in
eit
her
‘ab
stra
ct’ o
r ‘c
on
cret
e’ f
orm
. W
her
eas
actu
al n
ote
s ar
e p
laye
d in
‘act
ive
reve
rber
atio
n’,
sou
nd
s ar
e m
od
ified
in o
ther
way
s in
‘pas
sive
rev
erb
erat
ion
’; fo
r in
stan
ce, b
y p
ress
ing
the
key
sile
ntl
y to
ob
tain
fp-
effe
cts
(For
A
way
,P
ian
o D
ista
nce
).18 I
n ‘
con
cret
e’, ‘
acti
ve’
reve
rber
atio
n,
no
tes
are
rep
eate
d,
oft
en i
n
com
bin
atio
n w
ith
so
fter
dyn
amic
s o
r te
mp
o fl
uct
uat
ion
. Mo
re p
reva
len
t is
‘ab
stra
ct’, ‘
acti
ve’
reve
rber
atio
n w
her
e re
verb
erat
ion
is n
ot a
car
bo
n c
op
y, b
ut c
on
stit
ute
s an
ab
stra
ct c
om
men
t to
th
e p
rece
din
g m
usi
c (E
xam
ple
1).
Th
is p
hen
om
eno
n is
no
t u
niq
ue
to T
akem
itsu
’s m
usi
c;
it a
lso
ch
arac
teri
zes,
fo
r in
stan
ce, O
livi
er M
essi
aen
’s p
ian
o t
extu
res.
In n
o_
, th
e re
verb
eran
t si
len
ce (
yo-i
n)
foll
ow
ing
the
dru
m b
eat
is c
on
sid
ered
su
per
ior
to t
he
bea
t it
self
(B
eck
man
19
86
: 5).
Lik
ewis
e, m
a d
esig
nat
es t
he
inte
rval
bet
wee
n s
ou
nd
s an
d h
old
s a
cru
cial
po
siti
on
(O
hta
ke 1
99
3:
54
-55
). I
n c
on
tras
t to
its
sig
nifi
can
ce i
n
Jap
anes
e cu
ltu
re, e
mp
tin
ess
is o
ften
ass
oci
ated
wit
h a
cer
tain
fea
r in
th
e W
est,
so
met
imes
re
ferr
ed t
o a
s h
orro
r va
cui,
a t
erm
bo
rro
wed
fro
m A
rist
ote
lian
ph
ysic
s an
d a
rt c
riti
cism
. In
th
is c
on
text
em
pti
nes
s ea
sily
ass
um
es a
n e
xist
enti
al d
imen
sio
n,
un
exp
ecte
d s
ilen
ce i
s aw
kw
ard
in
so
cial
sit
uat
ion
s, a
nd
pau
ses
in m
usi
c ar
e u
sual
ly c
ou
nta
ble
un
its
enta
ilin
g a
pro
mis
e o
f co
nti
nu
atio
n. M
ore
ove
r, p
ause
s se
rve
mer
ely
to s
epar
ate
ph
rase
s in
lan
guag
e o
r m
usi
c ra
ther
th
an a
chie
vin
g si
gnifi
can
ce o
n t
hei
r o
wn
. T
hes
e im
pli
citl
y as
sum
ed
bo
un
dar
ies
bet
wee
n m
usi
c an
d s
ilen
ce (
and
in
ad
dit
ion
, b
etw
een
so
un
d a
nd
mu
sic)
in
W
este
rn m
usi
cal t
ho
ugh
t w
ere
the
on
es w
hic
h t
he
zen
-in
spir
ed J
oh
n C
age
aim
ed t
o m
ake
his
Wes
tern
au
die
nce
s aw
are
of
wh
en h
e ca
lled
for
a p
ian
ist t
o r
emai
n s
ilen
t at t
he
pia
no
for
seve
ral
min
ute
s in
his
4’3
3’’.
Nam
ing
the
ran
do
m s
ou
nd
s su
rro
un
din
g th
e p
erfo
rman
ce
an e
ssen
tial
par
t o
f th
e p
erfo
rman
ce,
Cag
e in
sist
ed t
hat
his
wo
rk n
ot
be
con
ceiv
ed o
f as
p
ure
sil
ence
, bu
t ra
ther
as
mo
re o
r le
ss a
leat
ori
c so
un
ds
con
ceal
ed in
, an
d d
ivu
lgin
g fr
om
,
sile
nce
. In
Pia
no
Dis
tan
ce,
Tak
emit
su r
efer
s to
a c
erta
in k
ind
of
sile
nce
wh
ich
is
dis
tin
ct
fro
m t
he
pen
sive
rev
erb
erat
ion
in
lat
er p
iece
s an
d m
igh
t b
e re
late
d t
o t
he
Wes
tern
u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
abse
nce
an
d e
mp
tin
ess
refe
rred
to
ab
ove
. M
ore
sp
ecifi
call
y, h
e w
rite
s a
‘lo
ng’
fer
mat
a, s
up
po
rted
by
the
text
‘b
e si
len
t’ a
nd
an
in
dic
atio
n o
f n
o p
edal
. T
he
sub
seq
uen
t, ‘s
ud
den
ly’ o
ccu
rrin
g, d
isso
nan
t sf
-ch
ord
is a
n o
bvi
ou
s re
leas
e o
f ac
cum
ula
ted
en
ergy
. Th
is p
hen
om
eno
n i
s n
ot
un
kn
ow
n i
n W
este
rn p
ract
ice.
Als
o, t
he
po
siti
on
of
the
ferm
ata
in t
he
app
roxi
mat
e G
old
en S
ecti
on
(5
0/7
9 b
ars
= 0
,63
3)
test
ifies
to
a s
trin
gen
t fo
rmal
co
nst
ruct
ion
wh
ich
hin
ts a
t W
este
rn p
oin
till
ism
an
d d
iffe
rs s
ign
ifica
ntl
y fr
om
th
e sk
etch
y ap
pea
ran
ce o
f T
akem
itsu
’s l
ater
pie
ces.
On
th
e o
ther
han
d,
the
con
cep
t o
f m
ad
raw
s at
ten
tio
n t
o p
reci
sely
th
e ac
cum
ula
tio
n a
nd
rel
ease
of
ener
gy;
for
inst
ance
, in
no_
sile
nce
sh
ou
ld b
e ‘p
erfo
rmed
’ in
a m
ann
er c
on
veyi
ng
the
ten
sio
n o
f w
hat
is
to c
om
e.
Incl
usi
on
of
late
r p
iece
s th
us
clar
ifies
th
at T
akem
itsu
’s u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
sile
nce
dev
elo
ped
th
rou
gho
ut
his
car
eer.
Ho
wev
er, b
oth
kin
ds
of
sile
nce
hav
e p
rece
den
ts b
oth
in
tra
dit
ion
al
Jap
anes
e an
d i
n W
este
rn m
usi
c.N
ois
e el
emen
ts c
on
stit
ute
a fi
nal
infl
uen
ce f
rom
Jap
anes
e ae
sth
etic
s o
n T
akem
itsu
’s p
ian
o
mu
sic.
Th
e ex
ten
ded
pla
yin
g te
chn
iqu
es c
alle
d f
or
in g
rap
hic
ally
no
tate
d p
iece
s, c
lust
ers,
sf
z-ef
fect
s, a
nd
rev
erb
erat
ion
of
sile
ntl
y p
laye
d k
eys
are
all
goo
d e
xam
ple
s o
f th
is. M
ore
ove
r,
dis
son
ant
son
ori
ties
are
ad
ded
, p
oss
ibly
in
spir
ed b
y th
e em
bai
tech
niq
ue.
Fo
r in
stan
ce,
Tak
emit
su’s
use
of
par
alle
l m
ajo
r se
ven
ths
is a
n e
xtra
ord
inar
ily e
xpre
ssiv
e va
riat
ion
of
the
un
iso
n.
In t
rad
itio
nal
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c al
l so
un
ds
wer
e el
igib
le o
n e
qu
al t
erm
s si
nce
mo
st m
usi
c o
rigi
nal
ly s
erve
d d
ram
atic
pu
rpo
ses
(Mik
i 2
00
8:
3).
Th
ere
wer
e n
o ‘i
nh
arm
on
ic s
ou
nd
s’,
and
dis
cord
did
no
t ex
ist
as a
co
nce
pt.19 N
ois
e, l
ike
sile
nce
, bec
ame
an i
nd
isp
ensa
ble
par
t o
f Ja
pan
ese
aest
het
ics
and
was
del
iber
atel
y ad
ded
to in
stru
men
ts im
po
rted
fro
m m
ain
lan
d
Ch
ina
so t
hat
, fo
r ex
amp
le, s
hak
uh
ach
i an
d b
iwa
bec
ame
mu
ch n
ois
ier
than
th
eir
Ch
ines
e co
un
terp
arts
, xia
o an
d p
ipa.
Sim
ilar
ly, o
n t
he
sham
isen
, no
ise
sou
nd
s (s
awar
i) p
rod
uce
d
sym
pat
het
ical
ly b
y th
e lo
wes
t st
rin
g ar
e h
igh
ly a
pp
reci
ated
(K
ish
ibe
et a
l. 2
00
9).
Co
ncl
usi
on
Th
is s
tud
y d
emo
nst
rate
s th
e o
mn
ipre
sen
ce o
f in
flu
ence
s fr
om
tra
dit
ion
al J
apan
ese
mu
sics
in
all
five
sty
list
ic p
erio
ds
of
Tak
emit
su’s
co
mp
osi
tio
nal
car
eer.
Th
ese
incl
ud
e: v
ario
us
stra
tegi
es o
f es
cap
ing
met
er;
tric
ho
rdal
org
aniz
atio
n o
f m
elo
dic
mo
tifs
; av
oid
ed o
ctav
e eq
uiv
alen
ce;
chro
mat
ical
ly d
esce
nd
ing
lead
ing
no
tes;
nu
clea
r p
itch
es;
stab
le h
arm
on
y (k
oto,
biw
a, a
nd
sh
o_
ch
ord
s);
inst
rum
enta
l im
itat
ion
s; d
esce
nd
ing
dyn
amic
s to
war
ds
ph
rase
en
din
gs; c
lust
er c
ho
rds;
un
iso
n p
assa
ges;
het
ero
ph
on
y; i
mit
atio
n t
ech
niq
ues
fro
m
gaga
ku; m
ult
idim
ensi
on
al d
ynam
ic t
extu
re; s
ub
tle
dyn
amic
s; a
nd
aes
thet
ic c
on
cep
ts s
uch
as
sim
pli
city
, am
big
uit
y, s
ilen
ce, r
ever
ber
atio
n, a
nd
no
ise.
Esp
ecia
lly
in la
ter
pie
ces,
cle
arly
n
ot
all
infl
uen
ces
rep
rese
nt
mer
ely
‘eas
tern
aes
thet
ics’
as s
ugg
este
d b
y L
ee (
19
91
: 57
), b
ut
som
e d
o in
dee
d r
elat
e to
tec
hn
ical
det
ails
co
nce
rnin
g T
akem
itsu
’s c
om
po
siti
on
al m
eth
od
. T
ech
nic
al i
nfl
uen
ces
are
mo
re s
ub
tly
pre
sen
t in
ear
ly p
oin
till
isti
c w
ork
s in
wh
ich
th
e co
mp
ose
r al
lege
dly
aim
ed a
t av
oid
ing
them
.N
ever
thel
ess,
mo
st o
f th
ese
char
acte
rist
ics
also
ap
pea
r in
tw
enti
eth
-cen
tury
mu
sic
by
Wes
tern
co
mp
ose
rs. P
oin
till
ism
is
kn
ow
n f
rom
Web
ern
, rev
erb
erat
ion
is
char
acte
rist
ic o
f M
essi
aen
’s p
ian
o te
xtu
res,
an
d J
apan
ese
mu
sic
has
no
mo
no
po
ly o
n c
lust
ers,
no
ise
sou
nd
s,
het
ero
ph
on
ic e
lem
ents
, d
ynam
ic s
ub
tlet
ies,
sil
ence
, an
d s
pec
ific
mel
od
ic m
oti
fs e
ith
er.
Mo
reo
ver,
th
ese
char
acte
rist
ics
are
no
t p
rese
nt
sim
ult
aneo
usl
y in
a s
ingl
e co
mp
osi
tio
n,
and
Tak
emit
su n
ever
ad
her
ed c
on
sist
entl
y to
co
mp
osi
tio
nal
ru
les,
alw
ays
refr
ain
ing
fro
m
sim
ply
co
pyi
ng
elem
ents
fro
m J
apan
ese
mu
sic.
Rat
her
he
crea
ted
in
ven
tive
syn
thes
es
such
as
his
ch
rom
atic
ait
ake
clu
ster
s an
d h
is p
rom
inen
t u
se o
f th
e tr
ito
ne,
rep
laci
ng
the
fou
rth
of
Jap
anes
e m
usi
c, i
n m
elo
dic
mo
tifs
an
d a
s in
terv
al b
etw
een
nu
clea
r p
itch
es. A
s m
enti
on
ed, t
he
trit
on
e ca
n b
e as
crib
ed t
o b
oth
th
e o
ctat
on
ic s
cale
of
Wes
tern
mu
sic
and
th
e h
emit
on
ic, p
enta
ton
ic s
cale
s o
f Ja
pan
ese
mu
sic.
In
sofa
r th
e co
nce
pt
of
‘in
flu
ence
’ is
a s
uffi
cien
t co
nce
pt
at a
ll t
o d
escr
ibe
cult
ura
l ex
chan
ges,
th
ese
fact
s m
ake
it
extr
emel
y d
iffi
cult
to
d
isti
ngu
ish
b
etw
een
Ja
pan
ese
infl
uen
ce,
Wes
tern
in
flu
ence
, an
d T
akem
itsu
’s p
erso
nal
sty
le.
Ho
wev
er,
juxt
apo
siti
on
of
tech
nic
al c
har
acte
rist
ics
fro
m s
ever
al t
rad
itio
nal
gen
res
in T
akem
itsu
’s p
ian
o w
ork
s is
in
it
self
an
im
po
rtan
t in
no
vati
on
dep
arti
ng
fro
m t
rad
itio
nal
pra
ctic
e w
her
e ge
nre
s w
ere
har
dly
mix
ed.
Th
us,
it
seem
s th
at T
akem
itsu
did
in
dee
d f
ulfi
ll h
is w
ish
to
dev
elo
p a
s a
Jap
anes
e in
tra
dit
ion
an
d a
s a
Wes
tern
er i
n i
nn
ova
tio
n.
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