By: Ms. Susan M. Pojer Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua, NY

By: Ms. Susan M. PojerBy: Ms. Susan M. PojerHorace Greeley HS Chappaqua, Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua,

NYNY

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

An Overview of the 18c

► Political History Political History >>> >>> Reform

► Intellectual History Intellectual History Newtonian Physics Reason

► Cultural History Cultural History Individualism

► Social History Social History Increased Literacy “Age of Aristocracy”

► Economic History Economic History > > Mercantilism to Capitalism

18c Politics► BRITAIN – – Constitutional Constitutional MonarchyMonarchy

► FRANCE Royal AbsolutismRoyal Absolutism (cultural and religious (cultural and religious unity)unity)

► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA “Enlightened “Enlightened Despotism”Despotism”

► OTTOMAN EMPIRE – – traditionaltraditional empire empire

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC::

Newton’s system was Newton’s system was synonymoussynonymouswith the empirical and the with the empirical and the practical.practical.

Scientific laws could be Scientific laws could be expressed as expressed as universal mathematical universal mathematical formulas.formulas.

Science allowed alternatives Science allowed alternatives to beto beimagined in everything from imagined in everything from politicspoliticsto religion.to religion.

William Blake’s Newton, 1795

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology

A dissection at the Royal A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.Academy, London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Natural History Collections

► Cocoa plant Cocoa plant drawing.drawing.

► Sir Hans Sir Hans SloaneSloane(1660-1753).(1660-1753).

► Collected from Collected from Jamaica.Jamaica.

Natural History Collections

James Petiver’s BeetlesJames Petiver’s Beetles(London apothecary)(London apothecary)

Private Collections

The Origins of Modern The Origins of Modern Museums.Museums.

Women & Science

The German The German astronomer astronomer Hevelius & Hevelius &

his wife his wife examine examine

the the heavens.heavens.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

physico-theologyphysico-theology –– an an attempt attempt (inspired by science) to (inspired by science) to explain God’s Providence explain God’s Providence by reference to his by reference to his work work in naturein nature & not primarily & not primarily through his biblical Word.through his biblical Word.

support of a “rational” support of a “rational” religion, freereligion, freefrom mysteries, miracles, from mysteries, miracles, andandsuperstitions.superstitions.


DeismDeism

V The belief in the existence of The belief in the existence of a God or supreme being but a God or supreme being but aadenial of revealed religion, denial of revealed religion, basingbasingone’s belief on theone’s belief on the lightlight of of naturenatureand reasonand reason..

Deists saw no point in any Deists saw no point in any particularparticularreligion; they recognized only religion; they recognized only a a distantdistantGodGod, uninvolved in the daily , uninvolved in the daily life of man.life of man.


Gradually, highly Gradually, highly educated Protestants & educated Protestants & Catholics thought more Catholics thought more about about God’s work as God’s work as revealed through sciencerevealed through science, , rather than through the rather than through the Scriptures.Scriptures.

PantheismPantheism

V The belief that God andThe belief that God andnature are one and the nature are one and the same.same.

Centers of the Enlightenment

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

1.1. Rationalism Rationalism reason is the reason is the arbiter of allarbiter of all things. things.

2.2. Cosmology Cosmology a new concept of a new concept of man, hisman, his existence on earth, existence on earth, & the& the place of the earth in place of the earth in thethe universe. universe.

3.3. Secularism Secularism application of the application of the methods ofmethods of science to religion & science to religion &

philosophy. philosophy.


4.4. Scientific MethodScientific Method

Mathematical analysisMathematical analysis

ExperimentationExperimentation

Inductive reasoning.Inductive reasoning.

5.5. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism the greatest the greatest good for good for the greatest the greatest number.number.

6.6. Tolerance Tolerance No opinion is No opinion is worth worth burning your burning your neighbor for.neighbor for.


7.7. Optimism & Self-ConfidenceOptimism & Self-Confidence

The belief that man is The belief that man is intrinsically good.intrinsically good.

The belief in social progress.The belief in social progress.

8.8. FreedomFreedom

Of thought and expression.Of thought and expression.

Bring liberty to all men (modern Bring liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism).battle against absolutism).

9.9. Education of the MassesEducation of the Masses


10.10.Legal ReformsLegal Reforms

Justice, kindness, and charity Justice, kindness, and charity no torture or indiscriminant no torture or indiscriminant incarceration.incarceration.

Due process of law. Due process of law.

11.11.ConstitutionalismConstitutionalism

Written constitutions Written constitutions listing listing citizens, rights.citizens, rights.

12.12.Cosmopolitanism.Cosmopolitanism.

The “Enlightened” Individual The Philosophe

► Not really original thinkers as a whole, but Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking were great publicists of the new thinking CHANGE & PROGRESS!CHANGE & PROGRESS!

► They were students of society who They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.

The “Great Debate”

Reason& LogicReason& Logic

Traditionsand

Superstitions

Traditionsand

Superstitions

rationalirationalismsm

empiriciempiricismsm

toleranctolerancee

skepticisskepticismm

DeismDeism

nostalgia nostalgia for the for the pastpast

organized organized religionsreligions

irrationalisirrationalismm

emotionalisemotionalismm

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)

► Progress of the Progress of the Human MindHuman Mind, 1794, 1794

An expectation of An expectation of universal universal happiness.happiness.

Every individual Every individual guided by reason guided by reason could enjoy true could enjoy true independence.independence.

He advocated a He advocated a free and equal free and equal education, education, constitutionalism, constitutionalism, and equal rights and equal rights for women.for women.

John Locke (1632-1704)

► Letter on Letter on TolerationToleration, , 16891689

► Two Treatises Two Treatises ofofGovernmentGovernment, , 16901690

► Some ThoughtsSome ThoughtsConcerningConcerningEducationEducation, , 16931693

► The The ReasonablenessReasonablenessof Christianityof Christianity, , 16951695

John Locke’s Philosophy (I)

► The individual must become a The individual must become a “rational“rationalcreature.”creature.”

► Virtue can be learned and Virtue can be learned and practiced.practiced.

► Human beings possess free will.Human beings possess free will. they should be prepared for freedom.they should be prepared for freedom. obedience should be out of obedience should be out of

conviction,conviction,not out of fear.not out of fear.

► Legislators owe their power to Legislators owe their power to aa contractcontract with the peoplewith the people..

► Neither kings nor wealth are Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.divinely ordained.

John Locke’s Philosophy (II)

► There are certain natural There are certain natural rights that are endowed by rights that are endowed by God to all human beings.God to all human beings.

life, liberty, property!life, liberty, property!

► The doctrine of the Divine The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was Right of Kings was nonsense.nonsense.

► He favored a republic as the He favored a republic as the best form of government.best form of government.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

► Critique of Pure Critique of Pure ReasonReason, 1781, 1781

► ““What is What is Enlightenment?”Enlightenment?”, 1784, 1784

► Metaphysical Metaphysical Foundations ofFoundations ofNatural Science, Natural Science, 17861786

Kant’s Philosophy

► Dare to Know!Dare to Know!► He introduced the concept ofHe introduced the concept of

transcendentalismtranscendentalism some some things are known by methods things are known by methods other than empirically.other than empirically.

The belief in the existence of a The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to understand non-rational way to understand things.things.

The existence of neither time nor The existence of neither time nor space is determined by empirical space is determined by empirical understanding.understanding.

These type of things areThese type of things are a prioria priori..V They transcend sensory They transcend sensory

experience.experience.V They are pure, not empiricalThey are pure, not empirical

[[[concepts like faith, pre-existence, [concepts like faith, pre-existence, life after deathlife after death].].

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

► Common Common SenseSense, 1776, 1776

► The Rights The Rights of Manof Man, , 17911791

The American “Philosophes”

John AdamsJohn Adams(1745-(1745-1826)1826)

Ben FranklinBen Franklin(1706-1790)(1706-1790)

ThomasThomasJeffersonJefferson(1743-(1743-1826)1826)

……...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of ...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...happiness…………...

Voltaire (1712-1778)

► AKA AKA Francois Francois Marie Arouet.Marie Arouet.

► Essay on the Essay on the CustomsCustomsand Spirit of and Spirit of NationsNations, , 17561756

► CandideCandide, 1759, 1759

► Philosophical Philosophical DictionaryDictionary, 1764, 1764

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I)

► Every man is guilty of all the Every man is guilty of all the good he good he didn’t do. didn’t do.► God is a comedian playing to an God is a comedian playing to an audience audience too afraid to laugh. too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be If God did not exist, it would be necessary necessary to invent him. to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right It is dangerous to be right when the when the government is wrong. government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II)

► Judge of a man by his questions Judge of a man by his questions rather thanrather than by his answers. by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not birth, but Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtuevirtue that makes the difference. that makes the difference.► Prejudice is opinion without Prejudice is opinion without judgment.judgment.► The way to become boring is to The way to become boring is to say say everything. everything.► I may not agree with what you I may not agree with what you have to say,have to say, but I will defend to the death but I will defend to the death your right to your right to say it. say it.

David Hume (1711-1776)

► The Natural The Natural History of History of Religion Religion [][][[(1755]).[[(1755]).

► Belief in God Belief in God rested on rested on superstition superstition and fear and fear rather than on rather than on reason.reason.

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)

He pointed out He pointed out problems with problems with contemporary contemporary England and tried to England and tried to urge reform.urge reform.

► The Decline andThe Decline andFall of the Roman Fall of the Roman Empire Empire (6 (6 volumes), 1787.volumes), 1787.

The Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

► Persian Persian LettersLetters, , 1721 1721

► On the Spirit On the Spirit of of LawsLaws, 1758, 1758

Montesquieu’s Philosophy

► Three types of government:Three types of government: Monarchy.Monarchy. Republic.Republic. Despotism.Despotism.

A separation of political A separation of political powers ensured freedom powers ensured freedom and liberty.and liberty.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

► A Discourse A Discourse on the on the Sciences and Sciences and ArtsArts, 1750, 1750

► Emile, 1762.Emile, 1762.

► The Social The Social Contract, Contract, 1762.1762.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (I)

► QuestionQuestion Does progress in Does progress in the arts and sciences the arts and sciences correspond with progress in correspond with progress in morality?morality?

As civilizations progress, they As civilizations progress, they move away from morality.move away from morality.

Science & art raised artificial Science & art raised artificial barriers between people and their barriers between people and their natural state.natural state.

Therefore, the revival of science Therefore, the revival of science and the arts had corrupted social and the arts had corrupted social morals, not improved them!morals, not improved them!

NO!NO!

Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)

Virtue exists in the ”state of Virtue exists in the ”state of nature,” but lost in “society.”nature,” but lost in “society.”

Government must preserve Government must preserve “virtue” and “virtue” and ”liberty.””liberty.”

Man is born free, yet Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.everywhere he is in chains.

The concept of theThe concept of the ”Noble ”Noble Savage.”Savage.”

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Civil liberty Civil liberty invest ALL invest ALL

rights and liberties into a rights and liberties into a society.society.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (III)

► In In The Social ContractThe Social Contract:: The right kind of political order The right kind of political order

could make people truly moral could make people truly moral and free.and free.

Individual moral freedom could Individual moral freedom could be achieved only by learning to be achieved only by learning to subject one’s individual interests subject one’s individual interests to the “to the “General WillGeneral Will.”.”

Individuals did this by entering Individuals did this by entering into a social contract not with into a social contract not with their rulers, but with each other.their rulers, but with each other.

V This social contract was derived This social contract was derived from human nature, not from from human nature, not from history, tradition, or the Bible.history, tradition, or the Bible.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (IV)

► People would be most free and People would be most free and moral under a republican form of moral under a republican form of government with direct government with direct democracy.democracy.

► However, the individual could be However, the individual could be “forced to be free” by the terms “forced to be free” by the terms of the social contract.of the social contract.

He provided no legal protections He provided no legal protections for individual rights.for individual rights.

► Rousseau’s thinking:Rousseau’s thinking: Had a great influence on the Had a great influence on the

French revolutionaries of 1789.French revolutionaries of 1789. His attacks on private property His attacks on private property

inspired the communists of the 19inspired the communists of the 19cc such as Karl Marx.such as Karl Marx.

PopularizinPopularizingg

thetheEnlightenmEnlightenm

entent

PopularizinPopularizingg

thetheEnlightenmEnlightenm

entent

A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Other Female Salons

► Wealthy Jewish women created Wealthy Jewish women created nine of the fourteen salons in nine of the fourteen salons in Berlin.Berlin.

► In Warsaw, Princess Zofia In Warsaw, Princess Zofia Czartoryska gathered around Czartoryska gathered around her the reform leaders of her the reform leaders of Poland-Lithuania.Poland-Lithuania.

► Middle-class women in London Middle-class women in London used their salons to raise money used their salons to raise money to publish women’s writings.to publish women’s writings.

Female Philosophes

► Emilie du Chatalet, Emilie du Chatalet, a French noblewomana French noblewoman(1706-1749).(1706-1749).

► Wrote extensively aboutWrote extensively aboutthe mathematics andthe mathematics andphysics of Gottfriedphysics of GottfriedWilhelm von Lebnitz andWilhelm von Lebnitz andIsaac Newton.Isaac Newton.

► Her lover, Voltaire, learned much Her lover, Voltaire, learned much of his science from her.of his science from her.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

► All things must be All things must be examined, examined, debated, debated, investigated investigated without exception without exception and without and without regard for regard for anyone’s anyone’s feelings.feelings.

► We will speak We will speak against senseless against senseless laws until they laws until they are reformed; are reformed; and, while we and, while we wait, we will wait, we will abide by them.abide by them.

Diderot’s Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie

► Complete cycle of Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…knowledge…………...…change the general way of change the general way of thinking.thinking.

► 28 volumes.28 volumes.

► Alphabetical, cross-Alphabetical, cross-referenced,referenced,illustrated.illustrated.

► First published in 1751.First published in 1751.

► 1500 1500 livreslivres a set. a set.

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie



Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

The “Republic of Letters”

►URBAN – – gathering of elites gathering of elites in thein the cities. cities. (salons)(salons)

►URBANE – – cosmopolitancosmopolitan,, worldlyworldly

music, art, literature, politicsmusic, art, literature, politics

read newspapers & the latest read newspapers & the latest books.books.

► POLITENESS – – proper proper behavior [behavior [ [ [self-self-governedgoverned]]

Reading During the Enlightenment►Literacy:

80%%% o/o for men; 60 o/o 80%%% o/o for men; 60 o/o women.women.

►Books were expensive (one Books were expensive (one day’s wages).day’s wages).

►Many readers for each book Many readers for each book (20 : 1)(20 : 1)

novels, plays & other literature.novels, plays & other literature.

journals, memoirs, “private lives.”journals, memoirs, “private lives.”

philosophy, history, theology.philosophy, history, theology.

newspapers, political pamphlets.newspapers, political pamphlets.

An Increase in Reading

An Increase in Reading

“Must Read” Books of the Time

““EnlighteEnlightenedned

DespotisDespotism”m”

Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786)

► 1712 -– 1786.1712 -– 1786.

► Succeeded his Succeeded his father,father, Frederick Frederick William IWilliam I (the “Soldier (the “Soldier King”).King”).

► He saw himselfHe saw himself as the as the “First“First Servant of the Servant of the State.”State.”

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

► German German PrincessPrincess Sophie Sophie FriederikeFriederike Auguste of Auguste of Anhalt- Anhalt-Zerbst.Zerbst.

► 1729 -– 1729 -– 1796.1796.

1767:1767: Catherine summons theCatherine summons the LegislativeLegislative Commission Commission..

1768-1774:1768-1774: Russo-Turkish WarRusso-Turkish War..

1771-1775:1771-1775: Pugachev RebellionPugachev Rebellion is is suppressed.suppressed.

1772: First partition of 1772: First partition of Poland.Poland.

1785:1785: Charter of NobilityCharter of Nobility..

1793: Second partition of 1793: Second partition of Poland.Poland.

1795: Third partition of 1795: Third partition of Poland.Poland.

Reformer? OR Despot?

Reformer? OR Despot?

The Partitions of Poland

- - 17721772

- - 17931793

- - 17951795

Russian Expansionism in the Late 18c

Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790)

► 1741 -– 1741 -– 1790.1790.

► His mother His mother waswas Maria Maria Theresa.Theresa.

Habsburg Family Crest

1772: First partition of Poland.1772: First partition of Poland.

1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to 1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian lands.Austrian lands.

1781: Declared the1781: Declared the Toleration PatentToleration Patent..

1781:1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal Abolition of serfdom and feudal duesdues..

1785: He failed to exchange the 1785: He failed to exchange the AustriaAustria Netherlands for Bavaria. Netherlands for Bavaria.

1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the 1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish War, but little was gained. War, but little was gained.

1795: Third partition of Poland.1795: Third partition of Poland.

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor

Joseph II of Austria

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

1.1.The democratic revolutions The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on every Western government on the defensive.the defensive.2.2.Reform, democracy, and Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.Western agenda.


3.3.New forms of civil society New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and lending libraries, and professional/scientific professional/scientific organizations.organizations.4.4.1919cc conservatives blamed it conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers disease” (once reformers began to criticize established began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!)where and when to stop!)


5.5. It established a materialistic It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the naturalistic account of the human condition (thehuman condition (the “Religion of Nature”“Religion of Nature”).).

6.6.Theoretically endowed with full Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, thecivil and legal rights, the individualindividual had come into had come into existence as a political and existence as a political and social force to be reckoned social force to be reckoned with.with.

Documents

By: Ms. Susan M. Pojer Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua, NY