Ch8-Sekaran n Bogie

8/2/2019 Ch8-Sekaran n Bogie

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Prepared by: Y Anni Aryani

Universitas Sebelas Maret

Sekaran and Bougie5th Edition - 2010



CHAPTER 8 Data collection methods



Chapter Objectives1. Know the difference b/w primary and secondary data

and their sources.

2. Be conversant with the various data collection

methods.3. Know the advantages and disadvantages of each

method.

4. Be able to make logical decisions as to the

appropriate data collection methods for specificstudies.

5. Be able to demonstrate your skills in interviewingothers to collect data.



Chapter Objectives6. Be able to design questionnaires to tap different variables.

7. Be able to evaluate questionnaires, distinguishing the“good” and “bad” questions therein.

8. Be able to identify and minimize the biases in variousdata collection methods.

9. Be able to discuss the advantages of multi-sources andmulti-methods of data collection.

10. Be able to apply what you have learned to classassignments and projects.

11. Understand the issues related to cross-cultural research.



Sources of Data Primary sources:

Individuals

Focus groups Panels

Unobtrusive methods

Secondary



Data collection methods Interviews

Face-to-face

Telephone Computer-assisted

Questionnaires

Observation



Interviewing

Unstructured and structured interviews. Tips for interviewing.

Face-to-face and telephone interviews. Computer-Assisted interviews.



Unstructured and Structured

Interviews

Unstructured Interviews.

Interviews conducted with the primary purpose of identifying some importantissues relevant to the problem situation,

without prior preparation of a plannedor predetermined sequence of questions.



Unstructured and Structured

Interviews (cont.)

Structured interviews:

Interviews conducted by the researcher with apredetermined list of questions to be asked of the interviewee.

Training interviews.



Some Tips to Follow in Interviewing

Interviewer. Interviewees. Situational:

Nonparticipants.Trust level and rapport established the physical setting of the interview



The Questioning Technique

Funneling. Unbiased questions.

Clarifying issues. Helping the respondent to think through

issues. Taking notes.



Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews

Face-to-Face Interviews:~ Advantages.

~ Disadvantages. Telephone Interviews:

~ Advantages.~ Disadvantages.



Face-to-Face Interviews

Advantages: Researcher can adapt the questions as necessary,clarify, doubts, and ensure that the responses areproperly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the

questions.

Disadvantages: the geographical limitations they may impose on thesurveys and the vast resources needed if such surveysneed to be done nationally or internationally



Telephone Interviews

Advantages:

From the researcher’s point of view, is that a number of

different people can be reached in a relatively short periodof time.

Disadvantages:

Respondent could unilaterally terminate the interview

without warning or explanation, by hanging up the phone.



Additional Sources of Bias in InterviewData

Strike.

Layoffs. and the like.



Computer-Assisted Interviewing

CATI (Computer-Assisted Telephone

Interviewing) and CAPI (Computer- Assisted Personal Interviewing).

Computer-Aided Survey Services.



CATI (Computer-Assisted Telephone

Interviewing)

Used in research organizations, is useful

inasmuch as responses to surveys can beobtained from people all over the world.



CAPI (Computer-Assisted PersonalInterviewing)

Has an advantage in that it can be self-administered.



Advantages of Computer Packages

Indexing. Retrieval.



Questionnaires

A pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record

their answer, usually within ratherclosely defined alternatives.



Questionnaires (cont.)

Personally administered questionnaires.

Mail questionnaires.



22



Guidelines for Questionnaire Design

The wording of the questions. Planning of issues of how the variables will

be categorized, scaled, and coded afterreceipt of the responses. The general appearance of the

questionnaire.



Principles of Wording

Content and purpose of the question.

Language and wording of thequestionnaire.

Type and form of questions.



Principles of Wording (cont.)

Open-Ended versus Closed questions.

Positively and negatively worded questions. Biases in questions.



Biases in Questions

Double-Barreled Questions Refers to the improper framing of a question

that should be posed as two or more separatequestions, so that the respondent can give clearand unambiguous answers.

Ambiguous Questions

Questions that are not clearly worded and likely to be interpreted by respondents in different

ways.



Biases in Questions (cont.)

Recall-Dependent Questions

Questions that elicit from respondentsinformation that involves recall of experiencesfrom the past that may be hazy in their memory.

Leading Questions

Questions phrased in such a manner as to leadthe respondent to give the answers that theresearcher would like to obtain.




Loaded Questions

Questions that would elicit highly biased emotionalresponses from subjects.

Social Desirability The respondents’ need to give socially or culturally

acceptable responses to the questions posed by the

researcher even if they are not true.



• Length of Questions

• Sequencing of Questions




Classification Data of or Personal

Information

Age.

Educational level.

Marital status.

Income.



Cross-Cultural Research

Special issues in instrumentation forcross-cultural research.

Issues in data collection.



Special Issues in Instrumentation for

Cross-Cultural Research

Vocabulary equivalence. Idiomatic equivalence.

Conceptual equivalence.



Issues in Data Collection

Response equivalence.

Timing of data collection.

The status of the individual collecting.



Principles of Measurement

The scales and scaling techniques used inmeasuring concepts, as well as theassessment of reliability and validity of the measures used.



General Appearance or “Get Up” of The

Questionnaire

A good introduction, well-organizedintroductions, and neat alignment of thequestions are all important.



Important Aspect of Questionnaires

A good introduction. Organizing questions, giving

instructions and guidance, and goodalignment.

Personal data.



Important Aspect of Questionnaires

(cont.)

Information on income and othersensitive personal data.

Open-ended question at the end.

Concluding the questionnaire.



Personally Adminstered Questionnaire

Advantages: Can establish rapport and motivate respondent.

Doubts can be clarified. Less expensive when administered to groups of

respondents.

Almost 100% response rate assured.

Anonymity of respondent is high.



Personally Adminstered Questionnaire

(cont.)

Disadvantages:

Organizations may be reluctant to give upcompany time for the survey with groups of employees assembled for the purpose.



Mail Questionnaires

Advantages: Anonymity is high.

Wide geographic regions can be reached. Token gifts can be enclosed to seek compliance.

Respondent can take more time to respond atconvenience.

Can be administered electronically, if desired.



Mail Questionnaires (cont.)

Disadvantages:

Response rate is almost always low. a 30% rate is

quite acceptable.

Cannot clarify questions.

Follow-up procedures for non-responses arenecessary.



Electronic Questionnaires

Advantages: Easy to administer.

Can reach globally. Very inexpensive.

Fast delivery.

Respondents can answer at their convenience like

the mail questionnaire.



Electronic Questionnaires (cont.)

Disadvantages:

Computer literacy is a must.

Respondents must have access to the facility.

Respondent must be willing to complete thesurvey.



Other Methods of Data Collection

Observational surveys.

Structured versus unstructured

observational studies. Advantages and disadvantages of

observational studies.

Biases in observational studies.



Observational Surveys

Nonparticipant-observer.

Participant-observer.



Nonparticipant-Observer

The researcher can collect data in the roleof a researcher without trying to becomean integral part of the organizationalsystem.



Participant-Observer

The researcher can also play the role of the

participant-observer. The researcher enters the organization of

the research setting, actually becoming apart of the work team.



Structured versus Unstructured

Observervational Studies

Structured Observational Studies:

Where the observer has a predeterminedset of categories of activities orphenomena planned to be studies.



Structured versus Unstructured

Observervational Studies (cont.)

Unstructured Observational Studies:

Observing events that are happening may also be a part of the plan as in many qualitative studies, the observer will record

almost everything that is observed.



Advantages of Observational Studies

The data obtained through observation of

events. It is easier to note the effects of

environmental influences on specificoutcomes.

It is easier to observe certain groups of individuals.



Disadvantages of Observational Studies

It is necessary for the observer to be

physically present. This method of collecting data is slow,

tedious and expensive.



Disadvantages of Observational Studies

(cont.)

Observer fatigue could easily set in, which

might bias the recorded data.

Observers have to be trained in what andhow to observe, and ways to avoid observer

bias.



Data Collection Through Mechanical

Observation

There are situations where machines can

provide data by recording the events of interest as they occur, without a researcherbeing physically present.



Projective Methods

Word-association techniques.

Sentence completion. Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT).

Inkblot test.



Secondary Data

Information gathered by someone other

than researcher conducting the currentstudy.



Multimethods of Data Collection

Because almost all data collection methods

have biases associated with them, colletingdata through multi-methods and frommultiple sources lends rigor to research.



Ethics in Data Collection

Ethics and the researcher.

Ethical behaviors of respondents.



Ethics and The Reseacher

Treating the information given by respondent.

Researchers should not misrepresent thenature of the study to subjects, especially in lab experiments.

Personal or seemingly intrusiveinformation should not be solicited.



Ethics and The Reseacher (cont.)

No one should be forced to respond to thesurvey.

Nonparticipant observers should be asnonintrusive as possible.

In lab studies, the subjects should be

debriefed with full disclosure of thereason.



Ethics Behaviors of Respondents

The subject, once having exercised the

choice to participate in a study, shouldcooperate fully in the task ahead.

The respondent also has an obligation tobe truthful and honest in the responses.



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Ch8-Sekaran n Bogie