Chap. 9 Landscape Ecology 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立台南大學環境與生態學院 2008 年 2 月至 6 月

Chap. 9 Landscape Ecology

鄭先祐 (Ayo)

國立台南大學環境與生態學院

2008 年 2 月至 6 月

chap. 9 landscape ecology 2

1 Landscape Ecology: Definition and Relation to Levels-of-Organization

Concept

Landscape ecology considers the development and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, spatial and temporal interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes, influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes, and management of spatial heterogeneity for society’s benefit and survival.

Landscape ecology is an integrative field of study.


Benchmark books

Landscape ecology had its beginnings in North America during the 1980s. McHarg(1969): Design with nature Turner (ed.) (1987): Landscape heterogeneity and dist

urbance. Hansen and di Castri (1992): Landscape boundaries: c

onsequences for biotic diversity and ecological flows. Forman (1997): Land mosaic: the ecology of landscap

e and regions. Turner er al. (2001): Landscape ecology in theory and

practice.


2 Landscape Elements

Landscape matrix, is a large area of similar ecosystem or vegetation types

A landscape patch ( 區塊 ) is a relatively homogeneous area and differs from the surrounding matrix.

A landscape corridor ( 廊道 ) is a strip of environment that differs from the matrix on either side. disturbance corridors, planted corridors, regenerated

corridors, resource (natural) corridors, and remnant corridors.


Landscape mosaic

coarse-grained landscape (habitat), vagility is low relative to the size of habitat patches.譬如， white-footed mouse

fine-grained, organism has high vagility relative to the size of habitat patches.譬如， a red-tailed hawk


Fig. 9-1. (A) Example of landscape patches embedded within an agricultural landscape matrix.


Fig. 9-1. (B) photograph showing how landscape corridors (fence rows), are maintained to connect landscape patches.


Fig. 9-1. Diagram depicting a “heat island” along interstate 86 form Atlanta, Georgia, to Charlotte, North Carolina.


Fig. 9-2 (A) possible configurations of natural (N) and artificial (A) patch-matrix relationships.


Fig. 9-2. (B) Aerial photograph of the woodland cemetery and Arboretum in Dayton, Ohio, depicting a NpAm patch-matrix relationship.


Fig. 9-3. Research design depicting twelve 0.04 hectare experimental grassland patches.

Four patches contain enhanced cover, four patches contain reduced cover, and four patches are undisturbed controls.


Fig. 9-4. (A) Aerial photograph of stud site depicting four high-quality 40-m2 fragmented patches and four 160-m2 nonfragmented patches.







3 Biodiversity at the Community and Landscape Levels

ordination ( 序列 ) is used to designate the ordering of species populations and communities along gradients.

continuum or gradient analysis ( 連續性或梯度分析 ) is used to designate the gradient containing the ordered populations or communities.


ecotone edge, edge effect, edge species four main classes of boundary traits

1. Origin and maintenance

2. Spatial structure

3. Function

4. Temporal dynamics

Similarity index (S) = 2C / A+B A, B = number of species in sample A, and B C= number of species common to both sample

s.


Fig. 9-7. Distribution of populations of dominant trees along a hypothetical gradient (0-10), illustrating the arrangement of component populations within a continuum community.


4 Island Biogeography ( 島嶼生物地理學 )

MacArthur and Wilson (1963, 1967), island biogeography theory The number of species on an island is determin

ed by the equilibrium between the immigration of new species and the extinction of those species already present.


Mechanisms: island biogeography( 島嶼生物地理學 )

The equilibrium theory of island biogeography

Empirical evidenceBiogeography of habitat islandsConservation applications






Biogeography of habitat islands




Schematic illustration of some principles for the design of nature

reserves.


Fig. 11. Baja California


表 1. Cortez 海域島嶼間生物地理之比較。

項目陸生植物

沿岸魚類

陸棲鳥類

陸棲爬蟲

蜥蜴陸棲哺乳

50km2 之海洋島嶼所含之平均數

105 13 9.3 3.5 1.3

陸橋性島嶼比海洋性島嶼含有更多的種類？

No No No Yes Yes Very Yes

島嶼上所含之種類比大陸塊上還少嗎？

No 有一點

Yes Yes Very Yes

Holocene 才出現之海洋性島嶼所含的種類數比老生島嶼還少嗎？

No No No No No 有一點

距大陸愈遠，種類數愈少嗎？陸橋性島嶼海洋性島嶼

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

有一點Yes

特有性：陸橋性島嶼海洋性島嶼

0

2

0

0

0

0

5

35

0

47

16

69


Fig. 13. 島嶼生物地理學 ( 修改自 Case & Code, 1987)


Fig. 14. Diagram of experimental design. Plots with solid edges represent enclosures preventing access by

sheep. Broken lines mark delineated plots in the grazed area.


表 2. 於不同大小面積之隔離區與牧養區內，顯花植物的種類數之比較。

項目隔離區牧養區

小型中型大型小型中型大型

N 32 8 2 16 4 1

總數 29 26 20 26 16 15

最多 / 各區

15 15 15 13 12 (15)

最少 / 各區

3 8 15 5 8 (15)

全區 34 種 26 種


表 3. 各型樣區的種類數目之變化。

項目小型中型大型全部種類 1985

1986

1987

29

30

33

26

27

29

20

20

25

34

33

40

遺失種類 1985-1986

1986-1987

4

2

5

3

3

2

5

1

新增種類 1985-1986

1986-1987

5

5

6

5

3

7

4

6


Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos.

a. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islandsb. Galapagos land birds

c. Galapagos Darwin's finchesd. Galapagos ferns.

海洋性島嶼

離岸 200 公里以上



e. Galapagos insectsf. Galapagos flowering plants

g. Caribbean bats.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.

海洋性島嶼




g. Caribbean bats.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.

i.. Canary Islands birdsj. Canary island ground beetles.

海洋性島嶼



Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for near shores archipelagos.

a. Seabirds on islands off of Scotland.b. Extant marsupials on islands in the Bass Straits.

c. Reptiles on islands in the Bass Straits. d. Sand dune mammals on islands in the Bass Straits.

沿岸島嶼

離岸 100KM 以內


沿岸島嶼

離岸 100KM 以內

Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for near shore archipelagos.

e. Birds of the California Channel islands.f. Reptiles and amphibians of the California Channel islands.

g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.


Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for near shores archipelagos.

g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.

i. Reptiles and amphibians of the islands in the Gulf of California.

沿岸島嶼

離岸 100KM 以內


Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates.

a. Mammals of East African national parks.b. Birds of East African national parks.

c. Mountaintop small mammals. d. Mountaintop plants.

陸域隔離區



e. Mountaintop birdsf. Birds in New Jersey woodlots

g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.

陸域隔離區



g. Mammals of Australian wheat belt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheat belt reserves.

i. Mammals of U.S. national parks.

陸域隔離區


切割棲息地後，所含的生物種類數反而增加，可能的原因：

1. Habitat diversity 2. Population dynamics.

Priority effects Multiple stable equilibria Edge effects Disturbance Species pool and dispersal ability. Colonization Evolutionary effects. Extinctions.

3. Historical effects.


當代的切割理論與生物保育策略

「一大」或是「多小」？(1) maximizes the mean size of reserves(2) maximizes the number of reserves


Mechanisms that produce high species diversity

Evolutionary timeEcological timeClimatic stabilityClimatic predictabilityStructural heterogeneityPrimary productionBiotic interactionsIntermediate levels of disturbanceGeographic area


Consequences of species diversity

One early principle of community ecology held that diversity and stability are causally related.1. Species diversity leads to complex

ecological interactions.2. Complex systems are inherently more

stable.


5 Neutral Theory ( 中性理論 )

Neutral theory, in ecology, treats all species as if they had the same per capita rates of birth and death, dispersal, and even speciation.

Neutral theories are useful in formulating and testing null hypotheses about how communities and ecosystem are assembled in landscapes.

Hubbell (2001), the unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography ( 生物地理學 ). ex. 島域生物地理學


metacommunity the neutral theory estimates the dominance-d

iversity curve for the source area, termed the metacommunity, based on the number called theta.

Theta (θ), the product of two parametersOne specifying the size of the metacommunityThe other the rate of speciation


Fig. 9-10. Dominance-diversity curve for a sample of 324,592 trees and shrubs of 1175 species in a 50-hectare forest plot in Lambir Hill National Park, Sarawak, Borneo. dashed line is the curve expected (Θ=310), solid line is the observed. Rare species are rarer than predicted.


6 Temporal and Spatial Scale

Ecological process vary in their effects or importance at different spatial and temporal scales.The concept of scale encourages analyses at

different levels of organization.



生命科學的時間與空間的範圍基本資料取自 Kohn (1989), p.1096 。

1A

-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 1微秒 1分 1天 1年 1 百萬年

時間的量度

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

1m

1mm

1um

4

6

8

1km

小分子

蛋白質

病毒

生物体

胞器細胞

原生物

無脊椎動物

小型生物

大型生物

地球：生物界

台灣生態空間

的量

度

生物學



Fig. 9-13. Diagram depicting the intermediate disturbance hypothesis.

The number of species in a community tends toward a maximum at intermediate levels of disturbance.


7 Landscape GeometryLandscape geometry (The study of

shapes)Landscape architecture

Patch stratification, soft versus hard edges, and three-dimensional use of habitat space

The geometry and configuration of landscape elements affect ecological processes at the population and community levels.


Fig. 9-14. (A) Aerial photograph of eight 1600m2 experimental patches of contrasting shape, n=4 replications per shape.


Fig. 9-14. (B) An example of radial-arm irrigation, which creates circular landscape patterns.


Fig. 9-15. Diagram depicting (A) the three major landscape elements (patch, corridor, and matrix).


(B) The relative abundances of edge and interior species in patches and corridors


Fig. 9-15. C. a bottomland forest peninsula ( 半島 )


Fig. 9-15. (D) examples of contrasting patch shapes of equal size but different geometry.


Fig. 9-16. Aerial photograph depicting the replicated research design used to evaluate the effects of corridor width and presence on the population dynamics of the meadow vole.

Patch connectivity


Fig. 9-17. Diagram depicting the difference between habitat loss (top) and habitat fragmentation (bottom). The same total area of deforestation can result in the loss of species requiring large home ranges when habitat is fragmented.


8 Concept of Landscape Sustainability

sustainabilityTo keep in existence, to support, to endorse w

ithout failing, to maintainMaintaining natural capital and maintenance o

f resource

natural capital vs. economic capital


9 Domesticated Landscapes

agroecosystems and agrolandscapes1. pre-industrial agriculture

2. industrial agriculture

3. reduced-input conservation agriculture

Alternative agriculture Urban-industrial technoecosystems


Fig. 9-18. Agroecosystem phases (A) pre-industrial agriculture(B) Industrial agriculture(C) Low-input sustainable agricultureIPM= integrated pest management


Fig. 9-18. Agroecosystem phases (B) Industrial agriculture


Fig. 9-18. Agroecosystem phases (C) Low-input sustainable agricultureIPM= integrated pest management


Fig. 9-19. Field of sunflower in the agricultural Midwest of the US.



Fig. 9-20. Model illustrating the need to link natural, life-support ecosystems with urban-industrial ecosystems, including a reward-feedback loop necessary to provide for a sustainable landscape.


都市的生態足跡


Fig. 9-21. home site on a stream peninsula


Fig. 9-22. Map outlining the Odum conservation easement plan for Beech Creek Reserve, located in Athens, Georgia.


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Chap. 9 Landscape Ecology 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立台南大學 環境與生態學院 2008 年 2 月至 6 月

Chap. 9 Landscape Ecology 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立台南大學環境與生態學院 2008 年 2 月至 6 月