CHAPTER 7Learning through Pushed OutputNation & Newton. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. Routledge.

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Why Output?

Swain (2005) argues that learners can comprehend input without having to look closely at the grammar. If, however, they are “pushed” to produce output, then the attention that they give to the grammar changes. The idea behind pushed output is that knowledge of the L2 does not transfer automatically from reception to production.

Why Output? (2)

• Biber’s (1989) research on the various clusters of syntactic items in different text types suggests that learners might be made aware of gaps in their productive knowledge of language features if they are required to speak in unfamiliar genres.

Factors to consider in PO

• Topic

• Text type (or Genre)

• Performance Conditions

• Planning

• Time pressure

• Amount of support

• Standard of performance

Text Type: Considerations

1. Involved interaction versus monologue. Is only one person speaking or are speakers interacting with each other?

2. Colloquial speech versus formal speech.

3. Short turns versus long turns. Do speakers make short contributions to a conversation or is there opportunity for longer largely uninterrupted speech?

4. Interactional versus transactional speech. Is the goal of the speaking to establish a friendly relationship or is it to convey important information (Brown, 1981)?

5. Narrative versus non-narrative.

Informal Speaking

1. Q−>SA+EI

2. Supportive Partner training

3. Repeated tasks (e.g. retelling / pass and talk)

4. Preparation using diary entries

5. Memorizing multi-word units

Formal Speaking

Brown, Anderson, Shillcock and Yule (1984)

1. Experience the task from the listeners’ point of view.

2. The opportunity to work through a series of spoken tasks that gradually increase in complexity.

• the amount of preparation available

• whether the task involves describing a “static” display or “dynamic” process

• the number of items, characters or points to deal with in the information they are presenting

The nature of Formal Speaking

1. Transactional

2. A long turn

3. Influenced by written language

4. Careful style / deliberate manner

5. Needs teaching as it is a skill that is not a part of typical language use.