Chinese SocietyChinese SocietyGEE 2190KGEE 2190K

Instructor: Ho-fung HungInstructor: Ho-fung Hung

Week 3.Week 3.China in RevolutionChina in Revolution

Collapse of the Qing empire and the warlord Collapse of the Qing empire and the warlord periodperiod

Nominally, the Qing government was overthrown Nominally, the Qing government was overthrown in 1911 by a group of revolutionary intellectuals in 1911 by a group of revolutionary intellectuals led by Sun Yat-sen led by Sun Yat-sen (( 孫逸仙孫逸仙 // 孫中山孫中山 ).).

Actually, the Qing government was toppled by Actually, the Qing government was toppled by regional warlords who claimed to echo Sun’s regional warlords who claimed to echo Sun’s revolutionary call.revolutionary call.

After the revolution, the warlords After the revolution, the warlords （軍（軍閥）閥） became autonomous powers, fighting with became autonomous powers, fighting with one another.one another.

Rise of CommunismRise of Communism The Chinese Communist Party was The Chinese Communist Party was

founded in 1921 in Shanghai. This founded in 1921 in Shanghai. This was a result of the impact of the was a result of the impact of the Russia’s October Revolution in 1917 Russia’s October Revolution in 1917 and the May-fourth movements and the May-fourth movements （五（五四運動）四運動） in in 1919.1919.

In 1924, Sun Yat-sen adopted a united In 1924, Sun Yat-sen adopted a united front policy, which forged a front policy, which forged a revolutionary alliance between the revolutionary alliance between the Guomindang Guomindang （國民黨）（國民黨） and the and the Communist. The two parties joined Communist. The two parties joined hands to launch the Northward hands to launch the Northward expedition (expedition (北伐北伐 1926-28) .1926-28) .

The Northward expedition successfully The Northward expedition successfully ended warlordism in China. This put ended warlordism in China. This put most of China under Guomindang rule. most of China under Guomindang rule. Nanjing became capital of Republican Nanjing became capital of Republican China in 1928.China in 1928.

Near the end of Northward expedition, Near the end of Northward expedition, Jiang Jieshi Jiang Jieshi (( 蔣介石蔣介石 ),), an emerging an emerging military leader within the Guomindang, military leader within the Guomindang, abandoned Sun’s (who died in 1925) abandoned Sun’s (who died in 1925) united front policy. He took control of the united front policy. He took control of the Guomindang through a coup Guomindang through a coup (( 政變政變 )) and and initiated a massacre of Communists in initiated a massacre of Communists in major cities.major cities.

After the massacre, Communist leaders, After the massacre, Communist leaders, including the young Mao Zedongincluding the young Mao Zedong （毛澤（毛澤東）東） , developed the strategy of leaving , developed the strategy of leaving the big cities and establishing rural Soviet the big cities and establishing rural Soviet （蘇維埃）（蘇維埃） in inland provinces, where in inland provinces, where Guomindang control was weak.Guomindang control was weak.

In 1928-34, Mao Zedong established In 1928-34, Mao Zedong established Soviet in the impoverished Jiangxi Soviet in the impoverished Jiangxi mountainous areas one after the mountainous areas one after the other. The Chinese Communist other. The Chinese Communist movement changed from an urban movement changed from an urban movement based on industrial movement based on industrial workers into a rural movement based workers into a rural movement based on the support of the peasants.on the support of the peasants.

ThThe peasants supported the Communists because e peasants supported the Communists because the latter:the latter:

- Implemented land reform to redistribute Implemented land reform to redistribute confiscated land (from local bullies, notorious confiscated land (from local bullies, notorious landlord, etc.) to landless, marginal peasants.landlord, etc.) to landless, marginal peasants.

- Established peasant associations to promote self-Established peasant associations to promote self-governance of the peasants.governance of the peasants.

- Promoted voluntary co-operatives Promoted voluntary co-operatives (( 合作社合作社 )) to to facilitate investment in agricultural production facilitate investment in agricultural production and construction of public facilities.and construction of public facilities.

- Well disciplined Red Army and clean Soviet Well disciplined Red Army and clean Soviet government. government.

Strong peasant support led to rapid expansion Strong peasant support led to rapid expansion of Red Base area in Jiangxi and expansion of the of Red Base area in Jiangxi and expansion of the Red Army – Red Army as “peasants in uniform.”Red Army – Red Army as “peasants in uniform.”

The Long MarchThe Long March When military pressure from the When military pressure from the

Republican government intensified in Republican government intensified in 1930-34, the Communists were 1930-34, the Communists were forced to leave the Red Base area forced to leave the Red Base area and moved their base from central-and moved their base from central-southern China to the Northwest southern China to the Northwest area, which was out of Guomindang’s area, which was out of Guomindang’s reach.reach.

A new revolutionary base was A new revolutionary base was established in Yan’an established in Yan’an (( 延安延安 ).).

In Yan’an, the Communists continued its policy of In Yan’an, the Communists continued its policy of modest land reform and promoting peasant self-modest land reform and promoting peasant self-governance and co-operatives. They also began to governance and co-operatives. They also began to experiment on the system of command economy.experiment on the system of command economy.

The Communists also gathered increasing national The Communists also gathered increasing national support because of its sturdy anti-Japanese stance. It was support because of its sturdy anti-Japanese stance. It was in contrast to the Guomindang, which was much more in contrast to the Guomindang, which was much more interested in crushing the Communists than resisting interested in crushing the Communists than resisting Japanese invasion.Japanese invasion.

In 1936, a second united front between In 1936, a second united front between the Communists and the Guomindang was the Communists and the Guomindang was established on the ground of united established on the ground of united resistance against the Japanese.resistance against the Japanese.

After the beginning of full-fledged invasion After the beginning of full-fledged invasion of China by Japan, the Guomindang of China by Japan, the Guomindang government moved from Nanjing to government moved from Nanjing to Chongqing Chongqing (( 重慶重慶 )) in the Southwest interior in the Southwest interior of China, while the Communist army of China, while the Communist army applied guerrilla tactics to check the applied guerrilla tactics to check the growth of Japan’s territory in China. growth of Japan’s territory in China.

After Japan surrendered in 1945, Japan’s After Japan surrendered in 1945, Japan’s territory in China’s Northeast was taken by territory in China’s Northeast was taken by the Soviet Union. The Communist army the Soviet Union. The Communist army then advanced to the Northeast rapidly to then advanced to the Northeast rapidly to take over the industrial facilities and take over the industrial facilities and military hardware left by the Japanese military hardware left by the Japanese there. Civil war broke out between the there. Civil war broke out between the Communist and the Guomindang.Communist and the Guomindang.

In a matter of a few years, the Communist In a matter of a few years, the Communist defeated the Guomindang. The Communist defeated the Guomindang. The Communist won not only by its military advantage but won not only by its military advantage but also by the support of urban residents who also by the support of urban residents who resented the corrupted Guomindang rule. resented the corrupted Guomindang rule.

Years of Recovery, 1950-55Years of Recovery, 1950-55 In the first few years of the People’s In the first few years of the People’s

Republic of China Republic of China (( 中華人民共和國中華人民共和國 ),), China’s economy recovered rapidly.China’s economy recovered rapidly.

In the countryside, the Communist In the countryside, the Communist government carried out nation-wide land government carried out nation-wide land reform. Nation-wide campaign for the reform. Nation-wide campaign for the establishment of rural co-operatives was establishment of rural co-operatives was also launched. These policies were also launched. These policies were continuations of the policies in the Red continuations of the policies in the Red Base Area prior to 1949.Base Area prior to 1949.

In the urban area, nationalization of In the urban area, nationalization of private industry began. Industrialists private industry began. Industrialists were asked (actually forced) to transfer were asked (actually forced) to transfer their control of their enterprises to the their control of their enterprises to the government. In return, they could get a government. In return, they could get a regular interest income (based on regular interest income (based on estimation of the enterprises’ value) estimation of the enterprises’ value) from the government.from the government.

By 1955, land reform had been By 1955, land reform had been completed and most industrial completed and most industrial establishments had been nationalized.establishments had been nationalized.

Radical Collectivization after 1955Radical Collectivization after 1955

In 1950-1955, agriculture output In 1950-1955, agriculture output increased considerably, creating increased considerably, creating increasing food surplus to support increasing food surplus to support the expanding industrial economy in the expanding industrial economy in the cities.the cities.

In the mid-1950s, the growth rate of In the mid-1950s, the growth rate of agricultural production and the agricultural production and the growth rate of the national economy growth rate of the national economy at large diminished.at large diminished.

The government’s remedy for this problem The government’s remedy for this problem was to impose radical collectivization in was to impose radical collectivization in the countryside. Peasants were mobilized the countryside. Peasants were mobilized to join people’s communes to join people’s communes (( 人民公社人民公社 ))..

The communes were directly under the The communes were directly under the control of the state. Private commercial control of the state. Private commercial activities in the village were banned. activities in the village were banned.

The commune system was supposed to The commune system was supposed to increase agricultural production through increase agricultural production through the “economy of scale” the “economy of scale” （規模經濟），（規模經濟）， and and to enable the government to purchase to enable the government to purchase agricultural products at extremely low agricultural products at extremely low prices.prices.

Hence, people’s communes are seen by Hence, people’s communes are seen by some scholars as institutions that helped some scholars as institutions that helped the government extract resources from the government extract resources from the countryside to support rapid the countryside to support rapid industrialization in urban areas.industrialization in urban areas.

They are seen by others as providers of They are seen by others as providers of social services to the rural area.social services to the rural area.

The collectivization movement peaked in The collectivization movement peaked in the Great Leap Forward the Great Leap Forward (( 大躍進大躍進 )) in in 1958. 1958.

A rigid command economy was in A rigid command economy was in place at the end of the 1950s. Its place at the end of the 1950s. Its radicalism and rigidity radicalism and rigidity turned out to turned out to be a disaster that contributed in part be a disaster that contributed in part to the great famine of 1959-62.to the great famine of 1959-62.

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Partial revival of the private sector after Partial revival of the private sector after 19601960

In 1960, Mao Zedong admitted that he made a huge In 1960, Mao Zedong admitted that he made a huge mistake by pushing for radical collectivization. He mistake by pushing for radical collectivization. He was forced to step aside in the leadership.was forced to step aside in the leadership.

After 1960, Liu Shaqi After 1960, Liu Shaqi (( 劉少奇劉少奇 ), with the assistance of ), with the assistance of Deng Xiaoping, was in charge of the economy.Deng Xiaoping, was in charge of the economy.

Though the system of people’s commune remained Though the system of people’s commune remained intact, peasants were allowed to engage in sideline intact, peasants were allowed to engage in sideline productions and limited commercial activities under productions and limited commercial activities under Liu Shaoqi. Market towns revived in the rural area Liu Shaoqi. Market towns revived in the rural area and the rural economy recovered rapidly.and the rural economy recovered rapidly.

Fluctuation of policy throughout the Fluctuation of policy throughout the 1950s and early 1960s did not affect 1950s and early 1960s did not affect urban areas much, as they had been urban areas much, as they had been under a strict system of command under a strict system of command economy grounded on state-ownedeconomy grounded on state-owned industry ever since the nationalization industry ever since the nationalization process in the early 1950s.process in the early 1950s.

Income gap between urban and rural Income gap between urban and rural area persisted, though it decreased area persisted, though it decreased slightly over the Mao’s periodslightly over the Mao’s period

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national pc grainconsumption (kg)rural per capita grainconsumptionurban per capita grainconsumption

The era of Cultural Revolution, 1966-76The era of Cultural Revolution, 1966-76

In 1966, Mao launched the Cultural In 1966, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution Revolution (( 文化大革命文化大革命 ),), during which Liu during which Liu Shaoqi was attacked as a “capitalist roader” Shaoqi was attacked as a “capitalist roader” and ousted. Mao and a group of ultra-leftists and ousted. Mao and a group of ultra-leftists （極左派）（極左派） took control of the government took control of the government again, and reversed the market reform in the again, and reversed the market reform in the early 1960s.early 1960s.

Mao mobilized the youngsters into red guards Mao mobilized the youngsters into red guards (( 紅衛兵紅衛兵 ),), using them to crush Liu Shaoqi using them to crush Liu Shaoqi and his supporters in the Communist Party.and his supporters in the Communist Party.

Mao Mao swimming swimming across the across the

Yangzi Yangzi River, River,

showing his showing his health and health and initiating initiating

the the Cultural Cultural

RevolutionRevolution

Red guards from all over the countries rallied at the Red guards from all over the countries rallied at the Tiannanmen square.Tiannanmen square.

Fluctuation of policy continued. In Fluctuation of policy continued. In the early 1970s, pragmatic leaders in the early 1970s, pragmatic leaders in the Party resurged and limited the Party resurged and limited market reform revived. But the market reform revived. But the reform was crushed again when the reform was crushed again when the pragmatists were pushed aside in pragmatists were pushed aside in 1976.1976.

These vicissitudes of policy were These vicissitudes of policy were results of unpredictable power results of unpredictable power struggle within the Party. struggle within the Party.

After the death of Mao Zedong in After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, market reformers seized the 1976, market reformers seized the Party’s leadership through a coup. Party’s leadership through a coup. The ultra-leftists (led by the Gang of The ultra-leftists (led by the Gang of Four) were marginalized.Four) were marginalized.

This dramatic political development This dramatic political development paved the way for the full-fledged paved the way for the full-fledged market reform in the 1980s.market reform in the 1980s.