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8/4/2019 Class 8 GDSS
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Group Decision Support andGroupware Technologies
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A Bit of History
• The existence of support mechanisms for MDMactivities predates the technology (Churchill’s cabinetwar room and its wall of maps).
• The 1960s and 70s saw the addition of slide projectorsand overheads.
• The computer was the next logical step in the 1970sand 80s.
• Today there are entire facilities (UA and Claremont)devoted to MDM activities
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Group Decision Making
Holsapple suggests we use the term multiparticipant decision maker (MDM)
• A group is the MDM structure where multiple decisionmakers completely interact
• A team is the MDM structure where members adviseone decision maker but do not interact
• A committee is the MDM structure with a single decision
maker and member interaction
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Hierarchical Classification of MDM
StructuresDecision
Structure
Collaborative Non-Collaborative
Group Team Individual
Consensus MajorityCommittee
Consensus Majority
Implementation
Communication among non-
decision-makers is relevant
Communication among non-
decision-makers is irrelevant
Formal Participants
Multiple Decision-makers
Formal Participants
Single Decision-maker No formal sources
Single Decision-maker
All must agree Stated % must agree
All must agree Stated % must agree
Collective
communication
between participants
& Decision-maker
Interactive
communication between
non-decision-maker
participants
Results directly from decision Results directly from recommendation
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Basic MDM Structures
GroupMultiple DMs
withcomplete interaction
TeamSingle DM w
ith noparticipant interaction
CommitteeSingle DM with complete
participant interaction
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Basic Communication Network
Structures
Wheel Network Circle Network
Completely Connected
Network
Chain Network
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Principal Characteristics of Network
Structures Highly Centralized – Wheel, Chain
Efficient for routine and recurring decisions
They tend to strengthen the leadership position of the central members
They tend to result in a stable set of interaction among the participants
They tend to produce lower levels of satisfaction among theparticipants
Highly Decentralized – Circle, Completely Connected
They tend to produce higher levels of satisfaction among theparticipants
They facilitate non-routine or nonrecurring decisions
They promote innovative and creative solutions
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Group Behaviors and Norms
• MDMs establish norms that guide the decision-making process
• A norm specifies what group members are expectedto do under given circumstances
• Norm ―sending‖ can be through examples, peerreview or sanctioning
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Factors Used in Determining Decision
Structure The importance of the quality of the decision
The extent to which the DM possesses the knowledge andexpertise to make the decision
The extent to which potential participants have the necessary
information The degree of structuredness of the problem context
The degree to which acceptance or commitment is critical tosuccessful implementation
The probability of acceptance
The degree of motivation among the participants to achieveorganizational goals
The degree of potential conflict among the participants
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Matrix for MDM Structure Selection
Factors Individual Team Committee GroupHigh Importance
DM Expertise
Participant Expertise
High Structuredness
Acceptance Critical
Acceptance Probable
Participant Motivation
Potential for Conflict
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The Problem With Groups
• Size: in general, member satisfaction andcohesiveness decreases with group size. In
large groups, subgroups or internal coalitionstend to form.
• Groupthink: in large groups, people tend tothink in ways that achieve unanimity insteadof creativity.
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Other Sociological Issues
• Conflict: the desire to be seen as a good teammember can lead to conflict avoidance.
• Anonymity: one method used to control sources ofconflict is to allow members to participateanonymously.
• Gender Issues: males and females tend to placedifferent values on different skills, but this may be astrength in an MDM setting.
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Negotiating and Deciding
• The decision may involve multiple viewpoints, thuscreating the need for negotiation.
• The design of the support mechanism for the MDMmust accommodate the activities of negotiation.
• These activities include equitable access toinformation and support for a wide variety ofcommunication structures.
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Effects Related to MDM Size
Participant interaction tends to decrease withincrease in size
Affective or emotional relationships tend todecrease with increase in size
Central, dominant leadership tends to increasewith size
Conflict is resolved with political rather thananalytical solutions as size increases
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Potential Consequences of Groupthink
Tends to preclude a complete and open-minded analysis ofopportunities in the development of objectives
Inhibits a meaningful search for information and tends to biasany searches toward a self-fulfilling selectivity
Limits the participants’ ability to impartially appraisealternatives
Often results in a complete failure to consider possibilitiesassociated with cost of failure which, in turn, tends to result inchoice selections that are more risky than is warranted by the
payoff. Tends to eliminate the formation of contingency or fallback
positions
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MDM Support Technology Variables
Personal Factors
Attitude
Abilities
Individual motives
Background
Situational Factors
Reasons for group membership
Stage in group development
Existing social networks
Background
Group structure
Work group norms
Power relationships
Status relationships
Group cohesiveness
Density (group size, room size, interpersonal
distance)
Anonymity
Facilitator
Contextual Variables
Technological support
Degree
Type
Task characteristics
Complexity
Nature
Degree of uncertainty
I. Situational Factors
Depth of analysis
Participation
Consensus reaching
Time to reach the decision
II. Communication Characteristics
Clarification efforts
Efficiency of the communication
Exchange of information
Nonverbal communication
Task-oriented communication
III. Interpersonal characteristics
Cooperation
Domination of a few members
IV. Structure imposed by the technology
I. Characteristics of the decision
Quality
Variability of quality over time
Breadth
II. Implementation of the decision
Cost
Ease
Commitment of participants
III. Attitude of participants toward decision
Acceptance
Comprehension
Satisfaction
Confidence
I. Attitude toward group process
Satisfaction
Willingness to work with participants in the future
Group Process
Task-related Outcomes
Group-related Outcomes
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MDM Support Technology Categorization
DSS
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Objectives of MDM Support
Technologies• Process support mechanisms focus on facilitating
interaction
• Process structure mechanisms govern thecommunication activities
• Task support mechanisms can select, organize or
derive information
• Task structure mechanisms provide access totechniques that filter, combine and analyzeknowledge relevant to the task
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Sources of Gains in MDM Activities
Collective has greater knowledge than any singleparticipant
Allows for synergistic results otherwise not obtainable
Interaction stimulates the generation of knowledge orinformation otherwise unavailable
Participants can improve individual performancethrough learning from others
Improved evaluation over individual decision-makingstructure
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Sources of Losses in MDM
Activities Relative allocation of speaking time is reduced with MDM size
Can result in idea production blocking
Can produce information overload much faster
Participants may not be able to remember all the contributions of
others Pressures resulting in conformity can be exacerbated
Can increase evaluation apprehension in participants
Allows for “free-riding” or social loafing of lazy or non-participativeindividuals
Can promote cognitive inertia or groupthink
Increases opportunity for socialization over goal focus
Increases decision context coordination activities
Can allow for partial task or knowledge analysis
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Classes/Types of MDM Support
TechnologyClassification by feature – DeSanctis and
Gallupe proposed a three-level schemebased on the features offered:
– Level 1: primarily intended to facilitatecommunication among members
– Level 2 : designed to reduce uncertainty
– Level 3: help regulate the decision process
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DeSanctis and Gallupe MDM System
ClassificationMDMLevel Participant Needs System Feature
1Red
uceCommunication
Barriers
- message passing among participants- access to data files during meeting- simultaneous display of ideas, graphs,
votes, etc. to all participants- relaxation of inhibitions to contribute- control for free-riders-
organization and analysis of ideas andvotes- preference quantification- agenda planning- schedule coordination
- Electronic messaging- Computer networking- Large shared viewing screen or public
display window- Anonymous contribution- Active solicitation of ideas-
Summarization and tabulation- Rating/ranking scales- Agenda templates- Continuous display of progress
2Reduce
Uncertainty andNoise
- problem structuring and solutionscheduling
- uncertainty analysis- analysis of resource allocation problems- data analysis- preference analysis
- structured guidance of deliberations
- Automated planning methods (PERT, etc.)- Decision tables, trees, etc.- LP and optimization modeling- Statistical tools- Subjective probability methods- MDM coordination methods (nominal, etc.)
3RegulateDecision
Processes
- enforcement of formal decisionprocedures
- increased clarity of options for decisionprocedures
- structuring and filtering of messages toadhere to rules
- development of deliberation governancerules
- Automated procedure mechanisms- Automated advisor for providing advice
regarding various approaches- Structuring and filter agents
- Rule set construction and inferencemechanisms
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Supporting Groupwork
with Computerized Systems
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Classes/Types of MDM Support Technology
(cont.)Classification by technology – Kraemer and
King focused on the technology applied:
– Electronic Boardroom – Teleconference Room
– Group Network
– Information Center
– Collaboration Lab – Decision Room
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Kraemer and King MDM
Classification by TechnologyMDM Type
Facility andHardware Software
SpecificConsiderations
Electronic Boardroom Conference room withcomputer-controlledaudiovisual wide-screenprojection capabilities
Application for storage andretrieval of previouslyprepared presentations
Same time-same placesynchronous interaction.Requires audiovisualtechnician to be present
Teleconference Room Conference room with
computer-controlledaudiovisual transmissionbetween locations
Application to control digital
transmission of audio,video, and data
Same time-different place
synchronous interaction.Requires teleconferencingtechnician to be present
Group Network Separate office facilitiesconnected via a computernetwork
Applications to allow foreither real-time orasynchronous desktopconferencing and exchangeof video, audio, and data
Same time or different time-different place interactionwith one participant servingas coordinator or chair
Information Center Conference room with videoprojector for wide-screenviewing. Individualcomputers with display
terminals
Applications for databasemanagement, statisticalanalysis, graphicsgeneration, and word
processing
Same time-same placeinteraction. Requiresspecialists in modeling andspecific application software
to be present
Collaboration Laboratory Conference room withelectronic whiteboard andnetworked computers
Applications forcollaborative interaction andinformation exchange
Same or different time-same place interaction.Requires MDM processfacilitator to be present
Decision Room Conference room with videoprojector for wide screenviewing and networkedcomputers
Applications to supportbrainstorming, topiccommentary, voting,modeling, decision analysis,collaborative interaction anddata exchange
Same or different time-same place interaction.Requires MDM processfacilitator to be present
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Decision Room MDM Support Functions
Electronic brainstorming
Topic commentary
Issue analysis
Voting and preference indication
Policy formation Stakeholder analysis
Organization of ideas
Evaluation of alternatives
Survey and Questionnaire creation and administration
Multiple format file readers
Participant dictionary
Enterprise analysis of decision outcome on organization
MDM session management
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Groupware
• Software designed to support collaboration, includingcapturing and storing the information exchanged
• Current market leaders are Lotus Notes and Domino,Microsoft Exchange, Novell GroupWise and OracleOffice
• Individual tools inside the software suite include ameeting manager (Lotus Sametime) and messageexchange (Lotus Notes Mail)
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A Lotus Sametime Meeting Center Screen
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A Typical Lotus Notes Messaging Screen
Layout
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Groupware Classification
Ellis, et al proposed a classification systembased on type of support it provides:
1. Messaging systems
2. Conferencing systems
3. Collaborative authoring systems
4. Group DSS
5. Coordination systems
6. Intelligent agent systems
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Forces Driving Groupware
DevelopmentSome of the major factors include:
– Increased productivity
– Reduced number of meetings – Increased automation of routine workflow
– Need for better global coordination
– Availability of widespread networks
Coleman and Khanna list 10 other factors.
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Forces In Favor of Groupware Adoption
Increased cost control
Increased productivity
Improved customer service
Support for total quality management (TQM) activities
Reduced number of meetings
Increased automation of routine workflow processes Desire to extend the organization to include both supplier and customer
Need to integrate geophysically dislocated teams
Increased competitive advantage through faster time to market
Need for better global coordination
Creation of services that differentiate the organization
Leveraging of professional expertise and knowledge
Availability of widespread network infrastructures (i.e., Internet, WWW)
Improved price/performance ratios of both hardware and software necessary
Increased use of ad hoc teams
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Common MDM Coordination
Methods
Nominal Group Technique
Delphi Technique
Arbitration
Issue-based Information System
Nemawashi
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Nominal Group Technique
1. Each participant writes down ideas about what thedecision should be.
2. In turn, each participant presents his or her ideas,which are recorded on a whiteboard. No discussionoccurs here.
3. After all ideas are presented, participants mayquestion others.
4. Each participant votes on each idea.
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Delphi Technique
• Essentially the same as nominal grouptechnique except the participants never meet.
• A survey instrument is used to collect initialinput from members.
• A second survey is sent with a summary ofthe collective results.
• These steps repeat until either a consensusor majority view is reached.
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Arbitration
• Most appropriate when the members of theMDM represent opposing factors.
• Participants agree that if mutually agreeablealternatives are not found, an outsidearbitrator will get involved.
• The arbitrator then selects the alternative he
or she deems most appropriate.
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Issue-Based Information System (IBIS)
• A structured argumentation method.
• An IBIS is represented as a graph with nodes
and links.• The IBIS begins with selection of a root issue
node, then the various position nodes arelinked to the root.
• These position nodes are then evaluatedbased on the arguments attached to them.
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Nemawashi (widely used in Japan)
1. One or more members of the MDM aredesignated as coordinators. Thecoordinators then select remaining
participants.2. Coordinators construct a choice set and
then experts rate the choices.
3. Coordinator selects a choice based onresults in 2.
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Nemawashi (cont.)
4. The alternative is circulated; the coordinatorseeks consensus through persuasion andnegotiation.
5. If consensus is reached, coordinatorscirculate a document that each MDMmember signs off on.
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The Virtual Workplace
• Many worldwide organizations are tradingreal estate for collaborative technology.
• Work is becoming a thing you do rather thana place you go.
• The biggest changes brought about by thevirtual workplace may be cultural orsociological rather than technological.
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and
Successful Implementation
Organizing a GSS session—Face-to-face, sametime/same place electronic meetings generallyfollow a common progression
1. The group leader meets with the facilitator to plan themeeting—select the software tools and develop anagenda
2. The participants meet in the decision room, theleader poses a question or problem to the group
3. The participants type their ideas or comments (i.e.,brainstorm), and the results are displayed publicly
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and
Successful Implementation
• Organizing a GSS session4. The facilitator, using idea organization
software, searches for common themes,
topics, and ideas and organizes them intorough categories, the results are publiclydisplayed
5. The leader starts a discussion, the
participants prioritize the ideas6. The top 5 or 10 topics are sent to idea-
generation software following a discussion;the process can be repeated or a final vote
can be taken
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and
Successful Implementation
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and
Successful Implementation
• GSS success factors
– Organizational commitment
– An executive sponsor
– An operating sponsor
– User involvement and training
– A user-seductive interface
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and
Successful Implementation
• GSS success factors
– Crafting a collaborative culture—three stepstoward creating a work environment that
supports collaboration1. Know what you want
2. Determine resource constraints
3. Determine what technologies can be used to
overcome resource constraints
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and
Successful Implementation
• Implementation issues for onlinecollaboration
– To connect business partners, an organizationneeds an effective collaborative environment;provided by groupware suites
– The need to connect collaborative tools with filemanagement products on an organization'sintranet
– Automatic language translation
– Protocols are needed for easy integration ofdifferent applications and to standardize
communication
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP
to Wikis
• Voice over IP (VoIP) (Internettelephony)
Communication systems that transmitvoice calls over Internet Protocol-basednetworks
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP
to Wikis
• Voice over IP (VoIP) – Benefits of VoIP for business
• Allows CIOs to explore different deployment
options for company’s communications needs• Lowers total cost of ownership
• Lowers operational costs
• Reduces hardware requirements on the serverside for certain applications
• Provides a holistic approach to security
• Helps streamline workflows
• Enables optimized conferencing tools toreplace business travel
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP
to Wikis
• Voice over IP (VoIP)
– Benefits of VoIP for users
• Eliminates unwanted interruptions and
unproductive actions by intelligently filteringcommunications
• Speed decision making by providing access toreal-time presence information,
• Initiates ad hoc conferencing/collaborationsessions
• Enables participation in conferencing sessionsquickly and easily via a variety of mobile
devices
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP
to Wikis
• Collaborative workflow
– Wiki
A piece of server software available in a Website that allows users to freely create and editWeb page content using any Web browser
– Wikilog
A blog that allows everyone to participate as apeer; any one may add, delete, or changecontent
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP
to Wikis
• Collaboration hubs
The central point of control for an e-market. A single c-hub, representingone e-market owner, can host multiplecollaboration spaces (c-spaces) inwhich trading partners use c-enablers
to exchange data with the c-hub
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP
to Wikis
• Collaborative networks
– In a collaborative network , partners at anypoint in the network can interact with each
other, bypassing traditional partners
• Corporate (enterprise) portal
A gateway for entering a corporate Web
site, enabling communication,collaboration, and access to companyinformation
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Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning,
and Project Management
• Collaborative design and productdevelopment
– During product development, engineering and
design drawings can be shared over a securenetwork among the contract firm, testingfacility, marketing firm, and downstreammanufacturing and service companies
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Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning,
and Project Management
• Collaborative planning, forecasting, andreplenishment (CPFR)
Project in which suppliers and retailers
collaborate in their planning and demandforecasting to optimize the flow of materialsalong the supply chain
• Vendor-managed inventory (VMI)
The practice of retailers making suppliersresponsible for determining when to order andhow much to order
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Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning,
and Project Management
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Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning,
and Project Management
• Project management
– Developing large-scale projects requirescollaboration of a large number of units and
individuals inside and outside an organization – Effective and efficient communication and
collaboration is a must
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Creativity, Idea Generation,
and Computerized Support
• Creativity
– Personality-related creativity traits include:
• Inventiveness
• Independence
• Individuality
• Enthusiasm
• Flexibility
C i i G i
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Creativity, Idea Generation,
and Computerized Support
• Creativity – Creativity can be learned and improved‖
• Some specific creativity measures in
brainstorming: – The quantitative (number of ideas)
– The qualitative (quality of ideas) components
• Stimulation by other creative people in theenvironment can push a group forward
• Stimulation can come directly from excitingideas developed as a consequence ofassociation among creative people
• Stimulation may even come from friction
among employees
C i i Id G i
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Creativity, Idea Generation,
and Computerized Support
• Idea generation through electronicbrainstorming
– Idea generation
The process by which people generate ideas,usually supported by software; for example,developing alternative solutions to a problem
– With collaborative computing-support tools,the individuals do all the thinking, and thesoftware system encourages them to proceed
C i i Id G i
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Creativity, Idea Generation,
and Computerized Support
• Creativity-enhancing software
– Computer programs that exhibit creativebehavior
– Electronic idea generation for problem solving
– Software that facilitates human creativity