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Climate change projection due to global warming 地球温暖化に伴う気候変化予測 Shoshiro Minobe (Physical Oceanography and Climate Laboratory) 見延 庄士郎(海洋気候物理学研究室)

Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

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Page 1: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Climate change projection due to global warming

地球温暖化に伴う気候変化予測

Shoshiro Minobe (Physical Oceanography and Climate Laboratory)

見延 庄士郎(海洋気候物理学研究室)

Page 2: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Basics of green house effect温室効果の基礎

Page 3: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Earth’s Heat balance 地球の熱バランス

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Longwave 長波放射

Balance at the top of the atmosphere

大気上端でのバランス

Balance at the earth’s surface

地表面でのバランス

Albedo (reflection rate) = reflection radiation / incoming radiation = 100/340 = 0.29 (29%)

アルベド (反射率)= 反射する放射量 / 入射放射量= 100/340 = 0.29 (29%)

Unit: W/m2

Page 4: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Earth’s heat balance

∗ Heat flux: heat energy transfer amount per unit area per unit time (W/m2)

∗ Four heat fluxes

∗ Solar (shortwave) radiation

∗ Infrared (longwave) radiation

∗ Sensible heat

∗ Latent heat: evaporation & condensation

地球の熱バランス

∗ 熱フラックス:単位面積・単位時間あたりの,熱エネルギーの輸送量(W/m2)

∗ 4つの熱フラックス

∗ 太陽(短波)放射∗ 赤外(長波)放射∗ 顕熱∗ 潜熱

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If this is given, then temperature is determined.

これが分かれば,温度が決まる.

Page 5: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Stefan-Bolzmann low

∗ Infrared radiation energy per unit area, I (W/m2), is determined by temperature,T (K), as

� � ���

where � (=5.67×10-8 W/(m2 K4)) is the Stefan-Bolzmann constant.

シュテファン・ボルツマンの法則

∗ 単位面積あたりの赤外放射エネルギー I (W/m2), は温度T (K)で決まる.

� � ���

ここで� (=5.67×10-8 W/(m2 K4)) はシュテファン・ボルツマン定数である.

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Page 6: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Current Climate

∗ Surface radiation is 398W/m2.

∗ The plot indicate the corresponding absolute temperature is 289K (~16°C).

現在気候

∗ 地表面放射は,398W/m2 .

∗ 図から対応する温度は289K (約16°C)

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Page 7: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

∗ Question: If there were no atmosphere, what would earth’s surface temperature be? (Assume earth’s albedo is not changed and no sensibile and latent heat. )

∗ Hint: What would be the longwave surface radiation?

∗ The surface radiation = incoming radiation ×(1 – surface reflection rate)

∗ = 340 ×(1 – 0.29) = 241.

∗ This corresponds to 255K(~–18°C).

∗ 34°Clower!

∗ 問い.もし大気がなかったら,地球表面の温度は何度になるか?(地球の反射率は変わらず,潜熱・顕熱はないとする.)

∗ ヒント:地表からの赤外放射はいくらになるか?

∗ 地表面放射=太陽放射入射量×(1–地表面反射率)

∗ � 340 ×(1 – 0.29) = 241.

∗ これは255K(~–18°C)に対応∗ 34°C低い!

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Page 8: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Science of global warming地球温暖化の科学

Page 9: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change,気候変動に関する政府間パネル)

∗ IPCC is an global science organization, which summarize already published peer-review papers (including accepted ones).

∗ IPCC reports are the most established summary of the current understanding of the global warming and relating problems.

∗ IPCC 5th assessment reports (AR5) are published in 2013 & 2014.

∗ IPCCは,すでに出版された論文(出版のための受理済み)をまとめる世界的な科学組織.

∗ IPCC報告書は,最も確立した,

地球温暖化と関連問題についての,まとめ.

∗ IPCC第5次報告書(AR5, エーアールファイブ)は,2013年と2014年に出版.

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Page 10: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

IPCC Reports

∗ Working group I report: The physical science basis

∗ Working group II report: Impact, adaptation and vulnerability

∗ Working group III report: Mitigation of climate change

∗ Synthesis report

∗ IPCC received Nobel Peace Prize in 2007,

∗ 第一作業部会:物理科学的根拠

∗ 第二作業部会:衝撃・適応・脆弱性

∗ 第三作業部会:気候変化の影響緩和

∗ 総合レポート∗ IPCCはノーベル平和賞を受賞(2007年)

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AR5(2013-14)

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IPCC第一作業部会,第5次報告書薄い「

政策決定者

のための要約」

(和訳も出る)

(和訳は出ない)

分厚いレポート本体

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Page 12: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Past Change過去の変化

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Page 13: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Green-house gas increase温室効果ガスの増加

∗ Important Green house gases for the global warming

∗ Carbon dioxide (CO2).

∗ Methane (CH4).

∗ 地球温暖化に重要な温室効果ガス

∗ 二酸化炭素 (CO2).

∗ メタン (CH4).

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Page 14: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Temperature warming, 温度上昇∗ Temperature increased with

some multidecadal variability.

∗ Rapid increase 1920-1940 & 1980-2000.

∗ Recent hiatus.

∗ 数十年変動しながら気温上昇∗ 急速な上昇が1920-40, 1980-

2000.

∗ 最近は小休止(hiatusハイエイタス)

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Page 15: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

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The latest CO2 at Manuna Loa

http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/webdata/ccgg/trends/co2_data_mlo.png

Page 16: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

How relate? どう関連づける?∗ A major methodology of global

warming science is climate system models.

∗ A model consists of the atmosphere, ocean, land-surface, and sea- and land-ice.

∗ A model is run with observed green house gas concentrations, aerosols, solar radiation. ∗ Time variations of forcings

are ...∗ Only natural forcings

∗ Only anthropogenic forcings

∗ Natural + anthropogenic forcings

∗ Compare these results with observations.

∗ 地球温暖化の科学で重要な手法は,気候システムモデルである.

∗ 気候システムモデルは,大気,海洋,陸面,海・陸氷からなる.

∗ モデルを観測された温室効果ガス濃度,エアロゾル,太陽放射量を用いて駆動する.

∗ 外力の時間変化を...∗ 自然な外力のみ∗ 人為起源の外力のみ∗ 自然+人為起源の外力

∗ その結果を観測結果と比較.

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Page 17: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

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Page 18: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Future Projections将来予測

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Page 19: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

∗ Future green-house gas emissions are unknown, and thus four scenarios are developed for green-house gases.

∗ Green house gas emissions are influenced by future populations, economy, land use, etc.

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Future scenarios of green-house gases etc.

∗ 将来の温室効果ガスの排出量は現時点では定まらないので,4つのシナリオを用意.

∗ 温室効果ガスの排出量は,将来の人口,経済,土地利用などによって影響される.

van Vuuren et al. (2011 Clm. Chang)

Page 20: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

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RCP scenarios

van Vuuren et al. (2011 Clm. Chang)

Page 21: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Temperature 気温∗ Climate models are run with

green-house gas emission scenarios.

∗ RCP2.6, RCP4.5 & RCP6.0, RCP8.5 correspond to low, middle, & high emission scenarios, respectively.

∗ 気候モデルを温室効果ガス放出シナリオのもとで動かす.

∗ RCP2.6, RCP4.5とRCP6.0, RCP8.5 が,低,中,高排出シナリオに対応.

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Page 22: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Cumulative CO2 emission determines temperature increase

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∗ In regardless of the emission scenarios, cumulative total anthropogenic CO2 emissions gives temperature increase.

∗ シナリオによらず,人為起源Co2の累

積総排出量が温度上昇を決める.

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∗ The actual emission in the last 10-years slightly exceeds high-end scenario (RCP8.5)

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Scenario is underestimated?シナリオは過小評価か

Peters et al. (2013, Nature Climate Change)

∗ 過去10年の排出量は,高排出シナリオであるRCP8.5を若干上回っている

Page 24: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Warming is not uniform昇温は非一様∗ Warming is strong in the Arctic,

followed by Northern Hemisphere continents.

∗ Dots indicate where most models show similar changes.

∗ Largest warming over the Arctic Sea.

∗ Larger warming over the continent than over the ocean.

∗ 昇温は北極で最も強く,次に北半球の大陸で強い.

∗ 点々は,多くのモデルの変化が似ていることを意味する.

∗ 北極海で最大の昇温.∗ 大陸の方が海洋よりも昇温が大きい.

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Page 25: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Arctic vs Antarctic. 北極と南極.∗ Ice over the Arctic Sea is thin,

just 2-3 meters thick.

∗ Ice over the Antarctic continent is thick, 2000 m average.

∗ Arctic sea ice easily melts.

∗ White ice, when it melts, is replaced by dark ocean, which absorb larger solar radiation leading to warmer air an water temperature.

∗ This is called ice-albedo feedback.

∗ Consequently, the arctic sea is the region where the largest warming is expected.

∗ 北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m.

∗ 南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均2000 m.

∗ 北極の氷は,溶けやすい.∗ 白い海氷が溶けると,黒々とした海面になるので,太陽熱をより吸収し,気温・水温が上昇する.

∗ この効果を,アイス・アルベード・フィードバックという.

∗ この結果,北極海は最も温暖化が大きい領域である.

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Page 26: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Land ocean contrast. 大陸と海洋の相違

∗ The continent (land) is easier to be warmed or cooled due to the lack of vertical movements (mixing) of materials.

∗ The ocean is not warmed or cooled to lesser degree, because of vertical mixing.

∗ Therefore, the continent is hotter then the ocean in summer and colder in winter.

∗ Due to the same reason, larger temperature rise is expected over the continent than over the ocean.

∗ 大陸は暖まりやすく冷えやすい.なぜなら,構成物質が鉛直の移動(混合)しないからである.

∗ 海洋は,海水が鉛直に混合されるので,暖まりづらく,冷えづらい.

∗ このため,大陸は海洋よりも夏は暑く,冬は寒い.

∗ 同じ理由で,大陸では海洋よりも大きい昇温が予想される.

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Precipitation change降水変化

Page 28: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Basics for precipitation.

Moisture budget

∗ Large-scale precipitation pattern is determined by moisture budget.

水蒸気収支

∗ 大規模場の降水パターンは,水蒸気の収支で決まる.

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Precipitation - evaporation = moisture convergence= ∬ incoming wind speed ×water vapor amount ds

降水 -蒸発= 水蒸気収束= ∬ 入ってくる風速×水蒸気量 ds

convergence収束

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divergence発散

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∗ Large precipitation is not due to evaporation thud due to moisture convergence.

∗ How will temperature rise influence? 29

Precipitation – evaporation 降水-蒸発

∗ 降水が多いのは,蒸発によってではないので,水蒸気収束によっている.

∗ 気温上昇の影響は?

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Saturation water vapor 飽和水蒸気量∗ Saturation water vapor is

large for warmer air-temperature.

∗ Thus, global warming yields larger amount of evaporation in the atmosphere.

∗ Thus, even if atmospheric circulation does not change, magnitude of the moisture convergence & divergence become large, enhancing enhance water circulation.

∗ 飽和水蒸気量は,気温が高いほど大きい.

∗ このため,温暖化は,大気中に保持される水蒸気量を増加させる.

∗ したがって,たとえ大気循環が変化しなくても,水蒸気の収束発散の振幅は大きくなり,水循環が強まる.

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Wet (will) get wetter, dry get drier.

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RCP2.6 RCP8.5

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Sea-level rise海面上昇

Page 33: Climate change projection due to global warmingminobe/class/shin...warming is expected. ∗北極海の氷は薄く,2-3 m. ∗南極大陸の氷は厚く,平均 2000 m. ∗北極の氷は,溶けやすい.

Past sea-level rise 過去の海面上昇∗ Most reliable data is satellite

altimeter, but only for the last 20-years.

∗ 最も信頼できるデータは,衛星高度計だが,過去20年間だけ利用可能.

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Reconstruction based on tide-gauge & sea-surface temperature relation.潮位計と海表面水温の関係に基づく推定. Satellite altimeter 衛星高度計

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Two mechanisms 二つのメカニズム∗ Sea-water warming and thus

expansion (thermosteric)

∗ Land-ice melting and resultant sea-water mass increase.

∗ 海水温上昇と膨張∗ 陸上の氷の融解と,それによる海水質量の増加

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Future sea-level rise 将来の海面上昇∗ Thermal expansion & ice melt

effects are comparable. ∗ 海水温上昇と陸上の氷の融解が同程度

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Spatial structure 空間構造

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∗ Future sea-level rise is not spatially uniform.

∗ 将来の海面上昇は,空間に一様ではない.

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Not only the warming 温度が上がるだけではない

∗ Effects of the global warming are widespread.

∗ Water vapor will increase, sea-level will rise.

∗ 温暖化の影響は多様で,温度上昇だけではない.

∗ 水蒸気は増加し,海面高度は上昇する.

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World Climate Research Project 世界気候研究計画

∗ WCRP is an global science organization, which conduct researches.

∗ Four projects:

∗ CLIVAR: ocean

∗ SPARC: stratosphere

∗ GEWEX: water circulation

∗ CliC: Cryosphere

∗ WCRPは,研究をする世界的な科学組織.

∗ 4つのプロジェクト

∗ CLIVAR: 海洋

∗ SPARC: 成層圏

∗ GEWEX: 水循環

∗ CliC: 雪氷圈

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WCRP’s grand challenges

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Report task

∗ Q. IPCC assessment reports estimate future climate projections based on RCP scenarios. The actual emission in the last 10-years slightly exceeds high-end scenario (RCP8.5). If this tendency continues, a scenario higher than RCP8.5 should be required in future. Define such high emission case (multiplied by RCP8.5), and estimate future temperature change and sea-level rise around Japan.

レポート課題

∗ Q. IPCC評価報告書は,RCPシ

ナリオに基づいて将来予測(プロジェクション)を行っている.過去10年の排出量は,高排出シナリオであるRCP8.5を若干上

回っている.もしこの傾向が続けば,将来より高いシナリオが必要になるであろう.そういった高排出の場合を,RCP8.5に適当

な倍利率をかけて考え,それに基づいて日本付近の気温変化と,海面上昇の推定を行え.

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Changes are not uniform, and thus you must check

figures.

変化は空間に一様ではないので,図を調べなくては

ならない.

Deadline: July 27, report box on the 3rd floor in the Rigaku-5th building (not to my room)

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∗ IPCC AR5 WG1, full report

∗ https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/

∗ It’s summary for policymakers∗ http://ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf

∗ 気象庁,IPCC 第5次評価報告書の概要 -第一作業部

会(自然科学的根拠)-,政策決定者向け要約の和訳(2015年12月1日,IPCC正誤表反映版)

∗ https://www.data.jma.go.jp/cpdinfo/ipcc/ar5/ipcc_ar5_wg1_spm_jpn.pdf

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Some references参考情報