『思際開発研究フォーラム J 17 (2001. 3) Forum of ...Mari KONDO** This study was designed to explore managerial skills required for managers working for corporations in

『思際開発研究フォーラムJ 17 (2001. 3) Forum of International Develoρment Studies, 17 （担ar.2001)

Abstract

Comparative Managerial Skills :

A Study on Asiarトstylesof Management Based on

Managers from Ten Different Area/Nations

Mitsuru WAKABAYASHI

Ziguang CHEN本

Mari KONDO**

This study was designed to explore managerial skills required for managers working

for corporations in Asia. Also, an impact of organizational context factors upon manage-

rial skill practices was explored. A series of questionnaire surveys on managerial skills

were conducted by using Manag巴rialSkill Questionnaires (MSQs) based on managers

working for business corporations in ten Asian area/nations. Japan (n=382), China (n=

519), Taiwan (n=l40), Singapore (n=25), the Philippines (n=ll6), Thailand (n=l09),

Malaysia (n = 101), Indonesia (n = 38), Vietnam (n = 21) and India (n = 48).

Results of a factor analysis produced four skill factors, namely Business Innovation

(BI), Team Effectiveness Building CTEB), People Management (PM) and Result Produc-

ing (RP) skills. It was found that CTS (China, Taiwan and Singapore) managers practice

P剖 skillsmore frequently. This trend was found true also for ASEAN-Indian manag巴rs.

Among them, BI skill practices were found also frequent. On the other hand, Japanese

managers practiced BI and TEB skills more frequently, but did PM skills relatively less.

This finding indicated there exist at least three distinctive skill practice patterns, namely

Japanese, CTS and ASEAN-Indian types, among Asian managers sampled for the present

study.

Regarding th巴determinantsof managerial skill practices, factors in the organizational

environment were found important. Particularly, leader-member exchange (LMX) rela-

tions, opportunities for learning, and systems of performance appraisals and promotion

were found significantly affecting managerial skill practices even after the national-

regional effect was controlled. In conclusion, it was stressed that further research is

required based on the more diversified samples and variables.

* City University of Hong Kong * * Asian Institute of Management, Manila, Philippines

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Comparative Managerial Skills: A Study on Asian-styles of Management Based on Managers from Ten Different Area/Nations

Introduction

This study tries to identify management styles in Asian bases on managerial samples

collected from ten different area/nations in Asia, namely Japan, China, Taiwan, Philippines,

Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and India. The basic motive of conduct-

ing this study lies in the question that relative to abundant observations on the Asian

economy and business, little is know about the business organization and managers in Asian

countries (Lim, 1996). Although many studies have done in the area of cultural values and

traditions unique to the Asian businesses (Redding, 1990; Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede and

Bond, 1988), available information is very limited regarding what Asian managers are doing

on their jobs, whether each area/nation has its unique style of management, or some

comprehensive styles can be identified among sample Asian managers, and what are the

determinats of such styles of management. To answer these questions, managerial skill

practices were explored for the purpose of identifying different patterns of managerial

behavior that may exist among sample Asian managers based on the questionnaire survey

method.

1 . Cultural Background and Managerial Behavior

Cross-cultural studies on managerial behaviors suggest that managers working in differ-

ent cultural environment believe in different values (Hofstede, 1980 ; Hofstede and Bond,

1988; Laurent, 1983; England, 1978; Adler, 1991). Also, many studies report that not only

value systems but also decision making styles (Boulgarides & Oh, 1985 ; Schuler, Dowling

and de Cieri, 1993; Kagono, Nonaka, Sakakibara and Okumura, 1975) and styles of negotia-

tion (Fisher, 1980; Adler, 1991) may vary cross-culturally. All these evidence may direct us

to hypothesize that managerial skills and knowledge needed for the effective managerial

performance may vary significantly according to differences in the national and cultural

background of individual managers.

Regarding cross”cultural differences in career perceptions among Asian managers,

Granrose (1995) and her associates (Chow, 1995 ; Baba, Granrose and Bird, 1995 ; Peng,

1995) reported that managers in East Asian countries see goals of their managerial careers

basically in the same manner. Based on the cross咽culturalcomparisons of managers’careers

in Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong, it was found that East Asian managers share a consider-

ably homogeneous set of career goals regardless of differences in nationalities, industries and

organizational types. For example, the following set of career goals are found on top of the

list in terms of importance ratings in all three countries : meaningful work, personal growth,

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income, achievement, promotion, skills development and friendship. Moreover, tactics used

by East Asian managers to achieve these career goals are found similar as follows : working

hard, doing job well, learning more, getting more education, doing what my boss wants, and

rapport with subordinates. Although these studies are not dealing with managerial skills

themselves, they may suggest that managers in East Asia NIEs and Japan share many things

in common, although their nationalities and organizations to work for are different each

other : namely, working hard toward similar career goals by using basically the same tactics

to achieve them. Then, given similarities and dissimilarities as illustrated above, the question

of how Asian managers are actually doing on the job must subject to an empirical investiga-

tion in broader organizational and cultural contexts.

2 . Managerial Skill Dimensions

There exist a fairly large volume of literature about skills that managers need to acquire

to be effective on their managerial positions. But, these literature are predominantly dealing

with managers working for modern organizations in industrialized societies. Can the

managerial skill dimensions that the competent Western managers need to acquire be

considered also critical for Asian managers? To further咽 discussthis issue, the concept of

managerial skill dimensions needs to be explored first.

In early 1970s, for the purpose of identifying what kinds of managerial talents are required

for successful managerial performance, the assessment center approach has been widely

practiced to evaluate potential managerial talent for candidates of management positions.

The first systematic assessment study was conducted at AT&T for the purpose of identifying

key managerial skill dimensions based on a variety of psychological assessment tools, and

predicting the managerial success by using these skill dimensions as predictors. Seven such

skill dimensions were identified. First, administrative skills (organizing, planning and

decision making) were found to constitute a key component of managerial talents, followed

by interpersonal skills (human relations, personal impact and behavior flexibility). Inciden楢

tally, these skills turned out to be predictive of the future (8 years later) managerial

performance and success at AT&T (Bray, Campbell and Grant, 197 4 ; Finkle, 1978 ; Szilagyi

and Wallace, 1987).

Since the AT&T attempt, the assessment center approach has been popular, being

practiced by many consulting firms and being institutionalized within the corporation, for the

purpose of implementing rational and reliable personnel decisions, promotion decisions in

particular, based on the professional assessor ratings of managerial skills. Wakabayashi

(1980) reported that the assessment center model has been practiced by Japanese companies

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Comparative Managerial Skills: A Study on Asian嶋stylesof Management Based on Managers from Ten Different Area/Nations

and consulting firms. Their studies demonstrated that managerial success potentials evaluat-

ed by the assessment center method on newly recruited managerial candidates in Japan could

have predictive validity with the speed of promotion, and the salary and bonus levels over the

first seven and thirteen years in the organization (Wakabayashi and Graen, 1984, 1988).

Similarly in China, studies on managerial skill dimensions have been conducted. For

example, based on the personality inventory approach, Wu and Gu (1989) found that (1)

political caliber (enterprising spirit, discipline, spirit, sense of service, etc.), (2) knowledge

frame (Marks-Lenin theory, management theory, job knowledge, etc.), (3) ability level

(analytical, comprehensive, expressive, etcよand(4) job achievement (efficiency, perfor-

mance, prestige, etc.) are the correlates with the successful cadres in government offices and

corporations in China. Likewise, based on the personality assessment tools, Ning, Liu and

Pang (1994) concluded that the following three factors constitute key managerial skill

dimensions in Chinese organizations : (1) naturalistic trait dimension (character traits, rich

emotion, quick thinking, etcよ（2)emotional dimension (tolerance, aspiration, maturity,

responsibility, etcよand(3) work-style dimension (independence, interpersonal competence,

exploration, sensitivity, etc.). The above discussions suggest that the managerial skills are

conceptualized mostly around the “behavior-organizational context" domain for the Amer-

ican and Japanese managers, while for Chinese managers around the “character-ability”

domain, let alone the ideological and party-line value orientation.

Secondly, managerial role studies conducted by Mintzberg (1973) suggest that the nature

of roles played by managers could be basically identical across all managerial jobs and

organizations at least in the modern industrialized economies. Based on the systematic

observations of manager’s role behaviors, Mintzberg (1973) concluded that manager包lroles

can be classified into the following three categories : (1) an interpersonal role (figurehead,

leader and liaison), (2) an informational role (monitor, disseminator and spokesman) and

(3) a decisional role (entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator).

Moreover, the Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy indicates that within the economic

bureaucracies, managers’jobs become specialized, standardized, and formalized by rules and

regulations and specialization training (Blau, 1955; Argyris, 1957). Thus, theoretically every

individual in the particular role within the bureaucratic organization will be led to behave

basically in the same manner by using a similar set of skills and knowledge, regardless of the

differences in personal characteristics and socio-cultural backgrounds of role incumbents. If

we follow this line of theorizing suggested by Mintzberg and Weber, the hypothesis to be

explored would state that the skills and knowledge required for managerial responsibilities

are basically the same across organizations and societies. Only the difference may be the

weight put on each skill dimension in different jobs and organizational contexts.

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Thirdly, studies conducted by present authors (Chen and Wakabayashi, 1997b; Wa-

kabayashi and Chen, 1998) by using their 22 item Managerial Skill (MS) questionnaire

demonstrated that Chinese managers in both state-owned and Sino・foreignjoint venture

corporations reported basically the same kinds of managerial skills to be practiced on their

jobs : namely, (1) organizational goal attainment (including skills of presenting missions,

providing structure, motivating, delegating, etc.), (2) teamwork (skills of fair treatment,

proper use of personnel, membership, etcよ（3)organizational development (skills of strate-

gic thinking, problem identification, decision making, etc.), and (4) technical skills (including

technical expertise, and quantitative and quality control skills). The MS scale asked

managers to report the frequency by which they practice each managerial skill on their daily

managerial work. The MS scale, unlike the assessment center and managerial role

approaches as discussed above, is designed to measure task”directed skills demonstrated by

managers on their day繍to-dayjobs. Thus, it was found that frequencies of practicing

managerial skills were significantly associated with the managerial levels, context factors of

the organization and organizational charactheristics (Chen and Wakabayashi, 1997b;

Wakabayashi and Chen, 1998).

3 . Determining factors

The managerial skill approach seeks to identify factors within the organization that help

propel the frequency of skill practices as facilitators of managerial skill learning. One such

factor may involve the quality of leadership by which a superior provides his/her subordinate

managers with opportunities to use skills and knowledge critical for executing the strategi峨

cally important tasks. For example, through the study of the managerial role making process

in the organization, Graen and his associates demonstrated that development of subordinate

managers can be facilitated by high quality leader-member exchange (LMX) relations

(Graen and Cashman, 1975; Graen and Scandura, 1987; Liden and Graen, 1980; Wakabaya-

shi and Graen, 1984, 1988). Throughout these studies, the high LMX relations were found

operating within the mature vertical relations between the subordinate manager and his/her

superior involving enhanced reciprocal role activities between them : namely, trusting and

helping each other, sharing goals and inside information, exchanging contributions, and

engaging in various extra-role behaviors (Duchon, Graen and Taber, 1986). These results

indicate that opportunities for managerial skill practices for a manager become very favor-

able, and therefore acquisition of new managerial skills and knowledge can be facilitated, by

working with a high LMX leader.

Next, environment for managerial career progress in the organization is expected to exert

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critical influence over managerial skill practices. The following aspects are considered

important as indicators of the quality of career progress environment : opportunities for

learning skills and knowledge, performance働basedevaluation systems, training and career

development programs, job rotation, career consulting and so forth. These aspects of career

progress environment need to be examined regarding its effects upon frequencies of manage-

rial skill practices.

4 . Purpose of the Study

The present study was designed to explore differences in practicing managerial skills

among Asian managers from ten different area/nations (Japan, China, Taiwan, Philippines,

Thai, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam and India), in a comparative perspective.

Through this comparison, it is expected that the nature of managerial skill practices in each

country can be explained in terms of differences in national culture, developmental stages of

the economy, and environment factors of the management organization. The following three

hypotheses were developed for the purpose of explaining the difference in the pattern of

managerial skill practices among Asian managers.

Hypothesis 1 : The patterns of managerial skill practices are different among managers in

ten Asian area/nations sampled for the present study. In particular, Japanese managers are

expected to practice business-development skills relatively more. On the other hand,

managers in Chinese, Taiwanese and Singaporean (CTS) corporations practice people幅

management skills more, while those in other Asian countries (ASEAN and India) practice

skills for increasing bottom-line performance more frequently relative to other skills.

It is expected that CTS managers who are under the influence of collectivism and

Confucian culture (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede and Bond, 1988, Redding, 1990) are prone to use

people-management skills (namely, human relations, fair treatment, harmony maintaining

skills, etc.) more frequently, while their Japanese counterparts who are considered being

confronted with the stronger competitive pressures from the international market and global

technological changes (Porter, 1986) tend to use problem solving and business innovation

skills (namely, problem finding, strategic thinking, decision making skills and so forth) more

frequently. Particularly, in Chinese SOCs where separation of management functions from

state ownership of the firm is yet to be fully realized and professionalization of managers is

slow to emerge, managers in general are likely to be confronted relatively less with high

performance targets and competitive business deals, but more with the in-house social and

economic issues like harmony, solidarity and distributive justice problems within the corpora-

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tion (Redding and Wong, 1986; Wang, 1990), relative to those in Japanese corporations. In

fact, the primacy of domestic-and people-oriented skill practices rather than market-and

innovation-oriented ones can be equally observed among CTS managers. In summary,

Hypothesis 1 predicts that the people-management skills are more frequently practiced by

managers in CTS (China, Taiwan and Singapore) corporations followed by those in ASEAN

and Indian corporations. On the other hand, Japanese managers will be found practicing

business management skills (problem solving, strategic thinking, innovation and so forth)

more frequently than CTS and ASEAN-Indian managers.

Hypothesis 2 : Managerial skills that Asian managers will choose as required for improving

their performance on the job (called“critical managerial skills”in this study) are different

among area/nations. Following Hypothesis 1, Japanese managers are expected to choose

such business“management skills as problem solving, strategic thinking, innovation, decision

making and the like to be critical for improving their managerial performance, relative to

those from CTS (China, Taiwan and Singapore) and ASEAN-India. On the other hand, CTS

managers are expected to choose a set of people-management skills as critical for increasing

job performance. This prediction can be supported by the Confucian and collectivism

tradition prevailing among CTS countries. But, a stronger basis for sustaining this hypothe-

sis can be found in the fact that formal personnel management programs are not necessarily

working properly in many Asian corporations including CTS and ASEAN-India. Therefore,

line managers must play personnel management functions very often by exercising people-

management skills for solving human relations problems at work, if they want to improve

their managerial performance through mobilizing work efforts of their subordinates. In

other words, higher needs for people-management skills among Asian managers can partly

due to the influence of cultural traditions, but mostly to compensatory roles impinged on line

managers by poorly functioning personnel management programs of their organizations.

Hypothesis 3 : The quality of organizational environment for managerial skill practices will

be most favorable for Japanese managers, followed by managers in CTS and ASEAN働Indian

organizations. Human resource development of managers are expected to be greatly

underdeveloped in most Asian countries. China typically demonstrated managerial五RD

problems involving practical training, performance evaluation, merit-based compensation

and promotion, and career development programs for managers. The issue here is the poor

quality of organizational environment (formal and informal arrangements) for supporting

the professionalization of managers. It is expected that envir帽onmentalfactors conducive to

managerial career progress may remain basically poor and more or less the same in all Asian

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countries selected for this study except for Japan. For example, in Taiwan traditional

organizational culture of familism and gun似 inetwork (Hwang, 1995) is now transforming

itself into more professional business practices. This trend is conspicuous among the fast

growing Taiwanese SMEs where young highly educated entrepreneurs are succeeding their

old raoban entrepreneurs (Wakabayashi and Chen, 1999) with their professional skills and

global business outlook. However, it is evident these changes need to be supported by

environmental factors conducive to managerial career progress in the organization. In

summary, the quality of organizational environment for managerial career progress affects

the pattern of managerial skill practices for professionalization.

5 . Research Method

1 ) Questionnaire surveys

A series of questionnaire surveys on managerial skills were conducted by using Manage-

rial Skill Questionnaires (MSQs; Chen and Wakabayashi, 1997a, 1997b; Wakabayashi and

Chen, 1998) based on managers working for business organizations in ten different Asian

area/nations: Japan, China, Taiwan, Singapore, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia,

Vietnam and India. The first questionnaire survey was conducted in China in 1996-1997

involving four cities in Zhejinag Province (Hangzhou, Ningbo, Shaoxing and Fuyang) with

a cooperation provided by city offices, based on top, middle and lower-middle managers

working for both state-owned corporations (16 SOCs, n=309) and Sino-foreign joint ventures

(5 Sino-Japan, 5 Sino-Hong Kong and Macao, and 5 Sino・USand UK JV corporations，ロ＝

210) in manufacturing industry. Basically the same method was repeated in 1998 for the

Japanese study in which managers working for 9 Japanese corporations (n=382) in Nagoya

and Tokyo areas were asked to respond MSQs. Next for the Taiwanese study, 140 managers

were asked to respond MSQs in 1998: those working for 4 manufacturing companies in

Taipei, and executive MBA managers attending classes at National Taiwan University.

Likewise, for the Singapore study the executive MBA managers attending the Chinese

business class at National University of Singapore responded the questionnaire (n=25).

For studies in other Asian countries, namely in Philippines (n=116), Thailand (n=109),

Malaysia (n=lOl), Indonesia (n=38), Vietnam (n=21) and India (n=48), sample managers

were selected randomly from the alumni directory of one of the Asian management institutes

in Manila, Philippines. For the past decades, more than three thousand management students

completed a variety of programs in that institute and the alumni directory was made

available for identifying possible respondents scattered all over the Asia countries. With

co-operations given by this institute and its alumni associations in each Asian country, the

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English version questionnaires were distributed and collected by using the mail questionnaire

survey method (usable sample n=433). In total, the number of responses made available for

the present analysis are N = 1499.

2) Instruments

The Managerial Skill Questionnaires CMSQs) used for the present study included the

following set of instruments. English, Japanese and Chinese version questionnaires were

developed through translations from the standard English version. Each version MSQ was

tested in Japan (for Japanese version), China (Chinese version) and the Philippines (English

version) by a pilot survey with minor modifications to meet local situations. Japanese

version MSQs were used in Japan, and Chinese ones in China, Taiwan and Singapore, while

the English MSQs in all other countries.

(1) Managerial Skills in Practice: The 22 managerial skills, including a strategic think-

ing skill, a decision making skill, a teamwork skill and so forth, were presented with a short

sentence explaining the content of each skill. For example, Strategic Thinking Skill was

presented with an explanation that states：“（strategic thinking) considers market situations,

competitors, future goals and long-term company prosperity, when making decisions." The

managers were asked to respond how frequently they practice each skill in their day-to-day

managerial work by using a 5-point scale ranging from “using everyday" ( = 5) through

“sometimes”C =3) to“not at all”（ = 1). Each skill title is presented in Table 1 with results

of a factor analysis of the MSQ instrument.

(2) Critical Managerial Skills : Out of the above 22 skill items, subject managers were

asked to select, in order of importance, the “five most important skills" which are needed for

them to improve the present level job performance. These are named critical managerial

skills.

(3) Leader-Member Exchange CLMX): The quality of leader-member exchange relations

was measured by using the LMX scale developed by Graen and his associates (Graen and

Cashman, 1975; Wakabayashi, Graen and Uhl船Bien,1990; Chen and Wakabayashi, 1996,

1997a, 1997b). For the present study, this instrument used 13 items describing the quality of

superior-subordinate manager working relations Ce. g., mutual trust, support by the superior,

job autonomy provided, delegation of authority, inside information provided and so forth) by

using a 5-point scale ranging from “Always”〈ニ5)to“Never”（ = 1). The LMX scale has

been used as a reliable predictor of outcomes associated with the role-making and career

development processes within the organization, namely job performance, job satisfaction,

speed of promotion, annual bonus amount, and so forth CW akabayashi and Graen, 1984 ;

Graen and羽Takabayashi,1994). Also, LMX was found associated with the frequency of

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managerial skill practices of subordinate managers in Chinese state-owned and join venture

corporations (Chen and Wakabayashi, 1996)_

(4) Environment for Career Progress: This instrument consisted of 20 items designed to

explore the quality of career progress environment of the organization. Items representing

the following aspects were used as indicators of the quality of career progress environment

and respondents were asked to report to what extent these aspects are descriptive of their

work situations by using a 5-point scale （“agree”to“disagreeつ： namely,opportunities for learning skills and knowledge, performance-based evaluation systems, career development

programs, job rotation, career consulting and so forth.

6. Results

1 ) Factor Analyses and Inter-correlations among Scales

A series of factor analyses (principal factors with V arimax rotation) were conducted

based on all managers sampled for this study (N = 1499) for the purpose of constructing

scales by combining relevant items contributing to factors into composite scales.

(1) First, the factor analysis was applied to the 22-item managerial skill instrument for

the purpose of constructing factor-derived skill scales. As shown in Table 1, four factors

were extracted. The first Team Effectiveness Building (TEE) implies a set of skills for

effective team building by practicing skills of presenting missions, motivating, teamwork and

so forth. The second Business Innovation (BI) refers to a group of skills to initiate

innovation in business activities by exercising skills of problem identification, strategic

thinking, decision making, planned action and innovativeness. Thirdly, Result Producing

(RP) implies a set of skills to produce outcomes by implementing skills of quality control,

profit consciousness, sensitivity to customer’s needs, and quantitative and technical expertise.

Finally, the fourth People Management (MP) implies a set of skills for managing relation-

ships with people properly by practicing skills of fair treatment, proper use of personnel,

membership and personal integrity. Above skill items constituting each factor were com-

bined into a single scale by computing an average of item scores. In addition, a scale of an

Overall Skill Practice (OSP) was created by adding all 22 items used for the scale construc勾

tion. As shown in Table 1, all five scales developed by the above procedures were found to

have satisfactorily high reliability coefficients computed in terms of Cronbach’s alphas.

(2) Leader-member Exchange (LMX) which was found to have a single factor was

constructed by combining 13 items into a single scale (alpha=. 85). One irrelevant item was

dropped.

(3) Managerial Career Environment : The 20-item measure of organizational environ-

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ment for managerial career progress was subject to a factor analysis. Three factors were

extracted as follows. (a) The first Learning Opportunities factor was loaded with items of

organizational environment conducive to managerial skill learning stating: little new knowl-

edge and skills that I can learn on the job, nobody listens to my needs for development, people

monopolize on knowledge and skills (all reverse嶋scoringitems) and so forth. (b) Next, the

Suρerior Sゆ•Port factor indicated the degree of developmental support provided by superiors

in the organization : the superior’s care of development of subordinate managers, learning

skills by working with superiors, the level of superiors' knowledge and skills on business

conducts, etc. (c) The third Appraisal and Promotion Systems implied the quality of corpora“

ti on’s HRD systems with respect to : the assessment of manager’s abilities, availability of

Table 1 The result of afactor analysis on th巴managerialskill instrument

N=l499

Item 担 SD Fl F2 F3 F4 h2

The whole scale 3.51 .59 α＝.92

Fl : Team Effectiveness Building Skills 3.46 .66 α＝.88 9 . Presenting missions 3.34 .92 .65 .20 .14 .19 .52

11. Motivating skill 3.52 .91 .60 .16 .28 .23 .52

8 . Providing structure 3.48 .93 .59 .22 .14 .29 .50

10. Teamwork 3.67 .93 .56 .11 .20 .25 .43

12. Creativity development 3.36 .91 .54 .20 .30 .12 .44

7. Delegation 3.54 1.03 .47 .31 .10 .27 .40

13. Consensus building skill 3.45 .89 .43 .28 .20 .20 .34

6 . System development 3.33 .87 .41 .32 .15 .10 .30 F2 : Business Innovation Skills 3.46 .69 α＝. 77 2 . Problem identification 3.62 .93 .22 .62 .14 .17 .48

1 . Strategic thinking 3.40 1.01 .09 .53 .22 .09 .35 3 . Decision making skill 3. 31 1. 04 .12 .53 .15 .17 .35 4 . Innovativeness 3.31 .87 .24 .48 .15 .01 .31 5 . Planned actions 3.65 .92 .33 .44 .10 .14 .33 F3 : Result Producing Skills 3.49 .74 α 75

18. Quality control 3.57 1.10 .20 .06 .56 .25 .42 17. Profit consciousness 3.47 1.06 .14 .22 .54 .23 .41 19. Sensitively to customer needs 3.65 1.07 .16 .13 .50 .30 .38 16. Managing by quantitative data 3.35 1.00 .21 .29 .46 .03 .34 15. Technical expertise 3.44 1.03 .12 .22 .36 .04 .22 F4 : People Management Skills 3.70 .78 α＝. 81 21. Fair treatment 3.87 1.03 .32 .15 .20 .66 .60 22. Proper use of personnel 3.65 .97 .27 .12 .20 .60 .49 20. Group membership skill 3.62 .92 .30 .19 .30 .46 .43 14. Integrity 3.67 1.01 .23 .27 .25 .35 .31

Varianc日explained 3.01 2.16 1.87 1.80 8.87 Percentage of variance explained 13.68 9.82 8.50 8.18 40.32

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Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations and Correlations for Variables used for the Study Bas巴don

All Sample Managers

N=l499

Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

I.Overall Managerial skill 3.54 .60 2. Business Innovation 3.46 .69 . 78b 3.T巴amEffectiveness Building 3.47 .65 .86b .63b 4. People Management 3. 71 . 78 .86b .5lb .68b 5.Result Producing 3.51 .74 .83b . 51b .60b .63b 6.Leader・乱1emberExchange 3.25 . 70 .43b .43b .40b .35b .28b 7. Learning Opportunities 3.08 . 93 一.22b -.16b .16b . 21b -.19b一.17b8. Superior Support 3.58 . 73 .35b .28b .33b .30b .27b .43b -. llb 9.Appraisal & Promotion System 3.03 .91 . 05" -. 02 -. 04 -. 058 . 05" -. 07b .43bー.llb

Note: a pく.05,b p

of people-management skills, followed by Chinese and Japanese mangers. On the other hand,

business innovation skills 〔strategic,innovative, decision making skills, etc.) were found

being practiced most frequently by Japanese managers (Wakabayashi, Chen and Huang,

1999; Chen and Wakabayashi, 1997a, 1997b). A similar comparative analysis was conducted

for this study based on Asian managers sampled for this study from ten different area/

nations. Results are illustrated in Appendix 1 (raw scores) and Figure 1 (standardized

scores).

In Appendix 1, the following two trends should be brought into attention. (1) The absolute

levels of managerial skill practices involving four skill areas look higher among managers in

the Philippines, India and Indonesia followed by those in Malaysia, Vietnam and Thailand.

On the other hand, managers in CTS countries (China, Taiwan and Singapore) tend to report

relatively less frequent managerial skill practices (between“sometimes”C =3) and “often”

( = 4) levels), while Japanese managers are at the lowest (near the “sometimes”level) across all skill domains except for Business Innovation CBI). (2) Within each country, People

Management (PM) remains the most frequently practiced skill area relative to the other

three skills, except again for Japanese managers. Reasons why managers in the Philippines,

India and Indonesia are among the highest in absolute levels of managerial skill practices

while Japanese managers are the lowest, can be puzzling and complex, demanding cultural,

economic, organizational and psychological explanations (Wakabayashi, Chen and Huang,

1999). In addition, the compensatory managerial skill practice theory as emphasized in this

study can be applied as another explanatory scheme. If we follow this theory, managers

working for the organization with relatively poor administrative functions will be expected

to practice all skills more frequently, and thus making their roles less professionalized, but

spreading their efforts all over.

To highlight the above findings, cross-national comparisons based on the standardized

scores were attempted. For this purpose, 22 skill item-values were standardized within the

individual subject, and standardized skill practice scores were computed individually involv-

ing four skill scales. Then, these standardized skill scales were subject to comparisons

among ten Asian countries. This procedure enabled to control the absolute level differences

and to focus only upon pattern differences in the practice of managerial skills among ten

Asian area/nations. Figure 1 displays the result of this analysis.

Figure 1 illustrates that generally speaking there exist three different patterns in the

practice of managerial skills among Asian managers surveyed for this study. The first is the

pattern practiced by Japanese managers where Result Producing (RP) and People Manage僧

ment (PM) skills are very low relative to others, while skills of Team Effectiveness Building

CTEB) and Business Innovation (BI) are relatively highly practiced. The second pattern is

-13-


(Based on Standardized Scores)

時叩F ” Thailand

一会一 Indonesia

四

〆〆

ノ〆

〆〆シ

一φーChina

四合同IJapan

ー・圏 -Taiwan

一噛－ Vietnam

－＃ー India

0.5

E8ω口問山富

-0.4 Business Innovation Team Effectiveness

Building

Managerial Skill

People Management Results Producing

Frequences of Practicing Managerial Skills for Managers in Asian

(Based on Standardized Scores)

Figurel.

the one displayed by CTS managers in which RP skill practices are relatively frequent and

Finally, all other managers from ASEAN -

India showed a pattern that falls between the above two ; Namely, their levels are between

Japan and CTS managers for RP and BI skill practices and remain basically the same as CTS

BI skills are the lowest of all Asian managers.

managers in PM and TEE skill practices. In summary, the above findings may suggest that

managerial skill practices may follow the following three distinctive styles among Asian

managers: Japanese, CTS (China, Taiwan and Singapore) and ASEAN-lndian styles.

-14-

The testing of Hypothesis 1 was conducted given the above three cultural groups of

managers for comparisons. Hypothesis 1 states that patterns of managerial skill practices

are different among managers in ten Asian area/nations sampled for the present study,

predicting that: (1) Japanese managers practice business-management skills relatively

more, (2) CTS managers practice people-management skills more, while (3) those in other

Asian countries (ASEAN-India) practice skills for increasing the bottom-line performance

more frequently relative to other managers

Table 3 show the results of hypothesis testing conducted by using standardized skill scores

for comparison among three cultural groups by ANOV A. The findings can be summarized

as follows. As hypothesized, Japanese managers showed the highest standardized scores on

BI skills followed by ASEAN-India and CTS managers (F=72.08, p


Table 3 ANOVA Results on Managerial Skill Practices (Standardized Score) by Three

Managerial Culture Groups in Asia

Cul tu；γal Gγoups

Managerial Skill c J A F Cell Contracts

CTS Japan ASEAN-India C-J C恥A J-A

n=684 n=382 n=433

Results Producing M .1018 -. 1930 一.0440 40.43c c c SD .4863 .5727 .5168

People Management M .3358 .0043 .3015 55 .14c c

SD .5265 .5010 .5025

Team Effectiveness Building M 一.0800 .0423 一.1312 27 _55c c a SD .3531 .3220 .3405

Business Innovation M 一.2424 .1218 .0128 72.osc c c SD .5176 .5091 .4906

Note: a pく.05,b p

systems of quality control (QC) and customer satisfaction (CS) were functioning properly,

managers would not be asked to practice skills related to these functions so frequently.

Results shown in Table 3 suggest this assumption may hold true for Japanese managers who

were found not too busy in practicing these skills. But the CTS’s position vis-a-vis ASEAN-

India’s in RP skill practices looks not quite congruent with predictions of the compensatory

managerial skill practice theory.

In conclusion, one clear pattern of managerial skill practices among CTS and ASEAN-

Indian managers is their supreme emphases on people management and result producing, but

with a lack of involvement in business innovation and team effectiveness building. However,

Japanese managers seem to follow exactly the opposite pattern of CTS and ASEAN-Indian

managers: less involvement in people-management and result producing activities, but more

in business innovation and team effectiveness building.

3 ) Critical Managerial Skills

To test Hypothesis 2, an analysis was made for identifying a set of critical managerial

skills considered to be required for improving managerial performance. Hypothesis 2 states

that managerial skills that Asian managers will choose as required for improving their

performance on the job (critical managerial skills) are different among ten area/nations.

Following Hypothesis 1, Japanese managers are expected to choose more frequently such

business-management skills as problem solving, strategic thinking, decision making, etc. as

critical for improving managerial performance on their jobs, relative to those from CTS

(China, Taiwan and Singapore) and ASEAN-India. On the other hand, other Asian managers

especially CTS colleagues are expected to choose a set of people噂managementskills as

critical for improving job performance. This prediction was based on cultural factors

(Confucian and collectivism tradition, especially for CTS managers) on the one hand, and on

the other an assumption of compensatory managerial skill practices that states managers

must perform skills to offset poor functions of their organizations. This will be particularly

true in ASEAN-Indian organizations.

In MS Questionnaire, critical skills were measured by asking each manager to choose in

order the “five most important skills”that they consider to be needed for improving the

present level of job performance, out of the 22 skill items. For this study total choice

frequencies were computed for each skill item disregarding the order of importance attached

to it from the l世 tothe 5th. Based on these choice frequency values, the factor level skill

criticality was computed by averaging the frequency values (choice percentages) of items

that constitute each factor. However, only the first three most highly loaded skill items in

each factor were used for actually computing the factor level critical importance, for the

-17-


purpose of controlling possible biases which may involve among factors due to the different

number of items used for the computation.

Table 4 and Figure 3 display levels of critical importance of four factor scales computed

by the above procedures for Japanese, CTS and ASEAN”Indian manager groups. In Table

4, regarding Japanese managers for example, the three skill items composing the BI skill

Table 4 The Frequency (percentage) by Which the First Three Items in Each Skill Factor Were

Chosen as One of the Five Most Important Skills by Managers in Three Cultural Groups

Japan China/Taiwan/Singapore ASEAN-India n=382 n=684 n=433

No. Skill Freq. % Freq. % Freq. Result Producing 44 11.5 111 16.3 42

18. Quality control 45 11.8 142 20.8 35 17. Profit consciousness 31 8.1 121 17. 7 43 19.Sensitively to customer needs 56 14. 7 69 10.l 49

PeojうleManagement 25 6.5 88 12.9 16

21. Fair treatment 12 3.1 84 12.3 13 22. Proper use of personnel 43 11.3 149 21.8 20 20. Group membership 21 5.5 31 4.5 15

つreα悦丘:JfectivenessBuilding 43 11.3 47 6.9 48

9 . Presenting missions 31 8.1 19 2.8 43 11. Motivating skill 50 13.1 67 9.8 62 8 . Providing structure 49 12目8 56 8.2 40

Business Innovation 124 32.5 121 17.7 111

2 . Problem identification 122 31.9 49 7.2 71 1 . Strategic thinking 157 41.1 227 33.2 168 3 .Decision making 93 24.3 86 12.6 95

35

一＋ーCTS(China/Taiwan/Singapor巴）｜／麹30卜i - 卜…一一日…e ーーヨーヨー…………〆一一一一

一翠一 Japan I / 25卜｜…込… ASEAN-India ｜……………………yム－－－＿－：－•－………

Cl) I / .・ bll I / .・ .s 20 i一一一一一一一一一一一一…………一一一一…………ー……一一一〆…ヮムー…I / •• しl －－~ζ二二二二自十－三回｜／仏｜一一 ’J

10 ~－－－－··一一···！：：：：：：：～に：一一一一三五〉ととマ，：－：：－~：：..... .／どー一・－－・－－・－－－－－－－…－－－－－－.－－－－－『～～官審J --

5 f一－．．－一一…一…守守一一一二：＿：，＿咋：……ァピ二一一一一・.，，...

O Results Producing People Management Team Effectiveness Business Innovation Building

Managerial Skill

Figure3. The Level of Critical Importance of Four Managerial Skills (Per-

centagies) Chosen by Managers by Three Cultural Groups

-18-

% 9.7

8.1 9.9 11.3

3.7

3.0 4.6 3.5

11.1

9.9 14.3 9.2 25.6

16.4 38.8 22.0

factor, namely skills of problem identification, strategic thinking and decision making were

found being selected by 122 (31.9%), 157 (41.1%) and 93 (24.3%) managers respectively out

of total 382, and thus making the critical importance of BI skills to be at the 32.5 percentage

level (an average of the above three) for Japanese managers. In the same manner, for CTS

and ASEAN-Indian managers the critical importance of BI skills were found at 17.7 and 25.

6 percentage levels respectively. Likewise for TEE, PM and RP skills, critical levels were

computed involving Japanese, CTS and ASEAN-Indian manager groups as Table 4 illus-

trates.

Figure 3 clearly displays that Japanese managers choose business innovation (BI) skills

to be most critical followed by ASEAN-lndian and CTS managers. On the other hand, CTS

managers do people management (PM) skills as equally critical ones for improving their

present job performance. These findings give support to Hypothesis 2 of the study indicating

that MP skills (consisting of proper use of personnel and fair treatment, etc.) are found most

critical for CTS managers. Likewise, for Japanese managers BI skills which include strate嶋

gic, innovation and decision making skills are reported most critical in Figure 3. On the other

hand, for CTS managers TEE skills consisting of skills of presenting missions, motivating,

providing structure and so forth are found least critical. These results as a whole render a

support to Hypothesis 2 of this study.

4 ) Organizational Environment for Managerial Skill Practices

Hypothesis 3 predicts that the quality of organizational environment for managerial skill

practices will be most favorable for Japanese managers, followed by managers in CTS and

ASEAN-lndian organizations. Since managerial human resource development systems are

expected to be considerably underdeveloped in most Asian countries, managers there may be

experiencing a lack of environmental support for their managerial skill practices except for

Japanese managers who can enjoy in general systematic in-house training, performance

evaluation, job rotation, and promotion functions provided by their organizations (Wa-

kabayashi and Graen, 1988). In other words, the quality of organizational environment

(formal and informal arrangements) for supporting the professionalization of managers

could be low in all Asian countries selected for this study except for Japan.

To test this hypothesis, the three scales of managerial career progress environment,

namely learning opportunities, superior support, and appraisal and promotion systems, were

subject to the one-way ANOV A test for identifying patterns of differ官 1cesamong Japanese,

CTS and ASEAN -Indian groups.長esultsshown in Table 5 indicate that the environmental

support is highest for Japanese managers with respect to learning opportunities (F=275.95,

p


ASEAN-Indian manager groups in this order. First, learning opportunities refer to the

features of organizational environment conducive to managerial skill learning in terms of:

availability of new knowledge and skills, needs for development understood by superiors, an

absence of monopoly on knowledge and skills, etc. Next, appraisal and promotion systems

mean procedures for performance appraisal and promotion decisions are practiced properly

in the organization. Results in Table 5 display those environmental aspects are more

supportive of managerial skill practices among Japanese managers than other Asian counter-

part managers.

On the other hand, regarding superior support which indicates the superior’s care of

subordinate manager’s development, provision of learning opportunities while working, the

level of superiors' knowledge and skills on business and so forth, Table 5 indicates that

significant differences exist among three cultural groups CF= 42.35, p < .001). But, the

pattern of mean differences turned out exactly the opposite to what Hypothesis 3 predicted ;

ASEAN-Indian managers are the highest in receiving support followed by CTS and Japanese

立ianagers.

In summary, the quality of organizational environment for managerial career progress

looks better for Japanese managers with respect to learning opportunities, and appraisal and

promotion systems relative to other Asian managers, but support provided by superiors was

found to be the highest among ASEAN-Indian managers followed by CTS and Japanese

colleagues. This result may make sense after knowing that CTS and ASEAN-Indian

managers practice people齢management(MP) skills most frequently and consider them

critical for managerial job performance, relative to Japanese colleagues. In other words,

CTS and ASEAN停Indianmanagers are expected to receive more support from superiors who

Table 5 ANOV A Results on Managers’Career Environment by Thr巴巴 Managerial Culture

Groups in Asia

Cu/tuγαi Gγoups

Career Environment Total c J A F Cell Contracお

N=l499 CTS Japan ASEAN司India C-J C-A J・A n=684 n=382 n=433

Overall Career Environment M 3.24 3.26 3.50 2.97 101.01' c c c SD .57 .52 .64 .44

Learning Opportunity M 3.08 3.20 3.65 2.38 275. 95' c c c SD .93 .83 .72 .80

Superior Support M 3.58 3.54 3.37 3.82 42.35' c c c SD .73 .72 .71 .71

Appraisal & Promotion M 3.03 2.92 3.27 2.99 19.41' c c System SD .91 .87 . 74 1.06

Note: c p (.001. CTS : China, Taiwan and Singapore.

-20-

are likely to be people-oriented also in their skill practices. In conclusion, support for

Hypothesis 3 can be maintained with respect to learning opportunities, and appraisal and

promotion systems, but not superior support. In other words, environment for managerial

career progress is good for Japanese managers only in institutionalized opportunity aspects

and systems, but not in the superiors' support area, relative to other Asian managers in this

study. This result coincides with the finding showing the higher level LMX reported by

A SEAN僧Indianmanagers followed by Japanese and CTS managers.

5 ) Determinants of Managerial Skill Practice

The learning-by-doing theory of managerial skill development on which this study is based

assumes that the level of skill learning is a function of the frequency by which the targeted

skill is practiced on the job. Therefore, for this theory to work it is very important to identify

factors in the organizational context by which the frequency of managerial skill practices is

facilitated. To answer this question, the present study brought the following 4 or・ganizati on al

context factors into the multiple regression analysis as determinants of managerial skill

practices, namely training opportunities, superior support, appraisal-promotion systems and

leader-member exchange (LMX) relations, followed by a country dummy variable (Japan=

“γ，Others＝“0つtocontrol for the macro socio-cultural and economic influences. A series of regression analyses were conducted by introducing four measures of managerial skills

(TEB, BI, Pl¥在andRP) in addition to Overall Skill Practice (OSP, an average of the above

four) as dependent variables and these five determinants as explanatory ones. Table 6

presents summary results of the analysis.

Table 6 Results for Regression Analyses on Managerial Skill Practice Based Overall Sample

Managers

n=l499

Managerial Skill OMS BI TEB PM RP

β SE β SE β SE β SE β SE

Dummy (Japan=l, Others=O) 一.260c .032 一.062° .040 一.144c . 037 一.3z7c .044 一.305c .043 Leader-Member Exchange .356c .021 .371° . 025 .324c .024 . zssc .028 .214° . 028 Learning Opportunities 一.074b .017 一.094c .020 一.061° . 019 一.052° . 022 一.053° . 022 Superior Support .156c .020 .107c .024 .165° .023 .12oc . 027 .12sc .026

Appraisal & Promotion System .063b . 016 .065b .019 . 051° . 018 .0568 .021 .048 .021

RZ .301 .209 .219 .261 .205 F 128.63c 78. 75c 83. 72c 105. 52c 77 .09c

Note : a p (05, b p ＜瓜， cp


The result shown in Table 6 indicates that LMX seems to work rather consistently across

all managerial skill areas as a determining factor of practices, followed by superior support

For subordinate managers, frequencies of practicing managerial skills are influenced signifi-

cantly by the nature of working relations with their immediate superiors. This result

coincides with past studies reporting consistently that for subordinate managers working

under high leader-member exchange (LMX) relations, frequencies of managerial skill

practices are higher relative to those under low LMX relations (Graen and Wakabayashi,

1994; Wakabayashi and Chen, 1998; Chen and Wakabayashi, 1996). Moreover, the above

finding gives support to another evidence displayed in this study regarding the critical

importance of people-management skills among Asian managers. In other words, MP skill

practices can be facilitated more strongly under the high LMX work relation, indicating there

will be LMX chains working within Asian organizations buttressed by PM skill practices.

Table 6 also indicates that high superior support within the organizational environment

for career progress significantly affects the frequency of managerial skill practices among

managers. This result is particularly interesting given the fact that the superior support

which indicates a supportive climate prevailing in the management organization at higher

position levels has a significant influence on skill practices among lower level managers, in

addition to the effect of LMX relations that each manager can have with the immediate

supervisor. This result is consistent with the finding in the past study in which decentralized

leadership practices in the organization was found facilitating the manager’s skill practices

in addition to the LMX effect (Chen and Wakabayashi, 1997a, 1997b). These results clearly

indicates that managerial skill practices can be facilitated, first by the supportive climate at

the upper level in the organization, and next by LMX relations with the immediate supervi-

sor.

However, as expected from the correlation patterns shown in Table 2, learning opportu-

nities variable produced negative effects upon managerial skill practices in Table 6. Again,

the result is contradictory to the prediction of Hypothesis 3, but can be understood as an

indication of compensatory managerial roles played out by Asian managers. In other words,

since the learning opportunities are scarce in the organization, Asian managers can not

depend on these opportunities to acquired needed knowledge and skills, but to move on

practicing rather rigorously all kind of managerial skills to get jobs done and learn from

doing them. On the other hand, when learning opportunities are affluent, managers will

choose to be more professionlaized in one particular area, and to practice rather limited but

specialized skills. These situations expected to be existing in Asian organizations may be

contributing to the negative association between learning opportunities and managerial skill

practices in the organization.

-22-

Finally, it must be noted that all the above findings in Table 6 should hold true across all

managers in Asian countries sampled for this study, because national and regional differences

were controlled in the regression analysis by a country-dummy variable. This country

dummy showed a significant negative effect indicating that Japanese managers are han-

dicapped in frequencies of managerial skill practices relative to other managers. But now,

we know from Table 3 and Figure 2 that they are allocating their time and energy mostly for

practicing BI and TEB skills, in stead of spreading their efforts all over the skill areas.

Conclusions and Discussions

It was found that Japanese managers consider the business innovation (BI) skill are

critical and actually practice this skill relatively more frequently than other skills and other

Asian managers sampled for this study. On the other hand, CTS and ASEAN-Indian

managers were found placing critical emphases on the people management (P羽） skill and

practicing this skill more frequently on the job than Japanese colleagues. This finding

suggests that one of the key features in managerial role behavior among Asian managers is

in management of people in terms of fair treatment and proper use of personnel. However,

this concern of people among Asian managers was found typically devoid of initiatives for

team effectiveness building CTEB) in terms of presenting missions, providing structure,

motivating people, and thus attaining group goals. On the contrary, these skills were found

to be practiced more frequently among Japanese managers.

The above result indicates that skill practices among Japanese managers are concen”

trated in the initial phase of the business process, namely finding problems, establishing

strategies, making decisions and engaging in innovation. Then, actions for mobilizing people

toward attainment of goals may occur through practices of TEB skills during the second

phase in the business process. However, relatively weak attentions are paid to the people

management and result producing skill practices that should follow as the third and final

phase of the cyclical business process (Wakabayashi, et. al. 1999). On the contrary, for CTS

and ASEAN欄Indianmanagers, the business process tends to receive critical attentions at the

third people management and the final result producing phases with a relatively weak

emphases put on the initial strategic and especially the second team building phases.

In summary, Japanese managers are following the pattern of strategy-driven managerial

skill ρractices (Wakabayashi, et. al., 1999). In other words, they emphasize and frequently

practice skills of problem identification, strategic thinking, decision making, and innovation.

Also. they believe this is the way to the performance improvement in Japanese corporations.

On the other hand, CTS and ASEAN -Indian managers were found placing the strongest

-23-


emphasis on PM skills (fair treatment and proper use of personnel). Moreover, these are the

most frequently practiced skills, while BI and TEB skills are not practiced so frequently

among them. Therefore, this pattern of managerial skill practices found among CTS and

ASEAN -Indian managers can be characterized asρeoρle-driven managerial skillρractices

(Wakabayashi, et. aL, 1999), since treating people fairly and properly is considered critical

for generating outcomes.

The first explanation to the findings of the present study can be given by focusing on

cultural differences as Hypothesis 1 suggests. The second way to explain these results may

be to follow differences in the nature of market pressures with which the sample manages are

driven to confront on their jobs. Namely, Japanese managers are expected to be challenged

more strongly by the domestic as well as international market forces in solving their

managerial problems, while CTS and ASEAN-Indian managers are relatively less severely

confronted with these competitive pressures. This may be the reason why Japanese

managers are driven to practice BI skills (problem identifying, decision making, strategic

thinking and innovation skills) more frequently than their Asian colleagues. Even the third

explanation can be given by introducing the stage theory of managerial skill development

More precisely, ASEAN-Indian corporations are considered remaining at the lower stage in

its organizational and management development where skills directly related to bottom-line

performance (result producing and people management skills) are dominantly practiced,

while Japanese corporations are approaching the higher stage of management development

in which a set of business innovation and team development skills are rigorously exercised.

In conclusion, more empirical evidence is needed to evaluate the validity of the above

three propositions which may be summarized respectively as: (1) cultural, (2) market-driven

vs.ρeople-driven and (3) developmental stage theories of the managerial skill practices.

However, it will be wrong to emphasize only one factor to the exclusion of others ; All three,

or a certain combination among them, may be working simultaneously in influencing the

practice of a particular mix of managerial skills among Asian managers. Clearly, more

studies are needed to examine the findings of the present study in depth by expanding the

scope of the survey to cover broader segments of Asian manager population, and by introduc・・！

ing more interesting variables for understanding managerial skills practices in Asia.

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Chiners邑〉．

4.4 (Based on Raw Scores)

.I譲

3.4t .. ・・ー五六…………………〓...：；～........← ＼本一ι 一一一一ム噛

. 一一山田町四四四甲山噛戸回目戸叩～～～～～ー－ 3.2ト…p・p・－……一て：；：」；；.；；..－－・・…一一一一一………………一一一一~.

島，－－’戸・－

3 Results Producing P巴opleManagement Team Effectiveness Business Innovation

Building

Managerial Skill

ーφーChina 開会一Japan e 翠.. Taiwan - Vietnam ー骨一India

－~四 Thailand ー噛－Indonesia ーム－-Malaysia ・ー殴・ Phillippines一十一Singapore

Appendixl. Frequences of Practcing Managerial Skills for Managers in Asia

(Based on Raw Scores)

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『思際開発研究フォーラム J 17 (2001. 3) Forum of ...Mari KONDO** This study was designed to explore managerial skills required for managers working for corporations in