철학사상 별책 제 권 제 호7 5

토픽맵에 기초한 철학 고전 텍스트들의 체계적 분석 연구와,디지털 철학 지식지도 구축

양계초 신민설

이 혜 경　 　

서울대학교 철학사상연구소2006

편집위원 : 백종현위원장( )김남두박찬국이남인이태수정원재김상현주간( )

발 간 사서울대학교 철학사상연구소 철학문헌정보센터의 전임연구단은 한국학술진흥재단의 기초학문육성지원 사업비를 받아 앞서 년 간2 (2002.8-

철학 텍스트들의 내용 분석에 의거한 디지털 지식 자원 구축2004.7) 「을 위한 기초적 연구 를 수행하여 그 결실을 철학사상 별책 제 권 제2」 호 제 호 별책 제 권 제 호 제 호로 출간한 데 이어 그 후속으1 ~ 14 , 3 1 ~ 25 ,로 다시금 년 동안 토픽맵에 기초한 철학 고전 텍2 (2004.9-2006.8) ,「스트들의 체계적 분석 연구와 디지털 철학 지식지도 구축 사업을 수행」하면서 지난 해 일차로 철학사상 별책 제 권 제 호 제 호를 펴냈5 1 ~ 14 다 이제 이 후속 사업의 두 번째 성과물을 철학사상 별책 제 권 제. 7 1 호 제 호로 엮어낸다~ 25 .이 연구 작업은 중요한 철학 문헌들의 내용을 개념 체계도를 세워 분석하고 이를 디지털 지식 자원으로 활용할 수 있도록 편성하는 것이다, .이 같은 일은 지식정보 사회에 있어 철학이 지식 산업과 지식 경제의 토대가 되는 디지털 지식 자원을 생산하는 데 있어 중요한 역할을 수행하기 위한 필수적인 기초 연구라 할 것이다.우리 연구단은 긴 논의 과정을 거쳐 우리 사회 문화 형성에 크게 영향을 미친 동서양의 철학 고전들을 선정하고 이를 연구자의 전공별로 나누어 각각 먼저 분담한 저작의 개요를 작성한 후 개념들의 관계를 밝혀, ,개념 지도를 만들고 그 틀에 맞춰 주요 개념들을 상술했다 이 같은 문, .헌 분석 작업만으로도 대표적인 철학 저술의 독해 작업은 완료되었다고볼 수 있다 그러나 이 사업의 목표는 여기서 더 나아가 이 작업의 성과.물을 디지털화된 철학 텍스트들에 접목시켜 누구나 각자의 수준에서 철학 고전의 텍스트에 접근할 수 있도록 하려는 것이다.

우리가 대표적인 것으로 꼽는 철학 고전들은 모두 외국어나 한문으로쓰여 있기 때문에 이를 지식 자원으로서 누구나 활용할 수 있도록 하기,위해서는 디지털화에 앞서 현대 한국어로의 번역이 불가피하다 그러나.적절한 한국어 번역이 아직 없는 경우에도 원전의 사상을 이루는 개념체계를 소상히 안다면 원전에 대한 접근이 한결 수월해질 것이다 우리.연구 작업의 성과는 일차적으로는 이를 위해 활용될 수 있을 것이지만,장차 한국어 철학 텍스트들이 확보되면 이를 효율적으로 활용하는 데 기초가 될 것이다.아무쪼록 우리 공동 연구 사업의 이 성과물이 인류 사회 문화의 자산을 확대 재생산하는 데 초석이 되고 한국의 철학 문화 향상에도 이바지,하는 바 있기를 바란다.

년 월 일2006 5 25

서울대학교 철학사상연구소 철학문헌정보센터 장 /토픽맵에 기초한 철학 고전 텍스트들의 체계적 분석,「

연구와 디지털 철학 지식지도 구축 연구책임자 백종」 현

철학사상 별책 제 권 제 호7 5

토픽맵에 기초한 철학 고전 텍스트들의 체계적 분석 연구와,디지털 철학 지식지도 구축

양계초 신민설

이 혜 경　 　

서울대학교 철학사상연구소2006

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머 리 말양계초는 약 년 전에 계몽사상가로 활약했던 중국 사람이다 우리100 .가 이름을 들어봤을 법한 중국 근현대의 유명한 지도자들 가령 모택동,․이라든지 노신 진독수 같은 사람들이 모두 소년 시절에 양계초의 글을,읽고 구국의 열정을 키웠다고 한다 같은 시기 한반도에서 발행되었던 계.몽잡지에도 양계초의 글은 빠지지 않고 실렸다 그가 관여한 최초의 정치.운동이었던 년의 개혁운동에 실패한 후 그는 일본으로 망명해서 일1898 ,본어로 번역되어 있는 서양의 근대 서적들을 탐욕스럽게 읽어치웠다 그.리고 제국주의의 식민지로 전락할 위기에 처한 중국을 구제할 일념으로자신이 이해한 것들을 잡지라는 매체를 통해 중국인에게 소개했다 그는.그 방식으로 중국이 근대국가를 이룩하는 데 자신의 모든 열정을 바쳤다.자연에 대한 과학적 탐구와 산업혁명을 통한 생산의 비약적 증대 정치,영역에서의 자유와 평등 경제영역에서의 자유로운 활동 등이 근대성이, ‘ ’갖는 해방의 이미지라면 생산의 공격적 확대 고도의 인플레이션과 대량, ,실업 소득과 부의 불균등 생태계의 파괴와 에너지자원의 고갈 국내의, , ,갈등을 완화하기 위한 식민지 정복 전쟁 등이 그 부정적인 이미지들일,것이다.

년 전의 아시아인들 특히 중국이나 조선처럼 선진 근대국가들의 식100 ,민지 경쟁 대상이 되었던 나라들에게 근대성은 명백하게 해방과 침략성‘ ’이라는 이중적인 성격을 가진 것이었지만 그들은 근대성의 부정적 성격,을 인식할 수 없었고 따라서 비판할 수도 없었다 그들을 정복하고 착취, .하기 위해 상륙한 서구의 근대성을 그들은 오로지 자신들도 성취해야‘ ’할 목표로만 받아들였다 제국주의는 교사이자 약탈자였지만 여차하면. ,나락의 바닥까지 떨어질 수 있는 필사적인 상황의 약자들에게는 약탈자

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로서의 그들의 모습을 간파하고 그들의 존재를 비판할 여력이 없었다.약자들은 그 늪에서 헤어나기 위해 필사적으로 허우적거렸고 그 방법은,자신들을 압박하는 그 힘을 배우려는 것이었다 그리하여 압박당하는 처.지에서 벗어나 압박하는 자가 되는 것이었다 그것이 유일한 생존의 길.이라 생각했다.근대성에 대한 부정적 이미지들은 근대비판이론들이 등장하면서 최근‘ ’

몇 십 년 사이에야 비로소 우리에게 분명하게 인식되기 시작한 것들이다.그러나 그 부정적 성격을 인식함으로써 우리의 선택은 얼마나 달라졌는가 우리에게 그 부정적 요인들을 거부할 수 있는 힘은 자라났는가 세? ?계화라는 이름으로 자행되고 있는 불평등한 경쟁과 그 결과로 심화되고,있는 양극화의 골 그 속에서 자기 자신과 자신이 처해 있는 상황을 돌아,볼 여유도 없이 달리고 있는 개인들 우리는 년 전의 사람들보다 행복, 100해졌는가 이러한 질문들을 던졌을 때 세기의 우리와 년 전의 양계? , 21 100초가 처했던 상황은 그렇게 달라 보이지 않는다.양계초를 통해 우리의 현실을 객관화시켜 볼 수 있는 기회를 갖게 될지도 모르겠다 양계초가 암중모색했던 길은 근대의 성격만큼이나 모순에.가득 찬 것이었지만 그 모순 속에서 앞으로 나아갈 길의 실마리를 엿볼,수 있을지도 모르겠다.

년 월2006 5이혜경

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목 차

제 부 철학자 및 철학 문헌 해제1 ····························································· 1양계초의 생애 및 저작1. ········································································· 1생애 요약1.1 ··························································································· 1생애 해설1.2 ··························································································· 2생애 연보1.3 ··························································································· 5저작1.4 ···································································································· 7신민설1.4.1 ···························································································· 7변법통의1.4.2 ························································································ 7

신민설 해제2. ······················································································· 8신민설 요약2.1 ···················································································· 8신민설 해설2.2 ···················································································· 9신민설 상세 목차2.3 ········································································· 14주요 용어2.4 ························································································· 15민족국가2.4.1 ······················································································ 15신민2.4.2 ······························································································ 16공덕2.4.3 ······························································································ 17사덕2.4.4 ······························································································ 18

제 부 철학 지식지도2 ··············································································· 21철학자 지식지도1. ·················································································· 21철학 문헌 지식지도2. ············································································· 22

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철학 용어 지식지도3. ············································································· 23민족국가3.1 ··························································································· 23신민3.2 ·································································································· 24공덕3.3 ·································································································· 25사덕3.4 ·································································································· 25

철학 문헌 내용 지식지도4. ···································································· 26

제 부 신민설 내용 분석 연구3 ··························································· 45국가1. ······································································································ 45국가와 진화1.1 ····················································································· 45국가의 성립1.1.1 ················································································· 45단체의 필요성1.1.1.1 ········································································· 45경계로서의 단체1.1.1.2 ····································································· 46국가의 성립조건1.1.1.3 ····································································· 47국가사상의 유무1.1.1.3.1 ································································· 47국가사상의 내용1.1.1.3.2 ································································· 48개인과 국가의 관계1.1.1.3.2.1 ······················································· 48정부와 국가의 관계1.1.1.3.2.2 ······················································· 49타민족과 국가의 관계1.1.1.3.2.3 ····················································· 50세계와 국가의 관계1.1.1.3.2.4 ······················································· 51

경쟁주체로서의 국가1.1.1.3.3 ························································· 53국가와 문명1.1.2 ················································································· 53문명으로서의 국가1.1.2.1 ·································································· 53절대 가치로서의 국가1.1.2.2 ···························································· 54

민족주의1.2 ··························································································· 55민족주의의 정의1.2.1 ·········································································· 55민족주의와 진화1.2.2 ·········································································· 55

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민족제국주의로의 발전1.2.2.1 ·························································· 56고대제국주의와 민족제국주의1.2.2.2 ··············································· 57

민족 진화의 관건1.2.3 ········································································ 58백인종의 우월성1.2.3.1 ····································································· 59튜튼족의 우월성1.2.3.2 ····································································· 59앵글로색슨족의 우월성1.2.3.3 ·························································· 60진화에 필요한 특성들1.2.3.4 ···························································· 62

중국의 민족주의1.2.4 ·········································································· 62중국민족의 가능성1.2.4.1 ·································································· 62중국민족의 위기1.2.4.2 ····································································· 63중국민족의 과제1.2.4.3 ····································································· 64중국민족의 모범1.2.4.4 ····································································· 64

민족국가1.3 ··························································································· 65민족국가의 의의1.3.1 ·········································································· 65민족국가의 원천1.3.2 ·········································································· 66민족국가의 요소1.3.3 ·········································································· 66권리1.3.3.1 ························································································· 67권리사상은 국가의 뿌리1.3.3.1.1 ···················································· 68권리는 형이상의 생존 능력1.3.3.1.2 ··············································· 68강자의 권리1.3.3.1.3 ········································································ 69권리는 경쟁에서1.3.3.1.4 ································································· 70권리와 법1.3.3.1.5 ··········································································· 71국권은 모든 개인의 권리의 합1.3.3.1.6 ········································· 72

의무1.3.3.2 ························································································· 73개인과 사회의 협조1.3.3.2.1 ··························································· 74의무와 권리의 균형1.3.3.2.2 ··························································· 75의무는 권리의 원천1.3.3.2.3 ··························································· 75

자유1.3.3.3 ························································································· 76자유는 천하의 공리1.3.3.3.1 ··························································· 77

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문명의 자유1.3.3.3.2 ········································································ 77자유의 황금률1.3.3.3.2.1 ································································ 77법률에의 복종1.3.3.3.2.2 ································································ 78단체의 자유1.3.3.3.2.3 ··································································· 79

자치1.3.3.4 ························································································· 80자치능력은 인간의 조건1.3.3.4.1 ···················································· 81자치의 관건은 법률1.3.3.4.2 ··························································· 81개인적 자치의 극치1.3.3.4.2.1 ························································ 82사회적 자치의 극치1.3.3.4.2.2 ························································ 83자치는 자유 평등 민권의 바탕1.3.3.4.3 ･ ･ ········································· 83자치능력의 효용1.3.3.4.4 ································································· 84

경제1.3.3.5 ························································································· 85문명의 경제1.3.3.5.1 ········································································ 85노동의 증식1.3.3.5.1.1 ··································································· 86자본의 증식1.3.3.5.1.2 ··································································· 87자본과 노동력의 증감관계1.3.3.5.1.3 ············································ 87

부국의 길1.3.3.5.2 ··········································································· 88소비의 축소와 투자자본의 확대1.3.3.5.2.1 ··································· 88생산의 증대1.3.3.5.2.2 ··································································· 89

파괴와 진보1.3.3.6 ············································································ 89파괴는 진보의 길1.3.3.6.1 ······························································· 90파괴는 불가피한 것1.3.3.6.2 ··························································· 90자발적 파괴의 이점1.3.3.6.3 ··························································· 91무혈파괴의 이점1.3.3.6.4 ································································· 92계속되어야 할 파괴1.3.3.6.5 ··························································· 92

상무1.3.3.7 ························································································· 93문명의 지지대인 상무1.3.3.7.1 ························································ 93강자만의 평화1.3.3.7.2 ···································································· 94무장평화시대의 자구책1.3.3.7.3 ······················································ 95

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상무의 무한한 가능성1.3.3.7.4 ························································ 95민족국가를 향한 중국의 과제1.3.4 ···················································· 96국가사상의 결여1.3.4.1 ····································································· 96만연한 이기주의1.3.4.1.1 ································································· 97충성에 대한 오해1.3.4.1.2 ······························································· 98국가에 대한 지조의 결여1.3.4.1.3 ·················································· 99평천하 의식1.3.4.1.4 ······································································ 100지리상의 원인1.3.4.1.4.1 ······························································ 101학설상의 원인1.3.4.1.4.2 ······························································ 101

가장 중대한 문제와 그 해결1.3.4.1.5 ··········································· 101갖가지 이기주의1.3.4.1.5.1 ·························································· 102국가는 현명한 이기주의자의 선택1.3.4.1.5.2 ····························· 103

단결력의 부족1.3.4.2 ······································································· 104공익을 위한 사적인 이익의 희생1.3.4.2.1 ···································· 105공공의 적 과 사사로운 적 의 구분1.3.4.2.2 ( ) ( )公敵 私敵 ················ 106무규율1.3.4.2.3 ··············································································· 107시기와 질투1.3.4.2.4 ······································································ 108

권리사상의 결여1.3.4.3 ··································································· 109관대함의 위험성1.3.4.3.1 ······························································· 109양주의 위아주의와 권리사상1.3.4.3.2 ··········································· 110인 의 덕과 권리사상1.3.4.3.3 仁 ······················································ 111

의무사상의 박약1.3.4.4 ··································································· 113분업에 기초한 의무와 권리1.3.4.4.1 ············································· 113의무에 관한 중국인과 서양인의 차이1.3.4.4.2 ····························· 114권리와 의무는 애국심의 근거1.3.4.4.3 ········································· 116권리와의 균형을 잃은 의무의 문제점1.3.4.4.4 ····························· 117

중국의 복고적 역사관1.3.4.5 ·························································· 118자연적 이유1.3.4.5.1 ······································································ 119경쟁 없는 통일왕국1.3.4.5.1.1 ····················································· 119

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하등문명의 주위 야만국가1.3.4.5.1.2 ·········································· 120인위적 이유1.3.4.5.2 ······································································ 121표의문자의 약점1.3.4.5.2.1 ·························································· 121새로운 발명품의 표기 문제1.3.4.5.2.1.1 ···································· 122문자의 습득에 소비되는 시간과 정력1.3.4.5.2.1.2 ··················· 123지식의 대중화 문제1.3.4.5.2.1.3 ················································ 123정치의 진보와 사상의 심화1.3.4.5.2.1.4 ···································· 124

오랜 전제1.3.4.5.2.2 ( )專制 ··························································· 125편협한 학설과 사상1.3.4.5.2.3 ····················································· 126

중국의 경제1.3.4.6 ··········································································· 127중국 경제의 실태1.3.4.6.1 ····························································· 127과다한 소모자비생산자1.3.4.6.2 ( ) ················································· 128중국 경제의 가능성1.3.4.6.3 ························································· 129실천상의 순서1.3.4.6.4 ·································································· 130

상무정신이 결여된 중국1.3.4.7 ······················································· 131무력에 굴복했던 역사1.3.4.7.1 ······················································ 131천성처럼 된 문약 함1.3.4.7.2 ( )文弱 ··············································· 132문약하게 된 원인1.3.4.7.3 ····························································· 133국세의 통일1.3.4.7.3.1 ································································· 133유교의 도덕주의1.3.4.7.3.2 ·························································· 134패도의 영향1.3.4.7.3.3 ································································· 135패도의 정책 족쇄1.3.4.7.3.3.1 1 - ·············································· 136패도의 정책 회유1.3.4.7.3.3.2 2 - ( )懷柔 ···································· 137

무력을 경시하던 습속1.3.4.7.3.4 ················································· 138자주지권을 보장하는 것은 자위권1.3.4.7.4 ·································· 139상무정신을 위해 키워야 할 세 가지1.3.4.7.5 ······························ 139정신력1.3.4.7.5.1 ( )心力 ································································ 141불가능을 모르는 정신력1.3.4.7.5.1.1 ········································· 141당면의 위기를 돌파할 정신력1.3.4.7.5.1.2 ································ 142

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담력1.3.4.7.5.2 ·············································································· 142두려움을 모르는 담력1.3.4.7.5.2.1 ············································· 142담력은 자신감에서1.3.4.7.5.2.2 ·················································· 143

체력1.3.4.7.5.3 ·············································································· 144체력은 군국주의 국민의 자격1.3.4.7.5.3.1 ································ 144체력은 국력1.3.4.7.5.3.2 ····························································· 145

국민2. ···································································································· 146근대국가의 국민2.1 ············································································ 146국민은 국가 권위의 근원2.1.1 ························································· 146국가의 역량은 국민의 역량2.1.2 ······················································ 146

근대 중국의 국민 신민2.2. - ······························································· 147신민의 의의2.2.1 ··············································································· 147신민의 의미2.2.2 ··············································································· 149신 의 두 가지 뜻2.2.2.1 ‘ ’( )新 ··························································· 149보수의 중요성2.2.2.2 ······································································· 150지켜야 할 것2.2.2.2.1 ···································································· 150진정한 수구2.2.2.2.2 ······································································ 151

진취의 필요성2.2.2.3 ······································································· 152새로 채용해야 할 것2.2.2.3.1 ························································ 152가지가 아닌 뿌리의 이식2.2.2.3.2 ················································ 153

보수와 진취의 조화2.2.2.4 ······························································ 154신민창출의 주체2.2.3 ········································································ 155신민 창출의 급박함2.2.4 ·································································· 156대내적인 관점에서2.2.4.1 ································································ 156대외적인 관점에서2.2.4.2 ································································ 157열쇄는 내실2.2.4.3 ··········································································· 158

신민의 요건2.3 ···················································································· 159민족정신의 고양2.3.1 ········································································ 160

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민덕 민지 민력의 배양2.3.2 , , ··························································· 161도덕3. ···································································································· 163공덕과 사덕3.1 ···················································································· 163공덕3.2 ································································································ 163공덕의 정신3.2.1 ··············································································· 164공덕과 진화3.2.2 ··············································································· 165중국의 공덕 현황3.2.3 ······································································ 166현재에 맞는 공덕을 계발할 필요성3.2.3.1 ····································· 166중국에 공덕이 발달하지 못한 이유3.2.3.2 ····································· 167도덕의 진화에 대한 무지3.2.3.2.1 ················································ 167사덕의 과도한 발달3.2.2.2.2 ························································· 168

공덕을 창출하지 못할 때의 재난3.2.3.3 ········································ 170공덕의 실질과 기능3.2.4 ·································································· 171공덕의 실질은 우수 민족의 장점3.2.4.1 ········································ 171공덕은 사회에 대한 의무3.2.4.2 ····················································· 172

공덕의 종류3.2.5 ··············································································· 174국가사상3.2.5.1 ················································································ 175국가사상의 소유는 국가 수립의 관건3.2.5.1.1 ····························· 175국가사상 고취의 장애3.2.5.1.2 ······················································ 176객관적 원인3.2.5.1.2.1 ································································· 176도덕적 원인3.2.5.1.2.2 ································································· 177비사회적 도덕주의도 결국은 이기심3.2.5.1.2.2.1 ····················· 177위선적 도덕주의의 뿌리 역시 이기심3.2.5.1.2.2.2 ··················· 178이기주의에서 국가사상으로3.2.5.1.2.2.3 ···································· 180

권리사상3.2.5.2 ················································································ 181권리사상은 천성3.2.5.2.1 ······························································· 181권리사상은 양지양능3.2.5.2.1.1 ··················································· 181무한한 권리의 신장 의욕 역시 천성3.2.5.2.1.2 ·························· 182

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권리사상은 도덕의 문제3.2.5.2.2 ·················································· 183권리사상은 인격의 문제3.2.5.2.2.1 ·············································· 183권리는 이익과 상반된 것3.2.5.2.2.2 ············································ 184권리사상의 결여는 마비와 마찬가지3.2.5.2.2.3 ·························· 185권리사상이 결여된 부도덕의 상태3.2.5.2.2.4 ····························· 187관대함과 부드러움 인내3.2.5.2.2.4.1 , ········································ 187소극적 개인주의3.2.5.2.2.4.2 ······················································ 188권리사상을 좀먹는 인3.2.5.2.2.4.3 ( )仁 ······································ 189

의무사상3.2.5.3 ················································································ 190의무사상은 문명국민의 덕성3.2.5.3.1 ··········································· 190권리와 의무의 균형은 문명의 상징3.2.5.3.1.1 ···························· 191의무사상은 국가의 초석3.2.5.3.1.2 ·············································· 191정부의 기강을 바로잡는 것도 의무사상3.2.5.3.1.3 ···················· 193의무사상은 우월함의 원천3.2.5.3.1.4 ·········································· 194

의무사상의 부재3.2.5.3.2 ······························································· 194의무사상의 박약은 권리사상의 박약으로3.2.5.3.2.1 ··················· 194의지와 실천의 박약3.2.5.3.2.2 ····················································· 195효제의 문제점3.2.5.3.2.3 ······························································ 196

자유정신3.2.5.4 ················································································ 197자유와 법3.2.5.4.1 ·········································································· 197개인의 자유는 단체의 질서에서3.2.5.4.1.1 ································· 197자신이 제정한 법률에 복종하는 것3.2.5.4.1.2 ···························· 198법률은 양지와 노력에 의한 것3.2.5.4.1.3 ··································· 199

마음의 자유3.2.5.4.2 ······································································ 200자유의 상실 마음속의 노예3.2.5.4.3 ― ······································· 201옛사람의 노예3.2.5.4.3.1 ······························································ 202세속의 노예3.2.5.4.3.2 ································································· 203상황의 노예3.2.5.4.3.3 ································································· 204정욕의 노예3.2.5.4.3.4 ································································· 205

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진취모험정신3.2.5.5 ········································································· 206진취모험정신의 성격3.2.5.5.1 ························································ 206가장 확실한 생존의 정신3.2.5.5.1.1 ············································ 206용맹불퇴전의 정신3.2.5.5.1.2 ······················································· 207

진취모험정신의 근원3.2.5.5.2 ························································ 208호연지기의 성격3.2.5.5.2.1 ························································ 208진취모험정신의 네 가지 근원3.2.5.5.2.2 ··································· 209희망3.2.5.5.2.2.1 ········································································· 209열성3.2.5.5.2.2.2 ········································································· 210지혜3.2.5.5.2.2.3 ········································································· 211담력과 기력3.2.5.5.2.2.4 ····························································· 212

단결정신3.2.5.6 ················································································ 214공화국의 단결은 도덕에3.2.5.6.1 ·················································· 214단결을 위해 필요한 덕목3.2.5.6.2 ················································ 215공공관념3.2.5.6.2.1 ······································································· 215대아와 소아의 구별3.2.5.6.2.2 ····················································· 216규율에 대한 복종3.2.5.6.2.3 ························································ 217한마음3.2.5.6.2.4 ·········································································· 218

경제정신3.2.5.7 ················································································ 219경제를 위한 지력3.2.5.7.1 ····························································· 220문명인으로서 갖는 지식3.2.5.7.1.1 ·············································· 220사군자들과 경제3.2.5.7.1.2 ·························································· 220

경제를 위한 덕의 힘3.2.5.7.2 ························································ 222자신이 중국 빈곤의 주범이라는 각성3.2.5.7.2.1 ························ 222경제정신의 실천 순서3.2.5.7.2.2 ················································· 222

의력3.2.5.8 ······················································································· 223의력이 필요한 이유3.2.5.8.1 ························································· 224절망을 방지하는 의력3.2.5.8.2 ······················································ 224의력은 성패의 열쇄3.2.5.8.3 ························································· 225

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성공과 실패의 결과는 세대를 넘어서는 것3.2.5.8.3.1 ··············· 225성공과 실패는 정신의 문제3.2.5.8.3.2 ········································ 226성패와 관련한 두 가지 의력3.2.5.8.3.3 ······································ 227

의력의 박약과 극복3.2.5.8.4 ························································· 228마무리하는 힘의 부족3.2.5.8.4.1 ················································· 228책임을 자임하는 자의 각오3.2.5.8.4.2 ········································ 229

자존감3.2.5.9 ···················································································· 231자존은 국민을 존중하는 것3.2.5.9.1 ············································· 231자존은 위대한 기개3.2.5.9.2 ························································· 232자존감을 해치는 것들3.2.5.9.3 ······················································ 233자포자기3.2.5.9.3.1 ······································································· 233겸손3.2.5.9.3.2 ·············································································· 233객기3.2.5.9.3.3 ·············································································· 234

자존의 길3.2.5.9.4 ·········································································· 235스스로를 사랑함3.2.5.9.4.1 ·························································· 236스스로를 규제함3.2.5.9.4.2 ·························································· 237경제적 학문적 독립3.2.5.9.4.3 ･ ····················································· 238몸을 낮춰 처신함3.2.5.9.4.4 ························································ 239스스로 책임을 맡음3.2.5.9.4.5 ····················································· 240

상무정신3.2.5.10 ·············································································· 241군사력은 정신력3.2.5.10.1 ····························································· 242정신적 군사력을 위해 키워야 할 것3.2.5.10.2 ····························· 242정신집중의 힘3.2.5.10.2.1 ···························································· 243두려움을 없애줄 담력3.2.5.10.2.2 ··············································· 244정신력을 지탱해줄 체력3.2.5.10.2.3 ············································ 245

공덕의 약점3.2.6 ··············································································· 245사덕3.3 ································································································ 247사덕의 중요성3.3.1 ··········································································· 248사덕의 중요성에 대한 양계초의 평가 변화3.3.1.1 ························ 248

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공덕을 중시할 때의 사덕3.3.1.1.1 ················································ 249사덕에 치우친 중국의 구도덕3.3.1.1.1.1 ····································· 250구도덕은 도덕의 부분일 뿐3.3.1.1.1.2 ········································ 251중국의 소극적 사덕은 공덕의 좀벌레3.3.1.1.1.3 ························ 253공덕과 사덕은 별개의 가치체계3.3.1.1.1.4 ································· 254

재평가된 사덕3.3.1.1.2 ·································································· 255공덕과 사덕은 전체와 구성원의 관계3.3.1.1.2.1 ························ 256공덕은 사덕의 확충3.3.1.1.2.2 ····················································· 257

공덕의 중요성에 의지하는 사덕의 중요성3.3.1.1.2 ····················· 259개명전제와 사덕의 중요성3.3.1.2 ··················································· 260

사덕의 필요성3.3.2 ··········································································· 261도덕의 과도기3.3.2.1 ······································································· 261사덕이 특히 요구되는 상황3.3.2.2 ················································· 262파괴주의의 존재3.3.2.2.1 ······························································· 263파괴와 건설3.3.2.2.1.1 ································································· 264파괴와 건설과 도덕3.3.2.2.1.2 ····················································· 265일체파괴는 백해무익한 것3.3.2.2.1.3 ·········································· 266파괴주의와 도덕은 양립불가능한 것3.3.2.2.1.4 ·························· 267

마음가짐의 중요성3.3.2.2.2. ·························································· 268중요한 것은 주의주장이 아니라 마음가짐3.3.2.2.2.1 ················· 269중요한 것은 정치와 군사의 기술이 아니라 마음가짐3.3.2.2.2.2 270도덕은 단체를 만드는 근원3.3.2.2.2.3 ········································ 270도덕은 협동의 근원3.3.2.2.2.4 ····················································· 271

이론과 실천의 간극3.3.2.2.3 ························································· 272실천에서의 갈등을 해결할 것은 오직 도덕3.3.2.2.3.1 ··············· 272실무에 의한 타락을 방지할 것은 오직 도덕뿐3.3.2.2.3.2 ·········· 273

특히 사덕을 갖춰야 할 사람들3.3.3 ················································ 274장래의 주인공이 될 선각자들3.3.3.1 ·············································· 274국민 양성에 종사할 사람들3.3.3.2 ················································· 275

xv

신학문을 하는 청년들3.3.3.3 ·························································· 276중국의 사덕3.3.4 ··············································································· 277중국 사덕의 현황3.3.4.1 ·································································· 277서양 도덕의 수입3.3.4.1.1 ····························································· 277도덕이 아니라 과학3.3.4.1.1.1 ····················································· 278지식의 도덕 영역 잠식3.3.4.1.1.2 ··············································· 279

사덕의 타락3.3.4.1.2 ······································································ 280중국의 사덕이 타락한 원인3.3.4.2 ················································· 280전제정치의 영향3.3.4.2.1 ······························································· 280전제정치 하의 일반적 풍기3.3.4.2.1.1 ········································ 281중국의 전제정치3.3.4.2.1.2 ·························································· 282

청조 패권의 영향3.3.4.2.2 ····························································· 283수차례 패전의 영향3.3.4.2.3 ························································· 284정복전쟁의 장점3.3.4.2.3.1 ·························································· 284내란과 피정복의 역사로 점철된 중국사3.3.4.2.3.2 ···················· 286

궁핍한 생계의 영향3.3.4.2.4 ························································· 287생계와 민덕의 관계3.3.4.2.4.1 ····················································· 287중국의 생계와 민덕3.3.4.2.4.2 ····················································· 288

무능력한 학술3.3.4.2.5 ·································································· 289학술의 힘3.3.4.2.5.1 ····································································· 289청조 학술의 무능3.3.4.2.5.2 ························································ 290신사상의 해독3.3.4.2.5.3 ······························································ 291

사덕의 함양3.3.5 ··············································································· 293도덕적 지도자의 모범들3.3.5.1 ······················································· 293세계의 모범들3.3.5.1.1 ·································································· 293중국의 모범 증국번3.3.5.1.2 ― ···················································· 294

양계초의 사덕 함양3.3.5.2 ······························································ 295근본을 바르게 함3.3.5.2.1 ( )正本 ··················································· 296공리주의의 만연3.3.5.2.1.1 ·························································· 296

xvi

애국은 공리가 아닌 순결한 것3.3.5.2.1.2 ··································· 297본원은 마음3.3.5.2.1.3 ································································· 299

신독3.3.5.2.2 ··················································································· 300작은 일부터 조심함3.3.5.2.3 ( )謹小 ··············································· 302작은 일은 모든 것의 씨앗3.3.5.2.3.1 ·········································· 302작은 현상의 원인은 근원적인 것3.3.5.2.3.2 ······························· 303

사덕의 등장이 의미하는 것3.3.6 ······················································ 304도덕 절대주의의 부활3.3.6.1 ·························································· 304애국과 양지의 결합3.3.6.2 ······························································ 305사덕의 복잡성3.3.6.3 ······································································· 305대표적 사덕으로서의 양명학3.3.6.4 ··············································· 306유학에 대한 재평가의 의의3.3.6.5 ················································· 307

참고문헌 ································································································· 309

xvii

일 러 두 기

이 편집해서 출판한 가운데 제 책에1. 3林志鈞 飮冰室合集 專集 수록되어 있는 을 텍스트로 사용했다 본문 안의 인용문 뒤에.新民說 표기된 페이지는 그 책의 페이지이다.

신민설 은 신민총보2. 《 》라는 반월간 잡지에 연재되었던 글이다 신. 민설 은 책으로 취급하여 의 괄호로 표기하고 신민총보,《 》를 비롯한잡지는《 》의 괄호로 표기해서 구분했다.

1양계초 신민설

제1부 철학자 및 철학 문헌 해제

양계초의 생애 및 저작1.

생애 요약1.1양계초 는 중국근대의 대표적인 계몽사상가이다 타( , 1873~1929) .梁啓超고난 영민함으로 짧은 시간 안에 폭넓은 서양사상을 섭렵했으며 발군의,순발력과 뛰어난 필력으로 자신이 소화한 것을 중국인들에게 신속하고명쾌하게 전달했다 그의 정력적인 활동은 타의 추종을 불허하는 것이었.다 그는 정치 역사 교육 종교 학술에서 문학에 이르기까지 폭넓은 분. , , , ,야를 종횡무진하며 중국인들에게 근대국가의 능력 있는 국민이 될 것을,촉구했다 그의 글을 읽지 않은 동시대인은 없을 정도로 그의 영향력은.막강한 것이었다 호적 주작인 고힐강 노신. ( ), ( ), ( ), (胡適 周作人 顧頡剛 魯

진독수 모택동 등이 모두 젊었을 때 양계초의 글을), ( ), ( )迅 陳獨秀 毛澤東읽고 신사상에 대한 기대를 품고 구국의 염원을 세울 수 있었다고 고백한다 중국뿐 아니라 신채호나 박은식 등 한국의 근대 지식인들 역시 양. ,계초의 글을 통해 진화론 국가 국민 등에 대해 눈뜨고 구국의 방법에, , ,대해 고심했다 서양언어에 능통하지 못했던 중국이나 한국의 지식인들은.양계초의 명쾌한 문체를 통해 서양근대문명을 섭취했으며 동서고금의 정,론에 정통했던 그의 논술은 신교육을 받은 청년들에게뿐 아니라 전통교,육을 받은 인사들에게도 설득력 있는 것으로 다가갈 수 있었다.

2 철학사상 별책 제 권 제7 5호

생애 해설1.2양계초 는 년 중국 광동 성 신회 현 의( ) 1873 ( ) ( )梁啓超 廣東省 新會縣남단에 있는 섬에서 태어났다 줄곧 농사를 짓던 집안이었으나 양계초의.조부 대에 비로소 수재 가 되었으며 아버지는 향신 이 되었( ) , ( )秀才 鄕紳다 양계초는 세에 할아버지와 어머니 슬하에서 사서 와 시경. 6 ( )四書

을 배웠으며 살 전에 오경을 독파했다 세에 수재 시험( ) 8 . 12 ( )詩經 秀才에 합격했고 세에는 거인 이 되었으니 신동이라 불릴 만큼 명민17 ( ) ,擧人한 소년이었다.양계초가 소년시절을 보낸 중국의 년대는 아편전쟁을 겪은1870~80 ,

뒤에 서양의 군사력을 인정하고 중국의 정치 골격을 유지하면서 서양의,군사기술을 배우자는 양무운동 이 전개되던 시기이다 양계초( ) .洋務運動역시 그 시기의 여느 중국 청년들처럼 어려서부터 사서오경을 읽으며 과거를 위한 공부를 했다 그러나 거인이 된 세의 양계초는 당시 광서제. 18

에게 변법 제도개혁에( ) ( : )光緖帝 變法 대한 상소를 올렸다는 강유위(康를 찾아가 그의 제자가 되었다 그때까지 훈고학과, 1858~1927) .有爲

사장학에 몰두했던 양계초에게 강유위는 지금까지 배운 모든 것을 청산하라고 호통 치며 양명학과 함께 개략적인 서양학문을 가르쳤다 양계초는, .비로소 생애 처음으로 세상에 학문이 있다는 것을 알게 되었다고 한다‘ ’ .강유위는 유가경전의 권위를 이용하여 제도개혁을 주장했다 그는 입.

헌군주제를 도입하는 것이 당시 중국을 구제할 길이라고 생각했다 그는.공자의 춘추 가 과거를 기록한 역사서 형식을 가장해서 실은 미( ) ,春秋 래의 제도개혁을 위해 쓴 책이라고 주장했다 강유위의 주장에 의하면. ,공자는 세상이 거란세 에서 승평세 로 진화하고 승평세에( ) ( )據亂世 升平世서 대동세 로 진화한다고 예언했으며 사람은 그 시대의 변화를( ) ,大同世알아채고 각각의 세상에 맞는 제도로 개혁해야 한다고 가르쳤다 그 삼.세설 에 의하면 거란세는 군주제의 시대이며 승평세는 입헌군주( ) ,三世說제 대동세는 민주제의 시대이다 강유위는 당시 중국을 승평세라고 판단, .했으며 따라서 중국은 군주제를 청산하고 입헌군주제를 채택해야 했다, .

3양계초 신민설

강유위는 이와 같은 골자의 주장을 북경에 회시를 보러 모인 거인들의,서명을 받아 광서제에게 상소로 올렸으며 결국 광서제가 강유위와 함께,도모한 개혁이 년의 무술변법운동 이다1898 ( ) .戊戌變法運動

년 청일전쟁에서의 중국의 패배는 양무운동의 파산을 선고하는 것1895이기도 했다 이제 중국은 새로운 자구책을 모색해야 했으며 그 시대적. ,임무를 떠안고 등장한 것이 강유위가 주도하는 변법파였다 양계초는 강.유위를 도와 변법운동의 중앙에 서서 년부터 변법을 추진하는 거, 1895인들의 모임인 강학회 의 서기가 되어 활동했으며 년에는( ) , 1896强學會

라는 잡지의 주필을 담당하면서 변법을 설명하고 선전하는 글時務報《 》인 변법통의 를 연재했다 그러나 년 광서제의 결단에( ) . 1898變法通議 의해 탄생한 변법정부는 서태후를 필두로 하는 보수파의 반격으로 100일 만에 무너졌다 강유위와 양계초는 일본으로의 망명길에 올랐지만 동.지였던 담사동 은 망명을 거부하고 중국 개혁을( , 1865~1898) “譚嗣同위해 피를 흘리는 자 나로 시작하리라 는 말을 남기고 기꺼이 수구파에, .”게 잡혀 죽임을 당했다.일본에 망명한 양계초는 일본에 도착하자마자 청의보《 》 를 창( )淸議報간하여 왕성한 계몽활동을 전개했다 년의 시무보. 1896 《 》부터 년, 1898의 청의보《 》 년에 창간해서 년까지 계속된 신민총보, 1902 1907 《 》(新民

시절이 중국인에 대한 양계초의 영향력이 가장 극대화된 시기였을) ,叢報것이다 그 잡지들을 통해 양계초의 입을 통해 헌법 정당 화폐제도. , , , , ,학교제도 인재선발제도 등의 근대적 정치제도를 비롯해 데카르트 루, , ,소 칸트 등의 근대 철학자까지 이른바 모든 신사상이 중국에 전해졌다, , .새로운 중국을 건설할 중국의 소년과 청년들 즉 호적 주작인, ( ),胡適 (周

고힐강 노신 진독수 모택동), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( )作人 顧頡剛 魯迅 陳獨秀 毛澤東등이 모두 양계초의 글을 읽고 구국의 꿈을 키우고 신사상에 대한 기대를가질 수 있었다고 한다.서구유럽이 이삼백 년 동안 성취한 다방면의 근대 그것을 일본은 왕,성한 번역작업과 위로부터의 정치적 개혁을 통해 이삼십 년 안에 소화하여 일본식 근대를 선보였다 일본에 망명한 양계초는 식지 않는 구국열.

4 철학사상 별책 제 권 제7 5호

과 타고난 영민함 타의 추종을 불허하는 순발력으로 몇 년 안에 광범위,한 사상들을 편력하며 그것을 중국인들에게 전달했다 그의 정치적 입장.은 그 자신의 표현에 의하면 국체 문제에서는 현상을 유지하면서“ ( )國體정체 방면에서 이상의 실현을 추구한다 는 것이었다 현존의 국체( ) .” .政體를 유지한다는 것은 혁명은 자신의 사업이 아니라는 것이며 정체 방면,에서 이상의 실현을 추구한다는 것은 이상은 공화제로 두더라도 반드시,그 상태에서 공화정을 추구하겠다는 것은 아니다 무술변법시기의 그의.정치적 주장은 스승 강유위와 공유하는 것으로서 입헌군주제의 수립이었다 일본에 망명 후 신민설 을 통해 전개된 그의 입장은 공화제에 가까. 운 것이었다 실제로 민주공화제의 수립을 추구하는 혁명파와 접근했던.시절도 있었으나 곧 그는 다시 입헌군주제의 입장으로 돌아왔다 그리고.거기에서 한발 더 후퇴해 중국인들이 공화국의 국민이 될 수 있는 자질을 갖출 때까지 개명된 군주에 의한 전제를 채택하자고까지 주장했다.역시 일본에 근거지를 두고 중국동맹회 를 발족시킨 혁명( )中國同盟會파와 대결할 시기 즉 년을 전후해서 양계초의 계몽가로서의 주도, 1905권은 혁명파에게 넘겨주었다고 할 수 있다 양계초는 개명군주제를 주장.하는 보수로 전락했으며 실제로 중국은 신해혁명을 거쳐 민주공화국을,건설하기 때문이다 그러나 모든 국체를 인정하겠다는 양계초는 중화민.국의 정부에 가담했다 그는 차례로 원세개 정부 년와 단. ( ) (1913 )袁世凱기서 정부 년에 입각했지만 원세개와 단기서 모두 공화( ) (1917 ) ,段棋瑞국의 정착이 아니라 개인의 영달을 꿈꾸는 봉건 군벌이었다 군벌들의.난립과 권력투쟁이 전개되는 난장판 속에서 정치적 활동의 전망을 상실한 양계초는 년 정치계에서 완전히 은퇴했다 그 직후 일 년 동안1917 .의 유럽여행을 경험한 뒤 년 신장병으로 죽을 때까지 오로지 학술, 1929사업에 몰두했다.세계제일차대전 뒤에 폐허가 된 유럽을 방문한 경험은 양계초의 후기,

학술작업의 성격을 결정하는데 가장 중요한 요소였다 세계제일차대전의.참화와 국가주의의 대표주자 독일의 패배는 양계초로 하여금 동양과 서,양을 정신문명과 물질문명으로 양분하게 했으며 동양의 정신을 앞으로의,

5양계초 신민설

세계를 지도해 갈 세계정신으로서 전면에 내세우게 했다 미국에서 실용.주의를 공부하고 돌아와 중국의 과거 학술에 대해서도 비반성적인 존경,과 추종은 접어두고 과학적으로 접근해야 한다고 주장하는 젊은 호적(胡의 중국철학사대강 과 대결하면서 양계초) ( ) (1919),適 中國哲學史大綱

는 유가가 정신적 지도자의 역할을 하는 미래를 꿈꾸며 선진정치철학사 를 완성했다( ) .(1923)先秦政治哲學史

그러나 세계는 그리고 중국은 그가 예견한 대로 유가가 지도하는 정, ‘신적인 방향으로 흐르지 않았다 특히 중국에서는 호적을 능가하는 더욱’ .물질적인 마르크스주의가 점점 중국을 매료시키고 있었다 중국공산당의‘ ’ .성립 년(1921 ) 군벌타도를 공동목표로 한 국민당과 공산당의 연합, (1924

손문의 후임 장개석의 공산당 배신 년 모택동의 홍군~1927), (1927 ),창설 년 등 그의 말년에 그가 눈에 본 것은 그 어느 때보( ) (1928 ) ,紅軍

다도 앞날을 짐작할 수 없는 혼돈이었다.

생애 연보1.3년 세1873 ( 1 ): 월 일 중국 광동 성 신회 현 에서1 26 , ( ) ( )廣東省 新會縣

출생.년 세 조부와 부모 밑에서 사서오경 중국역사 등을 수학1877 ( 5 ): , .년 세1884 (12 ): 수재 시험에 합격 박사제자원 이 됨( ) , ( ) .秀才 博士弟子員년 세 광주 에 있는 학해당 에 들어가 경학1888 (16 ): ( ) ( ) ,廣州 學海堂 ･

훈고학 사장학 등을 수학.･년 세 거인 시험에 합격1889 (17 ): ( ) .擧人년 세 강유위 의 문하에 들어감 강유위에게서 육왕1890 (18 ): ( ) .康有爲

심학 경세치용의 공양학 국제정세 구국에 대한 강, , ,론을 듣고 감동 영환지략 이라는 세계. ( )瀛環志略『 』지리책과 서학 에 관한 번역서를 읽음( ) .西學

6 철학사상 별책 제 권 제7 5호

년 세 거인 시험 당시 주임시험관이었던 이단분 의1991 (19 ): ( )李端棻누이동생 혜선 과 결혼( ) .惠仙

년 세 강유위가 각 성의 거인 천여 명을 규합하여 창1895 (23 ): ( )擧人립한 강학회 의 서기가 됨( ) .强學會

년 세 상해에서1896 (24 ): 時務報《 》의 주필을 담당하면서 변법통의『 』연재( ) .變法通議

년 세 호남 순무인 진보잠 의 초청으로 시무학당1897 (25 ): ( ) (陳寶箴 時에서 변법에 대해 강의 황준헌 담) . ( ),務學堂 黃遵憲

사동 웅희령 피석서 등과( ), ( ), ( )譚嗣同 熊希齡 皮錫瑞보위국 을 설립하고 남학회 를 조직( ) ( ) .保衛局 南學會

년 세 강유위와 함께 무술 변법운동을 주도 일 만1898 (26 ): ( ) . 100戊戌에 실패하고 일본으로 망명 곧바로 요코하마. ( )橫濱에서 청의보《 》 를 발간( ) .淸議報

년 세 신민총보1902 (30 ):《 》 창간 신민설 연재( ) . ( ) .新民叢報 新民說『 』년 세 미국여행 후 신대륙유기 발표1903 (31 ): ( ) .新大陸遊記『 』년 세 개명전제론 발표1906 (34 ): ( ) .開明專制論『 』년 세 신민총보 정간1907 (35 ): .《 》년 세 국풍보 창간1910 (38 ): ( ) .國風報《 》년 세 망명 년 만에 중화민국으로 귀국 공화당의1912 (40 ): 14 ‘ ’ .

영수가 됨 천진에서 용언보. 《 》 창간( ) .庸言報년 세 공화 민주 통일당을 통합하여 진보당 을1913 (41 ): , , ( )進步黨

조직 원세개 와 결탁 사법총장 에. ( ) , ( )袁世凱 司法總長취임.

년 세 원세개가 주안회 를 조직하고 황제가 되려고1915 (43 ): ( )籌安會하자 이에 반대선언을 함.

년 세 원세개를 비판하는 각종 문건을 모아 순비집1916 (44 ): (盾『 』간행) .鼻集

년 세 단기서1917 (45 ): ( )段祺瑞정부에 입각 재정총장 에, ( )財政總長취임 개월 후 정계에서 은퇴 이후 문화사업에 전념. 4 . .

7양계초 신민설

년 세 정부원조로 유럽여행1918 (46 ): .년 세 유럽여행기인 구유심영록 발표1919 (47 ): ( ) .歐遊心影錄『 』년 세 청대학술개론 출간1920 (48 ): ( ) .淸代學術槪論『 』년 세 선진정치사상사 출간1923 (51 ): ( ) .先秦政治思想史『 』년 세 월 일 북경의 병원에서 신장병으로 사망1929 (57 ): 1 19 , .

저작1.4

신민설1.4.1한국어 표준본 :영어 표준본 :원어 표준본 편 가운데: ( ,新民說 林志鈞 飮冰室合集 專集『 』 『 』 『 』

제 책에 수록3 )

변법통의1.4.2한국어 표준본 :영어 표준본 :원어 표준본 편 가운데: ( ) ,變法通議 林志鈞 飮冰室合集 文『 』 『 』 『

제 책에 수록1 )集』

8 철학사상 별책 제 권 제7 5호

신민설 해제2.

신민설 요약2.1 신민설 은 년 월에서 년 월에 걸쳐 반월간잡지인 신민1902 2 1906 1 《

총보》에 연재되었던 글이다 지은이 양계초는 년의 무술변법운동에. 1898실패하고 일본에 망명해 있는 상태였다 그는 동시대의 여느 지식인들과.마찬가지로 사회진화론을 개혁이론으로 받아들였고 민족주의와 제국주,의는 진화의 필연적 결과라고 생각했다 경쟁은 진화의 동력이며 민족국. ,가는 경쟁주체가 진화할 수 있는 최고의 단계였다 그리하여 중국의 과.제는 민족국가를 건설하는 것이었다 망명정치가로서 양계초가 실제로.할 수 있었던 일은 근대적 민족국가를 이룩할 국민이 되라고 중국인 개개인들에게 호소하는 일이었다 자유와 평등으로 상징되는 근대적 시민.의 이념과 강자의 권리로 표상되는 제국주의적 힘의 원리 양계초의 머, ,리에서 이 둘은 구분되지 않고 강자가 갖추고 있는 우성 으로 파악( )優性되었다 그에게 도덕적 원리와 힘의 원리는 구분되지 않고 문명 진화라. ,는 이름으로 불렸다 중국은 문명국가가 되기 위해 그리고 살아남기 위. ,해 유럽의 근대국가처럼 자유와 평등 강자의 권리 민족제국주의의 팽, , ,창력 그 모든 것들을 갖춰야만 했다, .문명화를 위한 계몽 근대국가의 국민 창출을 위한 계몽 그것이 신민, , 설 을 통해 양계초가 도모했던 일이다 신민설 은 근대적 민족국가의. 국민을 창출하기 위한 프로젝트이다 양계초는 자유 권리 의무 자치에서. ･ ･ ･경제 상무에 이르기까지 민족국가를 성립시키기 위해 필요한 모든 것들･을 공덕 이라는 이름의 개인의 덕 으로서 요구했다 공덕은, ‘ ’( ) ‘ ’( ) .公德 德사회를 이롭게 하는 것을 선 으로 규정하는 가치체계로서 공덕을 내면“ ” ,화하게 되면 중국인들은 자율적으로 민족국가의 이익에 봉사하는 도덕적인 인간이 될 것이었다 나아가 양계초는 모든 이기심을 배제한 순수한.양심이라는 사덕 을 공덕의 기반으로서 요청한다 이리하여 공덕‘ ’( ) .私德의 임무 즉 근대국가 건설을 위한 모든 노력은 개인의 이기심을 배제한, ,

9양계초 신민설

순수한 양심에서 우러나오는 도덕적 행위라고 주장된다 옛날의 유학자.들이 가정의 평화 나라의 평화 세계의 평화를 위해 수신하라고 요구했, ,듯이 양계초는 강력한 근대국가를 성립시킬 자격 있는 국민이 되기 위,해 수신하여 공덕과 사덕을 갖추라고 요구했다.

신민설 해설2.2 신민설 은 양계초가 일본의 요코하마 에서 발행한 반월간 잡지( )橫濱 신민총보《 》 에 년 월 창간호부터 년 월까지 연( ) , 1902 2 1906 1新民叢報재했던 글을 묶은 것이다 전체 절로 구성되었다. 20 .

년 양계초는 무술변법운동에 실패하고 일본에 망명했으며 일본1898 ,에 도착하자마자 곧바로 당시 일본을 풍미하고 있던 국가주의에 경도되었다 그 전까지 강유위의 영향 하에서 실질적으로는 제도개혁을 주장하. ,며 경쟁주체로서의 강력한 중국을 만드는 일에 종사하면서도 이념적으로는 대동을 이상으로 두는 세계주의 사이에서 흔들리던 입장을 정리하고,세계주의를 부정하고 자각적으로 국가주의 노선을 선택하게 된 것이다.양계초는 당시의 제국주의적 팽창을 민족국가 사이의 경쟁의 결과라고이해했다 양계초가 이해하기에 민족주의와 제국주의는 진화의 필연적. ,결과이고 민족국가는 그 경쟁의 가장 바람직한 주체였다 경쟁은 진화의.동력이며 민족국가는 경쟁주체가 진화할 수 있는 최고의 단계였다 그러, .므로 중국의 과제는 민족주의를 채택하여 민족국가를 성립시키는 것이었다 문화공동체였던 민족이 주권을 가진 정치공동체로 거듭나는 것만이.민족국가 간의 경쟁에 참여하는 길이었고 거기에서 승자가 되어 살아남을 수 있는 유일한 길이었다.신민설 은 중국의 근대적 민족국가의 건설을 목적으로 한 정치사상서

이다 양계초는 신민설 을 통해 강한 중국 근대적 민족국가를 이룩할. , 초석을 놓고자 했다 민족국가는 진화와 문명의 표상이었다 자유와 평등. .

10 철학사상 별책 제 권 제7 5호

으로 상징되는 근대적 시민의 이념과 강자의 권리로 표상되는 제국주의,적 힘의 원리 양계초의 머리에서 이 둘은 구분되지 않고 강자가 갖추고,있는 우성 으로 파악되었다 강자는 문명과 진화의 상징이었다 그( ) . .優性에게 도덕적 원리와 힘의 원리는 구분되지 않고 문명 진화라는 이름으,로 불렸다 중국은 문명국가가 되기 위해 그리고 살아남기 위해 유럽의. , ,근대국가처럼 자유와 평등 강자의 권리 민족제국주의의 팽창력 그 모, , ,든 것들을 갖춰야만 했다.그러나 실제로 망명 정치가의 처지에 있던 양계초가 할 수 있는 일은, ,

그 근대적 민족국가를 이룩할 국민이 되자고 중국인들에게 호소하는 일이었다 즉 그가 했던 일은 근대중국을 건설할 근대적 국민을 창출하는.것이었다 양계초는 중국인들이 근대 국가의 국민으로서 갖춰야 할 자질.을 민지 민덕 민력 즉 지 덕 체로 정리했다 신민( ) ( ) ( ), .民智 民德 民力･ ･ ･ ･ 설 은 그 가운데 특히 민덕 부분을 다룬 글이다 스스로 법에 복종하고.국가에 봉사하는 자율적이고 자유로운 근대국가의 국민 그 국민의 창출,을 위해 양계초는 근대국가의 국민으로 갖춰야 할 자격 근대국가를 이,룩할 수 있는 조건으로서 근대적 도덕들을 나열했다 그 근대적 도덕은‘ ’ .공덕 이라는 이름으로 불렸으며 공덕은 과거의 구도덕과는 질적으( ) ,公德로 다른 것이었다 그러나 권리 의무 자유 자치 경제 등 공덕의 이. , , , , ,름으로 요구되었던 것은 사�