Encycl AmFor Pol Chronology

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1607 On 24 May, 105 English settlers establish avillage at Jamestown, Virginia, Englandsfirst permanent American settlement.

1689 King Williams War (War of the League ofAugsburg) begins 12 May and inaugurates aseries of hostile engagements between Eng-land and France. The war ends on 20 Sep-tember 1697.

1702 Queen Annes War (War of the Spanish Suc-cession) begins on 4 May and ends 11 April1713.

1739 After twenty-six years of peace, British con-flict begins again, with Spain in the War ofJenkins Ear on 19 October, and enlarged

when France joins Spain in King GeorgesWar, which ends on 11 October 1748.

1754 The French and Indian War (Seven YearsWar) begins in the Ohio River Valley whenBritish and colonial troops fight Frenchforces and their Indian allies, beginning on17 April. The war spreads to Europe on 15May 1756. The Albany Congress meets 19June to 10 July, at which BenjaminFranklins Plan of Union is rejected.

1763 British hegemony in North America is con-

firmed in the Treaty of Paris (10 February),which ends the French and Indian War.

1764 The Sugar Act (5 April) passes Parliament,the first parliamentary law designed specifi-cally to raise money in the colonies.

1765 The Stamp Act Congress convenes (7 Octo-ber) in an effort to unite the Americancolonies in protesting the Stamp Act(passed by Parliament on 22 March), thefirst direct tax levied by Parliament on theAmerican colonies.

1767 The Townshend Acts are passed by Parlia-ment requiring import duties on tea, oil,glass, lead, and paper.

1773 The Boston Tea Party on 16 Decemberprotests the Tea Act, which Parliament hadapproved on 10 May.

1774 On 31 March, Parliament passes the first ofthe Coercive Acts (called Intolerable Acts bycolonial radicals).The First ContinentalCongress convenes in Philadelphia on 5September, providing a forum for all of theAmerican colonies to protest jointly Britishpolicy.

1775 The American Revolution begins on 19April, when shots are exchanged betweenBritish troops and colonial militia at Lexing-ton and Concord, Massachusetts. The Sec-

ond Continental Congress convenes on 10May in Philadelphia and forwards the OliveBranch Petition to the king (5 July) to seekcompromise. On 23 August, King George IIIproclaims the colonists are in rebellion. TheContinental Congress on 19 Septemberappoints a secret committee to buy foreignarms and ammunition. Congress creates (29November) the Committee of Secret Corre-spondence to Conduct Foreign Relations,which sends agents to Europe to seek loans,alliances, and the purchase of military sup-

plies. On 23 December a royal proclamationcloses the American colonies to all foreigncommerce.

1776 Thomas Paines Common Sense is publishedon 10 January. Paines proposal that Americashould pursue peaceful commerce with allnations while making political alliances withnone becomes the essence of American polit-ical isolationism for over a century. On 3March, Silas Deane is sent to France to seekaid for the American cause. Congress on 6

April opens American seaports to all nationsbut Britain. Louis XVI of France on 2 Mayprovides for one million livres to secretly

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supply the American army. On 4 July, Con-gress approves the Declaration of Indepen-dence. The Model Treaty of 1776 (Plan of1776) is approved; on 26 September a diplo-matic commission to France is appointed.

1777 On 17 April the Committee of Secret Corre-spondence is reconstituted as the Commit-tee for Foreign Affairs. The Articles ofConfederation are adopted by Congress on15 November.

1778 The Franco-American Treaty of Allianceand the Treaty of Amity and Commerce aresigned on 6 February.

1779 Spain declares war on England but refuses

to recognize American independence or tojoin the Franco-American alliance.

1780 Catherine II of Russia on 28 February pro-claims the League of Armed Neutrality.Indirectly the league helps America by plac-ing most of Europe against Great Britain.On 5 October, Congress approves the prin-ciples of the league.

1781 On 1 March the Articles of Confederationare ratified, granting Congress the power tomake decisions about peace and war and to

conduct foreign relations. The British defeatat the Battle of Yorktown on 20 August leadsthe British government to seek peace. On 20October, Robert R. Livingston is appointedthe first secretary for foreign affairs.

1782 English-American peace talks begin infor-mally on 12 April in Paris between BenjaminFranklin and Richard Oswald. On 23 June,John Jay joins Franklins discussions. JohnAdams signs a Treaty of Friendship andCommerce with the Netherlands on 8 Octo-

ber and on 26 October joins Jay andFranklin in Paris to finalize a peace treatywith the British. A preliminary peace agree-ment with Britain is signed on 30 November.

1783 On 20 January, Great Britain concludespeace terms with France, Spain, and theUnited States. The Definitive Treaty of Parisis formally signed on 3 September.

1784 The first U.S. merchant ship, the Empress ofChina, sails to China from New York on 22February. Based on the Model Treaty of

1776, on 7 May Congress approves newguidelines for commercial treaties withother nations. On 26 June, Spain closes the

Mississippi River to American navigation.On 21 September, John Jay becomes secre-tary for foreign affairs.

1785 On 24 February, John Adams is appointedminister to Great Britain. Thomas Jeffersonreplaces Franklin as minister to France on10 March. On 20 July, Congress authorizesJays discussions with Don Diego de Gardo-qui to resolve disputes with Spain regardingthe southwest boundary and navigation ofthe Mississippi River. On 10 September,Prussia and the United States sign a com-mercial treaty.

1786 Samuel Shaw is informed on 30 January that

he is to be the first U.S. consul at Canton.On 17 July, Congress approves a treaty withMorocco, under which vessels of eachnation would be protected from seizure bypasses of safe conduct and commerce wouldbe based on most-favored-nation principles.On 29 August the Jay-Gardoqui negotia-tions end when Congress does not yield onthe Mississippi navigation issue.

1787 On 25 May the Constitutional Conventionconvenes at Philadelphia, and on 17 Sep-tember the Constitution is approved. On 27October the first of the Federalist Papers topromote ratification of the Constitution ispublished.

1789 George Washington is inaugurated the firstpresident of the United States on 30 April.The Department of Foreign Affairs isrenamed the Department of State on 15 Sep-tember. Thomas Jefferson is appointed sec-retary of state on 26 September and takesoffice on 22 March 1790.

1791 On 9 November, George Hammond, the firstBritish minister to the United States, presentshis credentials to Secretary of State Jeffer-son, just after Thomas Pinckney is nomi-nated as U.S. minister to England.

1792 Gouverneur Morris is appointed minister toFrance and received at the French court on3 June.

1793 Following the arrival on 8 April of EdmondGenet, the new French minister to theUnited States, the U.S. cabinet members

agree unanimously that neutrality inFrances disputes with other Europeannations should be maintained. On 19 April,

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President Washington prepares the Procla-mation of Neutrality, issued on 22 April,which asserts that the United States is atpeace with all nations. On 31 December, Jef-ferson resigns as secretary of state.

1794 On 2 January, Edmund Randolph becomessecretary of state. Legislation passed on 26March calls for a thirty-day embargo ofBritish ships, extended on 25 April foranother month. On 19 April the Senateconfirms John Jays appointment as a spe-cial envoy to London to negotiate disputesabout trade and the Northwest posts. Con-gress approves the Neutrality Act on 5June, prohibiting the recruitment of sol-

diers or sailors within the U.S. territory bya belligerent agent. James Monroe isappointed the new minister to France on 10June. On 19 November, Jays Treatybetween the United States and Great Britainis signed. The treaty causes controversy inAmerica because it does not gain U.S. prin-ciples of neutral rights.

1795 The U.S. Senate ratifies Jays Treaty on 24June. On 19 August, Edmund Randolphresigns as secretary of state, and Timothy

Pickering is appointed to the office. On 27October, Spain and the United States signthe Treaty of San Lorenzo (or PinckneysTreaty). Spain acknowledges that bothSpanish and American citizens should havethe free navigation of the Mississippi River.

1796 On 2 March the Senate ratifies a treaty withAlgeria to protect U.S. commerce. On 2 Julya French decree announces France will nolonger treat American ships as neutral, com-plaining that the United States renounced

its neutral rights in the Jay Treaty. On 19September, President Washington issues hisFarewell Address, urging the nation to keepfree of subservience to any foreign power.On 7 December the presidential election iswon by John Adams; Thomas Jeffersonbecomes vice president.

1797 On 31 May President Adams appoints a spe-cial commission (Charles C. Pinckney, JohnMarshall, and Elbridge Gerry) to France toseek a treaty of amity and commerce.

1798 On 3 April President Adams releases copiesof dispatches from Pinckney, Marshall, andGerry to Congress, revealing that French

agents suggested that an American loan andbribe would permit official talks to begin.Believing any war with France wouldinvolve naval engagements, Adams on 27April signs a law creating the Department ofthe Navy; Congress authorizes the construc-tion of twelve ships. On 7 July the treatieswith France are abrogated and the unde-clared Quasi-War begins.

1800 As first consul Napoleon on 7 Marchreceives the American peace commissionersin a formal audience. On 30 September thefinal signing of the Convention of Mort-fontaine (Convention of 1800) restoresfriendly relations between France and the

United States.

1801 Because of an electoral tie the House ofRepresentatives selects Thomas Jefferson on17 February as president of the UnitedStates. On 5 March, James Madisonbecomes secretary of state, remaining inoffice throughout Jeffersons eight years aspresident. On 14 May the pasha of Tripolideclares war on the United States.

1802 Spain, on 16 October, announces suspensionof Americas right of deposit at New Orleans,contravening Pinckneys Treaty of 1795.

1803 On 30 April, France cedes the LouisianaTerritory to the United States, which takespossession on 20 December.

1805 The Essex decision by the British Admiraltyon 22 May destroys the principle of brokenvoyage, causing a rapid increase of U.S. ship-ping losses and renewed friction betweenEngland and America. On 10 June peace isestablished with Tripoli, and on 30 August a

new treaty is made with the bey of Tunis.1806 Napoleon establishes his continental system

with proclamation of the Berlin Decree on21 November, a (paper) blockade of GreatBritain that closes all continental trade withthe British. On 31 December, James Monroeand William Pinckney sign a treaty withGreat Britain on neutral rights. PresidentJefferson and Secretary of State James Madi-son immediately reject it.

1807 On 2 July, President Jefferson orders all ports

closed to British ships, and on 22 Decembersigns the Embargo Act of 1807, prohibitingU.S. ships from leaving for foreign ports.

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1808James Madison is elected president on 7December.

1809 On 1 March Jefferson signs the Noninter-

course Act, which ends the embargo on 4March but still forbids trade with Englandand France. After negotiations betweenBritains minister and Secretary of StateRobert Smith, on 19 April President Madi-son proclaims the renewal of trade withGreat Britain. British foreign ministerGeorge Canning disavows the ErskineAgreement on 30 May, and on 9 AugustMadison revives the Nonintercourse Act.

1810 Congress on 1 May passes Macons Bill No.

2, designed to coerce England and Franceinto ending their restrictions on neutraltrade. On 27 October, West Florida, terri-tory disputed with Spain, is annexed to theUnited States.

1811James Monroe becomes secretary of state on6 April, serving until March 1817.

1812 On 1 June President Madison asks for a dec-laration of war on Great Britain, and Con-gress does so on 18 June. On 23 June, awarethe United States has declared war, British

prime minister Castelreagh announcesrepeal of British restrictions on the trade ofneutral nations.

1813 On 7 December, Congress embargoes alltrade with the enemy, and on 30 December,Castlereaghs offer for direct peace negotia-tions is accepted by President Madison.

1814 Peace talks began at Ghent, Belgium, on 8August. On 2425 August the British cap-ture and burn Washington, D.C., then with-draw. The Hartford Convention meets in

secret sessions on 15 December to protestdissent against the War of 1812. The PeaceTreaty of Ghent is signed on 24 December;the treaty basically restores the status quoante bellum.

1815 On 2 March Congress declares war on Alge-ria, which accepts peace terms on 30 June,ending the Barbary Wars.

1816James Monroe is elected to the first of twoterms as president.

1817 In March, John Quincy Adams is appointedsecretary of state, serving throughout Mon-roes presidency, until 3 March 1825. The

Rush-Bagot Agreement of 2829 April pro-vides for the demilitarization of the GreatLakes.

1818 The Neutrality Act of 1818 codifies existingneutrality laws and favors the independencemovement in Latin America. The Conven-tion of 1818 with Great Britain resolvesissues on the Northeast fisheries, deportedslaves, the Northwest boundaries, andtransatlantic commerce.

1819 The Adams-Onis (Transcontinental) Treatyis signed on 22 February and resolvesboundary disputes that had embroiled Spainand America in quarrels since 1803.

1822 Starting with Colombia on 19 June, PresidentMonroe begins recognition of the Latin Amer-ican republics and Congress appropriates$100,000 to establish diplomatic missions.

1823 On 2 December, President Monroe enunci-ates the Monroe Doctrine in his State of theUnion message.

1825 In March, Henry Clay becomes secretary ofstate, serving until the end of John QuincyAdamss presidency in 1829.

1828 On 12 January a treaty is signed with Mex-ico recognizing the Sabine River as theU.S.Mexico boundary. Congress approvesthe Tariff of Abominations on 19 May. On3 December, Andrew Jackson is electedpresident.

1829 On 6 March, Martin Van Buren is appointedsecretary of state.

1831 On 7 December, President Jackson and theSenate reject an arbitrated decision on theNortheast boundary.

1832 A commercial treaty is signed with Russiaon 18 December.

1835 On 6 November, U.S.French relations aresevered, caused by internal politics inWashington and Paris and spoliationclaims.

1836 France agrees on 5 February to pay the U.S.spoliation claims. The Alamo in Texas falls toMexican forces on 6 March, but after victoryat the Battle of San Jacinto on 21 April, Tex-ans proclaim their independence.

1837 On 29 December the Caroline incident, pro-viding military supplies to Canadian rebels,

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causes antagonism between Americans andCanadians.

1839 Spain demands the release of the ship Amis-

tad on 6 September and the return of itscargo of slave mutineers to Cuba; the casewould not be resolved until 9 March 1841.

1842 The Webster-Ashburton Treaty is signed on9 August, settling the Northeast BoundaryDispute. On 29 August federal courts aregiven jurisdiction over illegal acts commit-ted under orders of a foreign government.In a message to Congress on 30 December,President Tyler implies a Monroe Doc-trine for Hawaii.

1843 On 30 September the State Departmentlearns that China will grant the UnitedStates most-favored-nation status.

1844 On 12 April Secretary of State Calhounsigns a treaty to annex Texas to the union,but on 8 June the Senate rejects the treaty.On 3 July the Treaty of Wanghia is signedwith China, giving the United States tradingrights equal to those of Britain. James K.Polk is elected president on 4 December.

1845 On 1 March, Texas is annexed to the United

States by a joint resolution of Congress.James Buchanan is appointed secretary ofstate on 6 March, serving throughout Polkspresidency. On 2 July the British reject Polksoffer to settle the Oregon boundary dispute.John Slidell is sent on a mission to Mexico on10 November to settle Mexican-Americandisputes and purchase territory to the PacificOcean. President Polk on 2 December asksCongress to annex the Oregon territory andkeep Britain out of California. Newspapereditor John OSullivan coins the term mani-

fest destiny in an editorial on 27 December.

1846 On 26 February, President Polk indicates awillingness to settle the Oregon boundaryquestion with England at the forty-ninthparallel. The Mexican War begins on 25April with a clash of U.S. and Mexicanforces on disputed territory. President Polkasks Congress for and gets a declaration ofwar on 13 May. Great Britain and the UnitedStates sign a treaty to settle the Oregonboundary on 15 June. On 12 December the

United States and New Granada (Colombia)sign the Treaty of New Granada, givingAmerica the right of way across Panama.

1847 On 13 January the Treaty of Cahuenga endsfighting in California and Mexican forcessurrender. The independent Republic ofLiberia is established on 27 July.

1848 The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signedon 2 February ending the Mexican War.

1850 On 19 April the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty pro-vides an Anglo-American agreement on aCentral American canal.

1851 Americans greet Hungarian patriot andexiled leader Lajos Kossuth on 5 December.

1853 The Convention of 1853 with Britain,signed 8 February, settles all outstanding

claims. William Learned Marcy is appointedsecretary of state on 7 March. The GadsdenTreaty between Mexico and the UnitedStates is signed on 30 December, adjustingthe southern boundary of the United States,which acquires nearly 30,000 square milesof new territory.

1854 On 31 March, Commodore Matthew Perryand Japanese officials sign the Treaty ofKanagawa, opening Japanese ports andgranting most-favored-nation status. TheMarcy-Elgin Treaty with Britain is signed on5 June, resolving Anglo-American reciproc-ity and fishing rights. The Ostend Manifestoof 18 October, drawn up by U.S. ministers toSpain, France, and Great Britain, favors U.S.purchase or annexation of Cuba from Spain.

1855 On 1 March an act of Congress for the firsttime provides for diplomatic ranks and pre-scribes duties of American consular offices.William Walker, an American adventurer,conquers Grenada on 15 October and takescontrol of Nicaraguan government.

1856 A U.S. court ruling is accepted on 13 Febru-ary giving a consular treaty precedence overthe U.S. Constitution.

1857 On 1 May, William Walkers regime inNicaragua is overthrown at the hands of acoalition Central American army assistedby Great Britain. Walker is executed on 12September 1860, ending his filibusteringadventures.

1858 The Treaty of Tientsin is signed on 18 June

with China, one of the open doortreaties. A commercial treaty is signed withJapan on 29 July, a model treaty that will

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regulate relations with Japan for more thanforty years.

1859 On 7 April the United States recognizes the

liberal, constitutional Mexican governmentof Benito Juarez.

1860 On 6 November, Abraham Lincoln iselected president.

1861 The Morrill Act approved on 2 March levieshigh tariffs to protect American manufac-turing. On 5 March, William Henry Sewardbecomes Lincolns secretary of state, and on1 April he proposes a foreign war panaceato stimulate national unity and avoid civilwar. Fort Sumter in South Carolina falls to

Confederate forces on 13 April and theAmerican Civil War begins. On 19 April,President Lincoln proclaims a blockade ofthe South, forbidding trade with theseceded states. The United States on 21 Mayinsists that Great Britains neutralityrequires it to stop all intercourse withdomestic enemies of the United States. On17 December, Veracruz, Mexico, is occupiedby French, British, and Spanish forces.

1862 The Confederate warship Alabama leaves

England on 31 July, the ship built despiteGreat Britains claimed neutrality in theAmerican Civil War. President Lincoln on23 September issues the preliminary Eman-cipation Proclamation as a means of pre-venting foreign recognition of theConfederate government.

1863 President Lincoln issues the EmancipationProclamation on 1 January, formally liberat-ing all slaves in areas still in rebellion, win-ning wide public support in England and

France. On 7 June, French troops occupyMexico City to establish a monarchical gov-ernment. On 24 September two Russian war-ships arrive in New York, but Americansincorrectly believe the Russian ships are thereto support the United States against Britishand French intervention in the Civil War.

1864 Confederate agents violate the neutrality ofthe U.S.Canadian border on 19 October byan attack on St. Albans, Vermont. Lincoln isreelected president on 8 November.

1865 The Confederate Army surrenders on 9April. On 14 April, President Lincoln isassassinated.

1866 On 17 March the United States terminatesthe reciprocity Marcy-Elgin Treaty of 1854with Canada. Americans learn on 5 Aprilfrom Paris newspapers that Napoleon II willwithdraw French troops from Mexico. TheIrish Fenian Brotherhood unsuccessfullyattacks Canada from the United States, acampaign for Irish independence fromGreat Britain. The transatlantic cable goesinto operation on 27 July.

1867 On 12 March the last French troops with-draw from Mexico. Russia sells Alaska tothe United States on 30 March.

1868 The Burlingame Treaty with China is signed

on 28 July, recognizing the right of unre-stricted immigration of Chinese.

1869 On 13 April the Senate rejects the Claren-don-Johnson Treaty to settle indemnityclaims with Great Britain.

1871 On 8 May the Treaty of Washington createsan arbitration tribunal to settle the Alabamaclaims with Britain; the tribunals report isissued on 14 September 1872 and accepted.

1873 On 29 November, Spain agrees to indemnifythe United States for the Virginius incidentin Cuba, when on 7 and 8 November fifty-three crew members and passengers wereexecuted by Cuban officials.

1875 A reciprocity treaty is signed on 30 Januarywith Hawaii, giving the United States a vir-tual protectorship over the islands.

1878 A U.S.Samoan treaty is signed on 17 Janu-ary, providing for an American naval andcoaling station at Pago Pago. On 23 Marchthe Diaz regime in Mexico is recognized.

1880 The Treaty of 1880 with China, signed 17November, permits restriction of Chineseimmigration.

1881 President James Garfield is assassinated on2 July.

1882 A congressional act of 6 May suspends Chi-nese laborers from immigration for tenyears. On 22 May a commercial treaty issigned with Korea.

1883 Passage on 3 March of the Tariff of 1883

retains U.S. protectionist principles; thesame day Congress authorizes the buildingof a modern steel navy.

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1884 On 6 December the United States secures anaval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

1885 The United States participates in the Berlin

Conference on the Congo, which adjournson 26 February and gains U.S. commercialprivileges in the region.

1887 The fur seal controversy begins on 9 Janu-ary when the British protest seizure ofCanadian pelagic sealing ships. Congresson 3 March empowers the president to barCanadian ships, fish, and other productsfrom U.S. ports.

1888 On 15 February the Bayard-ChamberlainTreaty on fishing rights with Great Britain

is signed. A treaty with China on 12 Marchexcludes Chinese laborers from immigra-tion for twenty years. On 10 May a Pan-American conference is authorized byCongress.

1889 On 14 June the General Act of Berlin issigned, forming a German-British-U.S. pro-tectorate over Samoa. The first Pan-Ameri-can Conference is held in Washington on 2October.

1891 On 15 June, Britain signs a modus vivendion the Bering fur sealing dispute. Seamenfrom the USS Baltimore are attacked by amob in Chile on 16 October; Chile makesreparations on 25 January 1892 and talk ofwar ends.

1893 On 30 March, Thomas F. Bayard becomesthe first American to hold the rank ofambassador with his appointment as ambas-sador to Great Britain. An arbitration com-mission on 15 August rules against theUnited States in the sealing dispute with

Britain and Canada.

1894 On 28 August the Wilson-Gorman Tariff isapproved, providing for duty-free raw mate-rials for U.S. industry.

1895 American neutrality laws are applied on 12June in the Cuban rebellion against Spain.On 20 July the United States intervenes inthe British-Venezuelan boundary dispute asa duty under the Monroe Doctrine.

1896 On 4 April assistance is offered to Spain to

mediate with the Cuban rebels. On 12November an arbitration treaty betweenVenezuela and England is established.

1897 A treaty of annexation is signed on 16 Junewith Hawaii. The Dingley Tariff on 7 Julyraises rates to a new high in U.S. history.

1898 On 12 January the USS Maine is sent toHavana, Cuba, and destroyed in the harboron 15 February. Congress approves a jointresolution authorizing force to assureCuban independence from Spain on 1920April. On 1 May the navy defeats the Span-ish fleet in Manila Bay in the Philippines.Guam is captured from the Spanish on 20June. The Spanish fleet in Cuba is destroyedon 3 July. Congress annexes Hawaii on 6July. John Hay is appointed secretary of stateon 20 September. On 19 November an anti-

imperialist league is founded in Boston. On10 December the Treaty of Paris is signed bySpain, formally ending the Spanish-Ameri-can War.

1899 On 4 February fighting breaks out in Manilabetween U.S. and Filipino troops. The FirstHague Conference adjourns on 29 July andthe United States agrees to join the Perma-nent Court of International Arbitration. On6 September, Secretary of State Hay asks sixother powers to join America in the Open

Door policy. An Anglo-German-AmericanTreaty of 2 December partitions the SamoanIslands.

1900 On 3 July Secretary Hay issues the secondOpen Door Note. An international force liftsthe Boxer rebels siege of the Peking diplo-matic legation on 14 August. On 20 Decem-ber the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty for a CentralAmerican canal is ratified.

1901 Congress on 2 March approves the PlattAmendment to regulate future relations

with Cuba. On 4 July, William Howard Taftbecomes first civil governor in the Philip-pines. President William McKinley is shoton 6 September and dies on the 14th. On 22October the second Pan-American Confer-ence opens in Mexico City. Senate approveson 16 December the revised Hay-PauncefoteTreaty to build and control a Central Ameri-can canal.

1902 Congress approves construction of aPanama canal on 26 June. The Philippine

Government Act (Organic Act) is pro-claimed by President Roosevelt on 4 July,ending the Philippine Insurrection. The

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Drago Doctrine on 29 December proposesthat European nations cannot intervene inthe Latin American countries to collect debtpayments.

1903 On 20 October the Alaskan boundary dis-pute is resolved. American rights to con-struct and control a Panama canal aregranted by the HayBunau-Varilla Treaty on18 November.

1904 The Roosevelt Corollary to the MonroeDoctrine is declared in President TheodoreRoosevelts annual message to Congress on6 December.

1905 Elihu Root is named secretary of state on 7

July. On 29 July the Taft-Katsura Agreementis signed, recognizing Japans rights inKorea and maintaining the Open Door pol-icy in Korea and Manchuria. The Russo-Japanese Peace Conference convenes atPortsmouth, New Hampshire, on 9 Augustwith President Roosevelt serving as anintermediary.

1906 The Royal Navy launches the Dreadnought,first all-big-gun battleship, on 10 February.On 7 April the Algeciras Conference ends,

settling French and German disputes overMorocco. The Third Inter-American (Pan-American) Conference is held at Rio deJaneiro beginning on 31 July.

1907 In a note known as the Gentlemans Agree-ment on 24 February, Secretary of StateRoot resolves disputes with Japan aboutimmigration. On 18 October the SecondHague Peace Conference adjourns. The U.S.Navy by 12 December is the second largestin the world and begins an around-the-

world cruise to demonstrate its power.1908 The Root-Takahira Agreement of 30

November with Japan acknowledges thenew balance of power in East Asia. On 4December ten major naval powers meet atthe London Naval Conference to clarifyrules of naval warfare.

1909 On 27 January, Great Britain agrees to takethe Northeast fisheries dispute to arbitra-tion. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 9 Aprilcontinues protectionism. Dollar diplomacy

is extended to China when America seeksadmission on 24 May to the banking con-sortium constructing a Chinese railway. On

16 December the United States assists arebellion in Nicaragua.

1911 On 11 February the commercial treaty of

1894 with Japan is renewed, including theGentlemans Agreement to regulate emigra-tion of laborers. The Knox-Castrillo Con-vention of 6 June with Nicaraguaestablishes control of that nations finances.On July 7 the pelagic sealing issue is settledwith Britain, Russia, and Japan.

1912 The United States joins a six-power consor-tium on 20 June to offer loans to China. On2 August the Lodge Corollary extends theMonroe Doctrine to Japan and to foreign

companies. U.S. marines land in Nicaraguaon 14 August to protect American propertyand interests. Woodrow Wilson is electedpresident on 5 November.

1913 General Victoriano Huerta overthrows theMexican government on 9 February, begin-ning a new series of revolutions. On 5March, William Jennings Bryan is namedsecretary of state. President Wilson with-draws U.S. participation in the Chinese loanconsortium on 18 March. On 27 August,Wilson informs Congress of a watchfulwaiting policy toward Mexico. The Under-wood Tariff is passed on 3 October loweringtariffs.

1914 U.S. forces occupy and blockade Veracruz,Mexico, on 21 April, and on 24 April, Wil-son accepts mediation of the Mexican dis-pute. On 28 July, Austria declares war onSerbia and World War I begins. Wilsonissues on 4 August the first of ten U.S.proclamations of neutrality. On 6 August,Secretary of State Bryan asks European bel-

ligerents to accept the naval rules of theDeclaration of London of 1908. Americanloans to any European belligerent are for-bidden on 15 August, the same day thePanama Canal officially opens. In the Decla-ration of London of 5 September, England,France, and Russia agree not to make a sep-arate peace. On 15 October, Wilsonapproves credits to foreign belligerents byprivate U.S. bankers. The following dayHerbert Hoovers Food Relief Program islaunched.

1915Japan submits the Twenty-one Demands on18 January to gain predominance in China.

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On 4 February, Germany declares a war zonearound Great Britain, which the UnitedStates protests on 10 February. The Lusita-nia, a British passenger ship, is sunk by aGerman submarine on 7 May. On 11 May,President Wilson refuses to accept any Sino-Japanese agreement that impairs the OpenDoor policy. Secretary of State Bryan resignson 8 June, believing Wilsons protests againstGerman policy could lead to war. U.S.marines occupy Haiti on 29 July.

1916 The House-Grey Peace Plan is signed on 22February to obtain a negotiated peace withGermany. Mexican bandit Pancho Villaraids Columbus, New Mexico, on 9 March,

and on 15 March, General John Pershingleads an expeditionary force against Villa.On 4 May the Sussex Pledge is issued inwhich Germany agrees not to permit sub-marines to attack any ships without warn-ing. On 27 May, President Wilson proposesa new world order at a session of theLeague to Enforce Peace. Denmark cedesthe Virgin Islands to the United States on 4August for $25 million. Full military occu-pation of Santo Domingo begins on 29

November. On 12 December the Germanchancellor asks President Wilson to trans-mit Germanys peace offer to the belligerentpowers. On 18 December, Wilson asks allbelligerents to state their peace objectives.

1917 On 22 January, President Wilson delivers hispeace without victory speech. Germanyannounces renewal of unrestricted subma-rine warfare to begin on 1 February; twodays later Wilson breaks diplomatic rela-tions with Germany. The ZimmermanTelegram is revealed on 24 February, inwhich Germany proposed an alliance withMexico against the United States. Wilsoncalls for a declaration of war against Ger-many on 2 April; it is granted four days later.The Trading with the Enemy Act becomeslaw on 6 October, prohibiting commercewith enemy nations and permitting takeoverof alien property in the United States. On 2November the Lansing-Ishii Agreement issigned, recognizing Japans special interestsin China, and Japan declares respect for the

Open Door policy. The Bolshevik Revolutionon 7 November overthrows the provisionalgovernment in Russia.

1918 In a speech to Congress on 8 January, Presi-dent Wilson outlines his peace objectives,the Fourteen Points. On 3 March, Russiaand Germany sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk to end their war. Germany seekspeace on the basis of the Fourteen Points on6 October. On 11 November, Germany signsan armistice to end World War I.

1919 The Paris Peace Conference opens on 18 Jan-uary; on 14 February, President Wilson devel-ops the Covenant of the League of Nations atthe conference. Senator Henry Cabot Lodgepresents on 4 March to President Wilson apetition signed by thirty-nine U.S. senatorsopposing the League of Nations. Germany

signs the Treaty of Versailles on 23 June. On25 September, President Wilson suffers aphysical breakdown during a nationwide tourseeking public support for the League ofNations. The Palmer Raids, ordered by Attor-ney General A. Mitchell Palmer, begin on 7November against American socialists andcommunists. On 19 November the Senaterejects the Treaty of Versailles.

1920 The Red Scare raids continue on 2 Januarywith 4,000 suspected radicals rounded up intwenty-three states. On 19 March a finalvote in the Senate again defeats the Treaty ofVersailles. Trade restrictions on Russia areremoved on 7 July but the communistregime is not recognized. The WashingtonNaval Conference opens on 12 Novemberand ends on 6 February 1922 with limits oncapital shipbuilding

1921 Congress approves the Emergency Quota Acton 19 May restricting immigration. A jointresolution is passed on 2 July declaring thathostilities with the Central Powers have

ceased.1923 The Fifth Pan-American Conference

adjourns in Santiago, Chile, on 3 May. GreatBritain on 19 June accepts a plan to repay itsU.S. war debts, a model for agreements withother Allies.

1924 On 24 May the Rogers Act unites the U.S.Consular Service and Diplomatic Serviceinto one branch of the State Department,creating the Foreign Service. Secretary ofState Charles Evans Hughes on 1 July reaf-

firms Americas refusal to recognize theUSSR. The Dawes Plan of 1 September seeksto solve the German reparations problem.

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1925 The Geneva Protocol is signed on 27 June,prohibiting the use of poisonous gas andbacteriological weapons of war; only Japanand the United States do not ratify the pact.U.S. marines leave Nicaragua on 4 August.

1926 The Senate approves membership, withamendments, in the World Court on 26 Jan-uary, but the Court does not accept theamendments and the United States drops itsmembership application.

1927 The Geneva Naval Limitations Conferenceconvenes on 20 June but Anglo-Americandisputes lead to no achievements.

1928 Chiang Kai-sheks Nationalist government

of China is recognized on 25 July. On 27August fourteen nations sign the Kellogg-Briand Pact to outlaw war.

1929 The Hague Economic Conference com-pletes agreements on 31 August ratifyingthe Young Plan on German reparations.

1930 On 22 April the London Naval Conferencedelegates agree on a three-power (UnitedStates, Britain, Japan) treaty to limit cruis-ers, destroyers, and submarines.

1931 The Smoot-Hawley Tariff, continuing pro-tectionist policy, is approved on 17 June. On20 June, President Herbert Hoover offers amoratorium on all debt payments owedAmerica if Europeans postpone paymentson debts due them.

1932 The Hoover-Stimson Nonrecognition Doc-trine is announced on 7 January, protestingJapans aggression in Manchuria.

1933 Cordell Hull becomes secretary of state on 4March and serves until November 1944.

President Franklin Roosevelt on 3 July dis-rupts the London Economic Conference byrepudiating all temporary currency stabi-lization proposals. Fulgencio Batista comesto power in Cuba on 5 September but Roo-sevelt refuses to recognize the regime. On17 November, Roosevelt signs an agreementto normalize relations with the USSR. Anonintervention pact is signed on 26December at the Seventh Pan-AmericanConference in Montevideo, Uruguay.

1934 President Roosevelt establishes the Export-Import Bank on 2 February to encourageoverseas commerce. The Tydings-McDuffie

Act of 24 March grants the Philippines inde-pendence, to begin in 1936. The Nye Com-mittee is established to investigate the armsand munitions industry as a cause of war on12 April. The Platt Amendment is abrogatedon 29 May, ending limits on Cuban sover-eignty but retaining a naval base on theisland. Japan gives necessary two-year noticeon 29 December that it will terminate theWashington Naval Limitation Treaty of 1922.

1935 On 16 March, Adolf Hitler denounces thedisarmament clauses of the Treaty of Ver-sailles and plans to increase the Germanarmy by thirty-six divisions. The NeutralityAct of 31 August authorizes the president to

embargo arms to belligerents and to forbidcitizens to travel on belligerent ships exceptat their own risk.

1936 On 15 January, Japan withdraws from theLondon Naval Conference. A treaty issigned with Panama on 2 March abolishingthe American protectorate over Panama. On7 March Germany moves soldiers into theRhineland. The Spanish Civil War begins on17 July with insurgents led by General Fran-cisco Franco. Secretary of State Cordell Hull

announces a moral embargo against bothbelligerents in the Spanish Civil War. Ger-many and Japan sign an anti-CominternPact on 25 November.

1937 On 8 January, President Roosevelt signs legis-lation applying an impartial neutralityembargo to the Spanish Civil War. AnotherNeutrality Act is passed on 1 May, with cash-and-carry provisions on exports. On 7 Julyan incident near Peking leads to the unde-clared Sino-Japanese War; on the 16th, Secre-tary of State Hull issues a peace circular to all

nations urging them to adopt the Americanprinciples of international good conduct.President Roosevelt delivers his quarantinespeech on 5 October, urging against isola-tionism. On 12 December the U.S. gunboatPanay is sunk by Japanese airplanes; Japansapology is accepted on 24 December.

1938 Germany invades and annexes Austria on13 March. The Senate Foreign RelationsCommittee blocks a resolution for cash-and-carry provisions for arms to Spains

Loyalist government on 13 May. On 29 Sep-tember at the Munich Conference, France,Italy, and Britain appease Hitler by trans-

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ferring the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakiato Germany. President Roosevelt on 14December announces a $25 million loan toChina. The Lima Declaration of 24 Decem-ber asserts that the twenty-one nations atthe Inter-Americas Conference will defendagainst all foreign intervention.

1939 On 14 March, Hitler conquers all of Czecho-slovakia, and two days later Secretary Hullannounces the United States will not recog-nize the conquest. The Spanish Civil Warends on 28 March when Madrid surrendersto Francos forces. The British and Frenchpledge on 31 March to aid Poland in theevent of aggression, ending their appease-

ment policy. Francos government in Spain isrecognized on 3 April. President Roosevelton 15 April appeals to Hitler and Mussolinito guarantee peace by not attacking thirty-one listed nations for ten years. On 23August a Nazi-Soviet pact is signed in whichthey agree not to attack each other. Germanarmies launch an invasion of Poland on 1September. Britain and France declare waron Germany on 3 September; Rooseveltannounces U.S. neutrality on 5 September.Scientists on 11 October inform Roosevelt

that an atomic bomb can be developed. Roo-sevelt signs a revised neutrality act on 4November ending the arms embargo andpermitting cash-and-carry sale of arms.

1940 On 26 January the 1911 commercial treatywith Japan is ended. Winston Churchillbecomes Britains prime minister on 10 May.Congress approves legislation on 28 Maypermitting the president to release militarysupplies to Latin American countries forWestern Hemisphere defense. On 3 June aid

is extended to Britain and France via sur-plus U.S. arms and ammunition. Francesurrenders to Germany on 17 June; on 19June, Henry Stimson becomes secretary ofwar and Frank Knox secretary of the navy. Anaval construction bill is signed by Presi-dent Roosevelt on 20 July to create a two-ocean navy. On 18 August the OgdensburgAgreement is signed with Canada for a per-manent joint board of defense. The destroy-ers-for-bases deal with Great Britain isannounced on 3 September. On 27 Septem-

ber, Japan signs a tripartite pact with Italyand Germany. The Germany first warstrategy is recommended on 12 November

by Chief of Naval Operations Harold Stark.President Roosevelts radio fireside chat of29 December urges a buildup of a greatarsenal of democracy.

1941 In his State of the Union Address on 6 Feb-ruary, President Roosevelt announces hisproposal for a lend-lease program and enun-ciates his Four Freedoms; Congressapproves the Lend-Lease Act on 11 March.On 9 April, Denmark agrees to providerights for U.S. defense bases in Greenland.Roosevelt on 11 April informs Churchillthat the U.S. Navy will patrol areas in whatwould become the Battle of the Atlantic.Japan and Russia sign a mutual nonaggres-

sion pact on 13 April. President Rooseveltorders all German and Italian consulatesclosed on 16 June. On 22 June Germanylaunches an invasion of the Soviet Union.On 7 July U.S. marines land on and occupyIceland. Japanese assets are frozen on 26July. Roosevelt and Churchill meet secretlyoff Newfoundland on 12 August and pre-pare the Atlantic Charter, a joint declarationof principles. On 9 November a settlementis reached with Mexico for an oil and agrar-ian expropriation compensation agreement.On 6 December, President Rooseveltappeals to Japan to maintain peace by with-drawing Japanese troops from SoutheastAsia; the following day Japanese planesattack Pearl Harbor. On 8 December, Con-gress declares war on Japan; on December11, Germany and Italy declare war on theUnited States.

1942 On 1 January the United Nations Declara-tion is signed by twenty-six nations, affirm-ing the Atlantic Charter, to fight the Axis

powers. Twenty-one American republicsrecommend breaking relations with theAxis powers on 28 January. Japanese Ameri-cans living on the West Coast are orderedrelocated on 19 February. President Roo-sevelt on l June promises Russia a secondfront in Europe by the end of 1942. On 13August, General Leslie R. Groves isappointed to command of the ManhattanProject to develop the atomic bomb.

1943 The Casablanca Conference results on 24

January with plans to invade Sicily and Italyand the requirement that the Axis powersmust surrender unconditionally. Roosevelt,

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Churchill, and military advisers finalize mil-itary decisions at the Trident Conference inWashington on 25 May and the QuebecConference on 24 August. On 30 Octoberthe Moscow Conference of Foreign Minis-ters (Hull, Anthony Eden, and V. M. Molo-tov) ends. The United Nations Relief andRehabilitation Administration is establishedby forty-four nations on 9 November. Thefirst Cairo Conference on 26 Novemberresults in British and U.S. agreements onChina and the Far East. On 1 December theBig Three Conference ends at Tehran, Iran;on 6 December the second Cairo Confer-ence concludes.

1944 On 6 June, D-Day, an Allied invasion beginsalong the Normandy coast of France. Diplo-matic relations are severed with Argentinaon 22 June because of pro-fascist sympa-thies. The Bretton Woods Conference endson 22 July, establishing the InternationalMonetary Fund and the World Bank. At theQuebec Conference of 16 September, Roo-sevelt and Churchill make final plans forvictory over Germany and Japan. The Dum-barton Oaks Conference on 7 October pre-pares a draft for the United Nations

organization. The Moscow Conference of 18October ends, during which Churchill andStalin decide on East European spheres ofinfluence; Roosevelt later concurs.

1945 The Yalta Conference between Churchill,Roosevelt, and Stalin concludes on 11 Feb-ruary and defines the shape of postwarEurope. Roosevelt dies on 12 April andHarry S. Truman becomes president. On 21April the Soviet Union and Poland sign atwenty-year mutual assistance pact. The San

Francisco Conference on the UnitedNations convenes on 25 April. Germanysunconditional surrender is signed on 7 May,and the end of the war in Europe is declaredon 8 May. On 5 June the European AdvisoryCommission decides on the division of Ger-many and Berlin. The United Nations Char-ter is signed by delegates of fifty nations on26 June. Truman, Churchill, and Stalinbegin discussions at Potsdam on 16 July. On26 July an ultimatum is issued to Japan foran unconditional surrender. Atomic bombs

are dropped on Japan at Hiroshima, 6August, and Nagasaki, 9 August. On 15August Japan surrenders unconditionally.

Lend-lease aid is terminated on 21 August.Ho Chi Minh on 2 September proclaims theindependence of Vietnam. Canada, Britain,and the United States agree on 15 Novem-ber to provide for international control ofatomic energy; on 20 December legislationis backed by the Truman administration forcivilian control of Americas atomic energy.

1946 George Kennan sends his Long Telegramon 22 February, outlining the policy ofcontainment. Winston Churchill on 5March delivers his Iron Curtain speech atFulton, Missouri. On 3 June, Japanese warcrime trials begin under U.S. jurisdiction.Bernard Baruch presents the American plan

(Baruch Plan) for the international controlof atomic energy on 14 June; the UN Secu-rity Council accepts the plan on 31 Decem-ber. The Fulbright Act is passed on 1 Augustto finance foreign study. On 15 August,President Truman approves a memo statingSoviet aggression against Turkey would beresisted. The Nuremberg war crimes tribu-nal announces its decisions on 1 October.

1947 On 29 January mediation efforts betweenthe Communists and Nationalists in China

are abandoned. The Truman Doctrine isenunciated on 12 March in a request for aidto Greece and Turkey to combat commu-nism. On 5 May the State Department Pol-icy Planning Staff is established with GeorgeKennan as director. Secretary of StateGeorge C. Marshall proposes a plan on 5June for economic aid to European nationsto rehabilitate their economies. TheNational Security Act of 26 July establishesthe Department of Defense, National Secu-rity Council, and Central Intelligence

Agency. The Rio Pact is signed on 2 Septem-ber, a mutual assistance treaty for WesternHemisphere nations. Twenty-three nationssign the General Agreement on Tariffs andTrade (GATT) at Geneva on 30 October.

1948 On 14 May the State of Israel is proclaimed.The Vandenberg Resolution, affirming U.S.support for regional security pacts, isapproved on 11 June. The Berlin blockadebegins on 24 June, followed by a U.S. airliftfor more than a year. On 910 December the

United Nations adopts the Universal Decla-ration of Human Rights and the GenocideConvention.

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1949 President Truman in his inaugural addresson 20 January proposes the Point Four pro-gram; Dean Acheson becomes secretary ofstate on 21 January. On 4 April the NorthAtlantic Treaty Organization is chartered bytwelve nations. The Berlin blockade ends on11 May with a four-power accord on Berlin.On 5 August the State Department issues aWhite Paper relating to Chang Kai-sheksloss of China. A White House press releaseof 23 September announces that the SovietUnion has detonated an atomic bomb. MaoZedong proclaims the creation of the Peo-ples Republic of China on 1 October. On 7October the Soviet zone of Germany is

established as the German DemocraticRepublic.

1950 On 12 January, Secretary of State DeanAcheson describes a perimeter strategyfor East Asia to prevent the spread of com-munism. Senator Joseph McCarthy chargeson 9 February that communist spies haveinfiltrated the State Department. NSC 68,drafted by Paul H. Nitze, a documentdepicting the Soviets as aggressors seekingto conquer the world, is presented to the

National Security Council on 14 April. On 5June, President Truman signs a foreign aidbill, granting nearly $3 billion for the Euro-pean Recovery Plan (Marshall Plan) and thePoint Four Program. North Korean forcesattack South Korea on 25 June. On 23 Sep-tember, Congress adopts the McCarranInternal Security Bill over President Tru-mans veto. Chinese communist troopslaunch a counteroffensive on 26 Novemberto Korea against UN troops, forcing theirretreat to the thirty-eighth parallel. On 23

December a mutual defense agreement withFrance and the Associated States ofIndochina is signed to combat communistforces in Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh.

1951 The UN General Assembly approves anarms embargo against Communist China on18 May. Truce negotiations begin on 8 Julyin Korea. A mutual defense treaty is signedwith the Philippines on 30 August. On 1September the ANZUS Tripartite SecurityTreaty with Australia and New Zealand is

signed. A mutual security agreement issigned with Japan on 8 September. MarshallPlan aid ends on 31 December.

1952 Britain, France, and the United States agreeto West Germanys internal independenceon 26 May. The McCarran-Walter Immigra-tion and Nationality Act is passed on 26June, setting a quota for Asian immigration.

1953Joseph Stalin dies on 5 March. An armisticeagreement is signed and becomes effective2627 July in Korea. A coup in Iran on 19August restores Shah Reza Pahlavi with CIAhelp. On 26 September, Spain agrees to cre-ation of U.S. air and naval stations inexchange for $250 million in aid. PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowers New Look policyemphasizing massive retaliation is describedon 30 October. The Atoms-for-Peace Plan is

proposed by Eisenhower on 8 December.

1954 The Bricker Amendment to limit the presi-dents executive agreement and treaty-mak-ing powers is narrowly defeated in the Senateon 2526 February. Vietminh forces on 14March attack French troops at Dien BienPhu; on 45 April, President Eisenhowerdecides to send only limited assistance to theFrench. On 8 June the CIA assists in over-throwing the left-wing government of JacoboArbenz Guzman in Guatemala. The Geneva

Conference of 1954 on 20 July divides Viet-nam into two parts. The Southeast AsiaTreaty Organization (SEATO) is formed on 8September. On 23 October, President Eisen-hower offers aid to South Vietnam. A mutualdefense pact is signed on 2 December withNationalist China.

1955 Congress on 25 January authorizes use ofarmed forces to defend Nationalist Chinaand the Pescadores. The U.S. Army on 12February agrees to take charge of trainingthe army of South Vietnam. West Germany

joins NATO on 9 May. The Warsaw Pactdefense alliance is formed on 14 May byEuropean communist nations. The Big FourSummit Conference is held 1823 July inGeneva, where Eisenhower gains favorableworld reaction to his Open Skies pro-posal, permitting aerial reconnaissance. On26 October, Ngo Dinh Diem gains control ofSouth Vietnam; he proclaims a republic andhimself as the first president.

1956 Secretary of State Dulles refuses on 9 May to

supply arms to Israel to avoid a Middle Eastconfrontation with the Soviet Union. On 19July, Dulles cancels U.S. offer to aid Egypt in

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construction of the Aswan Dam. Egyptnationalizes the Suez Canal on 26 July. On 6November the Suez Crisis is resolved, whenPresident Eisenhower applies pressure onBritain, Israel, and France after their attackon Egypt beginning on 29 October.

1957 The Eisenhower Doctrine, to check com-munist aggression in the Middle East, is pre-sented in an address to Congress on 5January. The Senate approves the Atoms-for-Peace Treaty on 18 June. The SovietUnion launches Sputnik, the first artificialEarth satellite, on 5 October.

1958 A cultural exchange agreement is signed

with the Soviet Union on 27 January. On 31January the first U.S. Earth satellite,Explorer I, is placed in orbit. Vice PresidentRichard Nixon experiences intense anti-American feeling on a tour of Latin America28 April14 May. U.S. marines land inLebanon on 15 July to halt aggression of theUnited Arab Republic. On 23 August, Chi-nese communists bombard the islands ofQuemoy and Matsu in the Formosa Strait.

1959 Cuban president Fulgencio Batista fleesCuba after Fidel Castros forces march into

Havana on 3 January. Bilateral defense pactsare signed with Iran, Pakistan, and Turkeyon 5 March. The United States supports butdoes not join the Central Treaty Organiza-tion (CENTO), a defensive alliance formedon 19 August by Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, andBritain. Twelve nations approve a treaty toreserve the Antarctic for scientific andpeaceful purposes on 1 December.

1960 On 19 January the Japanese mutual securitytreaty of 1952 is renewed. The Soviet Union

announces on 5 May that an American U-2spy plane was shot down over Soviet terri-tory; President Eisenhower accepts respon-sibility for the incident. On 6 July, Congressapproves and Eisenhower levies cuts inCubas sugar quota; Castro retaliates bynationalizing all U.S. property in Cuba. TheSan Jos Declaration of 28 August of theOrganization of American States condemnsintervention by any extracontinentalpower, a warning against Russian interfer-ence in Cuba. On 19 September the Organi-

zation of Petroleum Exporting Countries(OPEC) is formed in Baghdad. Twentynations on 19 November form the Organi-

zation for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD).

1961 On 20 January, President John F. Kennedy in

his inaugural address calls on the nation torenew its commitment to extend freedomthroughout the world. Dean Rusk isappointed secretary of state the followingday. On 13 March, President Kennedyannounces the Alliance for Progress pro-gram to aid Latin America. Twelve hundredCuban exiles, trained and supported by theUnited States, land at the Bay of Pigs in Cubain a failed attempt to overthrow Castro on 17April. A moon race is announced on 25May to beat the Soviet Union to the moon.

On 13 August the Soviets begin constructionof the Berlin Wall, dividing East and WestBerlin to prevent the flow of exiles to WestGermany. On 22 November, PresidentKennedy approves the first phase of a Viet-nam program, broadening U.S. commit-ment in Vietnam with U.S. troops.

1962 On 22 October, Kennedy informs the nationthere are Russian-built missile sites in Cubaand imposes on 24 October a naval quaran-tine on all missile equipment being shipped

to Cuba; after a U.S. pledge not to invadeCuba and to remove missiles from Turkey,on 28 October the Soviets agree to removethe missiles.

1963 On 20 June the Soviet Union agrees to acommunications hot line to reduce therisk of accidental war. On 5 August, Britain,the United States, and the Soviet Union signthe Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty; by 10October more than one hundred nationsagree to it. On 12 November, Ngo DinhDiem is assassinated in Vietnam. President

Kennedy is assassinated on 22 November.

1964 The Tonkin Gulf Resolution is passed on 7August, authorizing President Johnson totake all necessary measures to repel anyarmed attack in Southeast Asia.

1965 Claiming a threat of communism, U.S.marines land in the Dominican Republic on28 April. The Immigration Act of 3 October1965 replaces the quota system of 1921.

1966 The Fulbright Hearings on Vietnam open

on 28 January. On 6 February, France with-draws from NATO. The Food for Peace Actis signed on 12 November.

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1967 On 26 January, Secretary of Defense RobertMcNamara announces the mutual assureddestruction (MAD) nuclear strategy. Sixtynations on 27 January sign the Outer SpaceTreaty.

1968 On 23 January the spy ship USS Pueblo isseized in international waters by NorthKorea; the crew is released on 22 December.The Tet Offensive is launched by commu-nist forces on 30 January in South Vietnam.On 31 March, President Lyndon Johnsonannounces a bombing halt in Vietnam andwithdraws as a 1968 presidential candidate.On 1 July sixty-two nations sign the nuclearnonproliferation treaty. Soviet armed forces

on 20 August employ the Brezhnev Doc-trine to overthrow the Czech government ofAlexander Dubcek. On 31 October theUnited States and North Vietnam agree toconduct formal negotiations for peace.

1969 On 18 March the first secret bombing ofCambodia is ordered by President RichardNixon. The U.S. Vietnamization program isannounced on 8 June and the initial with-drawal of U.S. troops from South Vietnambegins. In a speech in Guam on 25 July the

president announces the Nixon Doctrine, tolet countries develop in their own fashion.Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)begin on 17 November. On 25 November,Nixon announces the United States will rat-ify the Geneva Protocol of 1925 outlawingbiological and chemical weapons.

1970 On 22 June the Senate terminates theTonkin Gulf Resolution of 1964.

1971 On 11 February eighty nations sign theSeabed Arms Treaty prohibiting nuclear

weapons on the ocean floor. The New YorkTimes publishes the Pentagon Papers, acompilation from 19671968 of how theUnited States became involved in Vietnam.The Peoples Republic of China is admittedto the United Nations on 25 October; theNationalist government of Taiwan isexpelled.

1972 President Nixon visits China on 17 Febru-ary and issues the Shanghai Communiqueon U.S.China relations. Nixon orders

renewed B-52 bombing raids on North Viet-nam on 4 April. On 2230 May, Nixonbecomes the first U.S. president to visit

Moscow and signs the ABM (antiballisticmissile) Treaty and the SALT I Agreement.

1973 A military coup in Chile on 11 September

overthrows President Salvador Allende withCIA assistance. Henry Kissinger is con-firmed as secretary of state on 21 Septem-ber. The Arab states begin a political oilembargo on 16 October when Israel invadesEgypt. On 7 November, Congress overridesNixons veto of the War Powers Act.

1974 On 3 July in Moscow, Nixon signs an amend-ment of the ABM Treaty of 1972 and theThreshold Ban Treaty. President Nixonresigns on 9 August. President Gerald R.

Ford meets with Soviet leader Brezhnev inVladivostok on 24 November and a ceiling isplaced on offensive nuclear weapons. On 16December the Senate ratifies the Geneva Pro-tocol of 1925 and the 1972 Biological Con-vention. Congress on 20 December refuses togrant the Soviet Union most-favored-nationstatus pending Jewish emigration policy.

1975 The United States finally ratifies theGeneval Protocol of 1925 on 22 January. On29 April the last U.S. helicopter leavesSaigon and South Vietnam falls to the com-

munists. Thirty-five nations sign theHelsinki Accords on 1 August, legitimizingthe Soviet Unions territorial gains inEurope since 1940. On 29 August,Venezuela nationalizes its oil industry,largely controlled by American companies.The United Nations issues a resolution on10 November condemning Zionism as aform of racism.

1976 The United States extends its exclusive fish-ing zone to 200 miles offshore on 13 April.

On 30 June, Europes communist partiesdeclare that each national party is indepen-dent but equal to the other parties (Euro-communism). Mao Zedong dies on 9September.

1977 On 18 May thirty-two nations sign a UNagreement banning environmental warfare.On 7 September it is agreed that Panamani-ans will assume full jurisdiction over thePanama Canal in the year 2000.

1978 Carter persuades Egypt and Israel to sign

the Camp David Accords on 17 Septemberafter twelve days of negotiations for peace inthe Middle East. On 15 December agree-

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ment is made for the establishment of diplo-matic relations with the Peoples Republic ofChina, to take effect on 1 January 1979, andthe termination of the U.S. Defense Treatywith Taiwan.

1979 On 16 January the shah of Iran leaves Tehran;the Ayatollah Khomeini arrives in Iran fromexile on 1 February and forms his own provi-sional government. Egypt and Israel sign apeace treaty on 26 March; a military-eco-nomic aid package is approved by Congressin May. On 18 June, President Carter andSoviet leader Brezhnev sign SALT II, a five-year treaty limiting maximum numbers ofintercontinental missiles and long-range

bombers. Congress passes legislation on 29September asking for the State Department tocompose a list of nations that support terror-ism. On 4 November the U.S. embassy in Iranis stormed and sixty hostages are taken; Pres-ident Carter then freezes Iranian assets in theUnited States. On 28 December, after theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan, Carter warnsBrezhnev of serious consequences if theSoviets do not withdraw.

1980 On 23 January, President Carter enunciates

the Carter Doctrine, declaring that the Per-sian Gulf area is a vital American interest.He also withdraws from SALT II and ordersa boycott of the Olympic Games scheduledfor Moscow.

1981 The American hostages in Iran are freed on20 January, minutes after Ronald Reagan issworn in as president. Reagan on 23November issues National Security Deci-sion Directive 17, giving the CIA authorityto fund the contra movement against the

government of Nicaragua.1982 Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START)

begin on 29 June in Geneva with the SovietUnion. On 8 July the UN Law of the SeaTreaty is rejected. On 16 August the PeoplesRepublic of China signs an agreement to useonly peaceful means to regain Taiwan, whilethe United States agrees to reduce its level ofarms aid to Taiwan. U.S. marines arrive inBeirut on 27 September for peacekeepingactivities.

1983 On 8 March, at a convention of evangelicalChristians, President Ronald Reagan calls theSoviet Union an evil empire. On 10 March

the United States claims exclusive economiczones out to 200 miles. President Reagan on23 March announces the Strategic DefenseInitiative (SDI), derisively called Star Wars,a defense system against Soviet intercontinen-tal ballistic missiles. On 23 October a suicidetruck-bomb explodes at a U.S. marine bar-racks in Beirut, Lebanon. U.S. forces invadeGrenada on 25 October to prevent a commu-nist coup with Soviet and Cuban support.

1984 President Reagan concludes a five-day visitto China on 1 May, signing accords onnuclear cooperation and cultural relations.On 26 November the World Court rulesthat it has jurisdiction over Nicaraguas suit

against the United States.

1985 On 24 April the House of Representativesrejects President Reagans request for aid forthe Nicaraguan contras. On 8 July, Reaganclaims that world terrorism is sponsored byIran, Libya, North Korea, Cuba, andNicaragua.

1986 Meetings on 1314 January with CanadasPrime Minister Brian Mulroney renew thelong-lived North American AerospaceDefense Command System (NORAD). On14 April, U.S. aircraft bomb five Libyan tar-gets in retaliation for support of terrorists.The World Court on 27 June rules that theUnited States violated international law andNicaraguas sovereignty, a ruling the UnitedStates ignores. Congress approves militaryaid to the Nicaraguan contras on 13 August.Congress on 2 October overrides PresidentReagans veto of sanctions against SouthAfrica. Reagan and Gorbachev meet on1112 October in Reykjavik, Iceland, about

arms control; Reagan walks out of the lastsession.

1987 On 5 May joint congressional hearings beginon the Iran-Contra affair. Reagan and Gor-bachev sign the INF Treaty on 8 December,eliminating intermediate-range missiles.

1988 On 4 February a U.S. court indicts PanamasGeneral Noriega for racketeering and drugtrafficking. The United States, Soviet Union,Pakistan, and Afghanistan sign agreementson 14 April for the withdrawal of Soviet

forces from Afghanistan. With the INF Treatyof 1987 in effect as of 1 June, the UnitedStates and Soviet Union begin destruction of

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nuclear weaponry in September. The Mon-treal Protocol on depletion of the ozone layerbecomes effective on 16 December after rati-fication by twenty nations.

1989 President George H. W. Bush and CanadasPrime Minister Brian Mulroney on 10 Feb-ruary agree to reduce acid rain pollution. AU.S. federal court on 4 May finds OliverNorth guilty of obstructing Congress in theinvestigation into the Iran-Contra scandal.On May 11 U.S. troops are sent to Panamaafter a fraudulent election renews thepower of Panamas military leader GeneralManuel Antonio Noriega. NATO on 2930May accepts U.S. proposals to reduce

Europes short-range missiles andU.S.USSR conventional forces. Chinesetroops kill hundreds of protestors on 34June in the Tiananmen Square massacre; inresponse, on 5 June, President Bush sus-pends military sales and high-level contactsand asks the IMF and World Bank to post-pone Chinese loan applications. On 14 July,President Bush attends the G-7 Summit. Aidis provided on 25 August to Colombia tocombat drug trafficking. On 18 October,South Korea asks that U.S. troop strengthnot be reduced. The Berlin Wall falls on 9November. An invasion of Panama by U.S.forces on 20 December overthrows Noriega.

1990 On 15 February, President Bush and thepresidents of Columbia, Bolivia, and Perusign agreements to work together in combat-ing drug traffickers. On 29 June ninety-threenations offer aid to Third World countries inreducing ozone-depleting gases. On 2August, Iraq invades Kuwait; on 6 August,President Bush orders U.S. forces to protect

Saudi Arabia in Operation Desert Shield. On12 September talks lead to a final treaty forGerman reunification on the 20th. On 17November the Treaty on ConventionalForces in Europe (CFE) is signed.

1991 On 16 January, under U.S. direction, multi-national UN forces launch the Gulf Waragainst Iraq; by 28 February, in a 100-hourground war, Iraqs forces are evicted fromKuwait. The Warsaw Pacts military and eco-nomic organizations are disbanded on 25

February. On 6 March, President Bush her-alds a new world order. On 7 May, UNpeacekeepers arrive in Kuwait to oversee

peace between Kuwait and Iraq. On 25 June,Slovenia and Croatia declare independencefrom Yugoslavia. Economic sanctionsagainst South Africa are lifted on 11 July.President Bushs Enterprise for the AmericasInitiative takes its first step on 22 July todevelop a hemispheric free market by sign-ing a trade accord with thirteen English-speaking Caribbean countries. On 31 July,Bush and Gorbachev sign the Strategic ArmsReduction Treaty (START I). On 20 Augustthe Republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithua-nia affirm their national independence fromthe Soviet Union. On 2 September, theUnited States and the European Union rec-

ognize the Baltic nations independence.After Haitis democratically elected presidentis overthrown in a military coup, on 29October economic sanctions are imposed onthe Haitian dictators. Twenty-four nationson 4 October extend the 1959 AntarcticTreaty by levying a fifty-year moratorium toban mining and military activity and setguidelines for scientific research. On 8November U.S. nuclear weapons areremoved from South Korea and the twoKoreas move toward reconciliation. Three

former Soviet republics, Russia, Belarus, andUkraine, form the Commonwealth of Inde-pendent States on 8 December.

1992 On 24 February the Supreme Court upholdsPresident Bushs decision to forcibly repatri-ate Haitian refugees. An American court on9 April convicts Noriega of drug traffickingand sentences him to forty years in prison.On 23 May the United States and the fourCommonwealth of Independent Statescountries with nuclear arms sign the Lisbon

Protocol to comply with the 1991 START Itreaty negotiated with the Soviet Union. ThePentagon issues a defense guidance pro-gram for the postCold War era on 24 May,emphasizing a commitment to collectivemilitary action. President Bush extendsmost-favored-nation status on 2 June toChina. On 14 June delegates of 178 coun-tries to the Rio de Janeiro Conference onEnvironment and Development (EarthSummit) agree to promote economic devel-opment that would protect the earths non-

renewable resources and sign a treaty toreduce emissions of carbon dioxide andgreenhouse gases. On 17 June Bush and

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Russian president Boris Yeltsin agree to drafta second strategic arms reduction treaty.Mexico, Canada, and the United States on17 December sign the final North AmericanFree Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

1993 On 3 January, Presidents Bush and Yeltsinsign START II to sharply reduce their nucleararsenals. Radical Muslims bomb New YorksWorld Trade Center on 27 February. On 4April financial aid is provided for Russia. TheOslo Accords are signed on 13 Septemberbetween Israels Yitzhak Rabin and Palestin-ian Liberation Organization chairman YassirArafat, the first IsraelPLO peace agreement.On 20 November, Congress approves

NAFTA. Sanctions on South Africa arerepealed on 23 November. The UruguayRound of GATT is completed on 14 Decem-ber with tariffs reduced 50 percent by theUnited States and the European EconomicCommunity.

1994 The embargo on trade with Vietnam endson 3 February. North Korea on 15 Februaryavoids U.S. economic sanctions by approv-ing inspection of nuclear sites. On 28 Feb-ruary, NATO aircraft shoot down four

Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the UN no-fly zone, NATOs first combat attack in itsforty-five-year history. President Clintonrenews Chinas most-favored-nation statuson 26 May. On 8 June, President Clintonagrees to help the UN humanitarian effort inRwanda, where warfare has killed 200,000people and caused thousands of refugees toflee. The UN Security Council on 31 Julyapproves a resolution for U.S.led forces tointervene in Haiti; Haitis President Aristidereturns to Haiti on 15 October. The Senate

ratifies on 1 December the GATT worldtrade treaty, which also creates the WorldTrade Organization (WTO).

1995 On 17 April, President Clinton signs anorder to declassify all twenty-five-year-oldrecords declassified after 1999, unless a spe-cial panel exempts certain sensitive materi-als. For assisting terrorist groups, on 1 May atrade embargo is placed on Iran. PresidentClinton and Fidel Castro amend their 1994agreement on refugees on 2 May for the

United States to admit 21,000 Cubanrefugees being held in Guantanamo Bay. On11 May the United Nations makes the

Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty permanent.President Clinton on 11 July extends fulldiplomatic recognition to Vietnam. Thatsame day Bosnian Serb atrocities at Sre-brenica lead to U.S. involvement, and theCIA and National Security Agency releasesecret files on Soviet documents from the1940s. NATO air raids on 28 August onBosnian Serbs lead to a peace conference. AU.S. court on 1 October finds ten Islamicfundamentalists guilty of conspiracy in theWorld Trade Center bombing in 1993. On 2October, Congress opposes a law to fight ter-rorism in America. The Dayton Accords of21 November provide for peace in Bosnia-

Herzegovina; they are signed on 14 Decem-ber. Israel and Syria on 28 December renewpeace talks at the Wye Conference Centernear Washington.

1996 On 1 March, Colombia is declared no longera certified country committed to the war ondrugs. On 12 March, President Clintonsigns the Helms-Burton Act to restrict tradeof other nations with Cuba. On 24 April,Clinton signs antiterrorism legislation, pro-viding $1.1 billion. Economic sanctions arelevied on countries doing business withLibya and Iran on 5 August. On 27 Septem-ber, Afghan Taliban rebels capture Kabul,imposing strict Islamic law.

1997 On 3 January, President Clinton delaysenforcement of the Helms-Burton Act onCuban trade. American George Soros on 7September closes his foundation in Belarus.On 11 December 150 nations, but not theUnited States, sign the treaty banning theuse of land mines. On 11 December, 150nations prepare a treaty to limit greenhouse

gases (the Kyoto Protocol). President Clin-ton indicates on 18 December that U.S.troops will remain in Bosnia indefinitely.

1998 Serb attacks on Kosovo lead President Clin-ton on 5 March to impose sanctions onYugoslavia. On 19 April thirty-four WesternHemisphere nations agree to negotiate a freetrade zone. Sanctions are imposed on 28May on Pakistan and India because of theirnuclear weapons tests; sanctions are easedon 14 July. On 20 August, President Clinton

retaliates against terrorists who bombed theU.S embassy at Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, on 7 August.

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1999 On 10 June, after seventy-eight days ofbombing, Serbias Slobodan Milosevicaccepts NATOs cease-fire and peace terms.On 17 September, President Clinton liftssanctions on North Korea after it stops mis-sile tests. The Senate on 13 October refusesto ratify the treaty calling for ending allnuclear testing. Terms are accepted on 15November for China to join the WorldTrade Organization.

2000 On 1 January, Panama gains full control ofthe Panama Canal from the United States.Congress approves on 24 May permanenttrade relations with China. The UnitedNations Millennium Summit ends on 8 Sep-

tember. On 12 October the U.S. destroyerCole is hit by a bomb in Yemen harbor, thework of suicide terrorists. A summit meet-ing on 16 October in Egypt with leaders ofthe United States, Egypt, Israel, Palestine,

and Jordan, along with UN Secretary Gen-eral Kofi Annan, seeks to end violencebetween Israel and Palestine. On 24 Novem-ber the global warming treaty (Kyoto Proto-col) reaches an impasse because of U.S. andEuropean differences on best methods toreduce greenhouse gases. On 31 December,President Clinton signs a treaty for a perma-nent international war crimes tribunal.

2001 On 18 January secretary of statedesignateColin Powell during hearings indicates thathe favors deployment of the national missiledefense system (NMDS). On 11 Septemberterrorists hijack commercial airliners andcrash them into the two towers of the World

Trade Center in New York City and the Pen-tagon outside Washington, D.C. The UnitedStates initiates military action againstTaliban-supported terrorists in Afghanistanwith bombing raids on 6 October.


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